GENERAL BIOLOGY

1745 – John Needham (1713-1718)
- During this period people believed that boiling could kill microorganisms.
 Made a test to check the validity of spontaneous generation
 He boiled the chicken broth in a contain and then sealed it.
o Microorganisms still grew on the surface of the chicken broth
 Presented this to be an evidence that supported the theory
of spontaneous generation because there was no other
source of life other than the broth.
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799)
o He retained the swan nick in the other
 Dust particles only got through the bottom bend of the swan
neck in the second flask
 Only the bottom bend of the swan neck had darkened
 Keeping the broth sterile
THE PARTS OF THE CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
- All life processes that occur within an organism are supported by the cell
- Organelles – the different parts of the cell
o Carry out the different functions

- He was not convinced by the experiment of Needham Cell Membrane

- He thought that microorganisms may have entered the broth from the air
- The cell is bound by the cell membrane
between the time after the broth has cooled and before the jar was
- Composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins and
sealed
carbohydrates
- He ser out another experiment
- It is Semipermeable
o Sealed the flask and then boiled the chicken broth in it
o Not everything can enter or pass through it
 NO microorganisms were observed
- Can be easily observed when you look at an animal cell using a compound
o Subjected another flask with chicken broth to the same conditions,
microscope
except the flask was not sealed
- Plays several important roles for the continued existence of the cell
 Microorganisms grew in the flask
o Its semipermeability: allows the cell to choose the substances to
 PROOF that the theory of spontaneous generation could
absorb, secrete, or exrete
not be true
o Substances that are absorbed and excereted by the cell must pass
through the cell membrane
o The Membrane proteins
 Those who believed in the theory of spontaneous generation contested that:
 Proteins in the phospholipid bilayer
o Air was prevented to enter the flask of Spallanzani
 Transport the molecules across the cell membrane
 Resulting the absence of microorganisms  Allow the entry and exit of molecules that cannot easily pass
1859 – Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) through the phospholipid bilayer
o Cholesterol
- He put the meat broth into two sperate S-shaped flasks without a seal and  Keep the phospholipid bilayer from becoming stiff
then he boiled the broth to kill any existing microbes  Provide fludity
o He broke the swan neck from the first S-shaped flask
 Dust particles eventually fell on the broth in the first flask
 Broth became cloudy
 Microorganisms had entered the broth
21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World
- A few days after they were born, they embarked to look for their father
o They rode sailboats through the region of eternal darkness, passed
the region of clouds, and the land of stones
o Finally, they reached Saragnayan’s home
 Saragnayan noticed that Abyang Baranugon’s umbilical cord
have not yet been removed
 He told Abyang to go back to his mother
 Abyang slighted by the remarks and immediately
challenged Saragnayan to a diel in exchange for his
father’s freedom, which he got.
o The defeat of Labaw Donggon angered his brothers
 Humadapnon swore to the fods of Madya-as that he would
wreak revenge on all of Saragnayan’s kkinsmen and followers
 He prepared to go to Saragnayan’s doman
 Employed the aid of Buyong Matanayon of Mount
Matiula
o Well-known for his skills in swordmanship
 They rode a sailboat called Biday nga rumba-rumba
 Travelled through the region of the clouds, passed by
the region of eternal darkness, and ended up in
Tambang Buriraw
o In this place, there was a ridge called: Talagas
Kuting-tang
 Where a seductive sorceress named:
Piganun lived
 Piganun changed herself to a beautiful
maiden and captured the heart of
Humadapnon
 Buyong begged Humadapnon to leave
the place with him but Humadapnon
refused
 7 months passed, Buyong remembered
that they have brough with them some
ginger
 He threw the ginger into the fire
 When Piganun smelled this, she
left the dinner table because
sorcerers hate the smell of
ginger
 Buyong struck Humadapon, he
became unconscious an
dragged him to escape
 They then continued their trek
 Everywhere they went they exacted revenge on all of
Saragnayan’s people and relatives
 They reached Piniling Tubig
o Rule by Datu Umbaw Pinaumbaw
o There was a big gathering
o The datu was giving his daughter for marriage
to whoever remove the huge boulder that rolled
rom a mountain into the center of the village
 Humadapnon took his magic cape
 Used it to lift the stone and threw
it back int o the mountain
 Datu kept his words and married him to
his daughter
 Humadapnon heard about the beauty of:
o Burigadang Pada Sinklang Bulawan
 Goddess of greed
 He went to seek the hand of the goddess in marriage
 He encountered Buyong Makabagting
o Son of the mighty Datu Balahidyong of Paling
Bukid
o Travelling with the same purpose
 Makabaging challenged him to a duel but he was no
match to Humadapnon’s strength and skill
o He surrendered and helped Humahadpon
 Humahadpon married the goddess an brought her
home
o Meanwhile, his brother Dumalapdap left for Burutlakan-ka-adlaw
 Where the maiden Lubay-Lubyok Hanginun si
Mahuyokhuyokon lived
o For the trip, he brought Dumasig
  The most pwerful wrestler in Madya-as
o Several months later they came o a place called Tarambuan-ka-
banwa
 they encountered Balanakon
 The two-headed monster
 Guarded a narrow ridge leading to the place where the
maiden live
 With Dumasig, Dumalapdap killed Balanakon
 Before approaching the palace, he was confronted by
Uyutang
 A bat like monster with sharp poisonous claws
 Ensued a bloody battle with Dumalapdap
o Fought for 7 months
o But on the 7th month:
 Dumalapdap was able to grab on to
Uyutang’s ankle and broke it
 He took his iwang daniwan
 Magic dagger
 And stabbed Uyutang under the armpit
 Uyutang cried so loud that the ridge
west
 where they fight broke into 2
 Half became – Island of Buglas
(Negros)
 Half became - Island of Panay
 Dumalapdap married Lubay-Lubyok Hanginun si
Mahuyokhuyokan and took her home
- They were all reunited back home and went to their own quest after again
o Labaw Donggon – North
o Humahadpon – South
o Dumalapdap - West
o Datu Paubari – remained in the East
Komunikasyon at Pananaliksik sa Wika at Kulturang Pilipino  Kinilala ng Pinas na magkaroon ang bansa ng sariling wika

1867 – 1899 Artikulo VIII ng Konstitusyon ng Biak-naBato

- Nakapagpalabas ang mga monakriya ng Espanya ng 14 na atas - Inilakda nina Felix Ferrer at Isabelo Artacho
o Nagtatakda sa paggamit at pagtuturo ng wikang Espanyol - Nilagdaan noong Nobyembre 1, 1897
 Lahat ay nabigo - “Tagalog ang dapat na maging wikang opisual ng Republika”
- “ang ituturo sa elementarya ay wastong pagbasa, pagsasalita, at
pasulat sa wikang opisyal na Tagalog, at ang mga pangunahing
simulain ng Ingles. Ang lalong mataas na edukasyon ay bubuuin ng
 Isa sa mga tampok na atas-pangwika na ipinalabas ng monarkiya y ang
dalwang kurso ng Ingles at dalawang kurso ng Pranses.”
Dekreto ng Edukasyon (1863)
- “Kailanma’t ang Ingles ay sapat nang malaganap ang buong kapuluan,
o Nagatas ito ng pagtatatag ng primarying paarala sa bawat pueblo sa
ito ay ipapahayag na wikang opisyal”
Maynila
 Upang mabigyan edukasyon sa Espanyol ang mga anak ng
mga katutubo
Konstitusyon ng Malolos
o Itinakda rin na wikang Espanyol lamang ang gagamiting midyum
o Pangunahing layunin nito ay ang kakayahang bumasa at sumulat sa - Felipe Calderon at Felipe Buencamino
Espanyol - Nilagdaan noong Enero 21, 1899
o Hindi pinahihintulutang humawak ng anumang katungkulan sa - Ibinalik naman ang Espanyol
pamahalaan ang mga katutubo na hindi marunong magsalita, o Pansamantalang opisyal na wika sang-ayon sa Artikulo 93
bumasa, o sumulat sa Espanyol
o Nabigo ito dahil sa paghadlang ng mga prayle
 Marcelo H. Del Pilar
o Ayon sa kaniya ay sinabotahe ng mga relihiyoso ang programang
pangwika at sila ang may kasalanan kung bakit nanatiling mababa
ang kalagayang pang-edukasyon ng Pilipinas
 Ito ay dahils natakot noon ang mga prayle
 Sinabi pa ng mga prayle na Maganda ang layunin ng mga batas pangwika
o Subalit kapos ang pondo para sa mga guro at pagpapatayo ng mga
paaralan

Pamanang pangwika na naiwan ng mga Espanyol

I. Ang romanisasyon ng silabaryo ng mga wikang ginagamit sa Pilipinas
 Nagpapahintulot ng mas madaling komunikasyon ng mga Pilipino sa daigdig
na gumagamit na rin ng sistemang iyon
II. Yaman ng bokabularyong Espanyol na nakapasok sa talasalitaan ng mga
katutubong wika sa Pilipinas
- o Death by heat
o Evidence suggests that the mass density of the universe is purely
Earth Science inadequate to generate enough gravitational attraction to halt and
Hypotheses on the Beginning of the Universe reverse expansion
 Instead, it accelerates the rate of expansion
- Scientists formulated several explanation about the beginning of the universe  Eliminates the impulse to consider an oscillation
universe that would cause a collapsed universe to
reverse back to expansion
Hypothesis vs. Theories
Steady State Theory – 1948
Hypothesis – present a possible explanation to an observable event, an educate
- Sir Herman Bondi and Thomas Gold
guess based on the limited amount of data
o British Scientist
Theory- Once it is proven to be true and concrete, and it is later on accepted by - And Sir Fred Hoyle
the scientific community o Astrophysicist
- Proposed a theory concerning our universe’s origin
- Astronomers turned to this idea
Oscillating Universe Theory o Regarded the formation o chemical elements in the universe
- They propose a concept called perfect cosmological principle
- Also known as the cyclic theory
o Galaxies and the stars may change but the universe was uniform in
- Proposed by: Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman (1898-1925)
space and unchanging time
o Russian meteorologist and mathematician
o Argued that new matter is continually created in the spaces between
o Between the year 1922 and 1924
the galaxies
- Combination of the big bang and the big crunch as part of an infinite self-
o Violates the law of conservation of matter
sustainable cyclical event
 Matter can be neither created nor destroyed but it can only be
- This theory states that:
converted from one form of energy or matter into another
o Universe begun with the big bang event and went through a series of
different stages of expansion and inflation, eventually back to the big Problem with the Steady State Theory
crunch
 Possible end of the universe until it reaches its maximum level o Many pieces arose that contradicted this theory:
of expansion  Discovery of the quasar
o The cycle continues all over again  Astronomical object that emits a massive amount of
energy
Problem presented by the Oscillating Universe Theory  Those that are found in the universe proves that
universe changed over time
o Goes against the 2nd law of thermodynamics
 A radio telescope by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
 States that: isolated system, the entropy of the entire universe
suggests that:
will always increase over time until it reaches its maximum
 There is more cosmic radiation billion of years ago than
point
today
 Called the Big rip
o Implies that the universe is changing over time
  The cosmic wave background is a weak radiation that
fills the whole space and is the same in all directions
o Steady state theory was indisputably unstable
 Led to its discard
Big bang Theory
- George Lemaitre – 1920s
- Theorized that the universe began from a single primordial atom
- He stated that 13.8 billion years ago
o Universe went through a huge explosion followed by a great
expansion and cooling
- This later gave rise to the building blocks of matter, the first atoms:
o Hydrogen and helium
 First elements formed in the universe
 Remained the most abundant elements in the universe until
today
o All other elements were developed
- The big bang had a lot of energy
o Which decreased over time
- Suggests that all of the galaxies, stars, and planates still maintain the
explosive motion of the moment of creation and are moving further apart at
great speed
Pieces of Evidence That Support the Big Bang Theory
- Edwin Hubble, 1929
o American astronomer
- Discovered the redshift of galaxies was directly proportional to the distance of
the galaxy from Earth
o By plotting their distance agains their own redshift
- He explained that galaxies farther away from Eart were moving away faster
o Indicates that the universe is expanding
Redshift
o Result of the expansion of space and it reveals how an object is
moving based on a reference point
o Occurs when the light from an object shift towards the red end of the
electromagnetic spectrum
 Due to an increase in wavelength with a corresponding
decrease in frequency of an electromagnetic wave
o The shift toward the end of the spectrum
 Indicates that the object is moving farther away from the
observer
o Similar to the doppler effect
 Phenomenon that occurs when waves such as sound and light
move away from or toward an observer
- Hubble used a spectroscope
o Instrument that spit light from space into spectrum
o Examine and analyze the light from the galaxies
- Discovered that galaxies far off space shifted down the red end of the
spectrum
- Concluded that the discovery explains that the galaxies are moving far away
from the Earth
- Assumed the Hubble’s law
o the greater the redshift, the greater is the speed of the galaxy
o Figure out of the age of a galaxy or star by calculating their distance
from Earth
Cosmic Background Radiation
o 1963
o Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
 Accidentally detected a disturbance in their newly constructed
telescope while studying the sky’s microwave “noise”
 Detected microwaves coming from all directions in the sky
 Believed to be a universal background radiation from the big
bang’s explosion
o Robert Dicke
 American astronomer and physicist
Problem with the Big Bang Theory
o 2001, group of astronomers
 Discovery of a group of galaxies and quasars
 Indicated that the universe is not evenly distributed but
rather contain empty spaces with densely packed
matter
  Argued that the temperature favored the formation of
matter in a non-uniform manner due to cosmic
background radiation
o Contradicts the big bang
 Because it predicted that the universe
should be perfectly symmetric or
uniform
Composition of the Universe
- Comprises all matter and energy
- 4.6% - baryonic matter
o Consists of protons and neutrons
o Makes up the atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies
o Make up only tiny fraction of the universe
- 24% - dark matter
o Unknown type of matter
o Basically nonbaryonic matter
o Does not emit light
o Detected merely through its gravitational effects
- 71.4% - dark energy
o Accounted for an even more mysterious form of energy
o Anti-gravity
o Explains what holds galaxies
 Low total mass is inadequate for gravity alone to do so
o Not directly observes
 its existence is established based on the gravitational
interaction between astronomical objects
o explain the observed accelerating expansion of the universe
o developed from the observation that all galaxies appear to be moving
farther away from one another
 there is a possible invisible extra energy at work