Problem 1.

1:

Name several of the admixtures that are used in concrete mixes. What is the purpose of each?

Several admixtures used in concrete mixes and their purposes include:

• Water reducers: Increase workability and decrease water content, leading to higher strength
and lower shrinkage.
• Retarders: Delay setting time, allowing for transportation and placement over longer distances.
• Accelerators: Speed up setting and strength gain, useful in cold weather or when early form
removal is needed.
• Air-entraining agents: Introduce tiny air bubbles that improve freeze-thaw resistance and
workability.
• Plasticizers: Improve workability without significantly affecting water content, making the mix
easier to place and consolidate.
• Coloring pigments: Add color for aesthetic purposes.

Problem 1.2:

What is Poisson’s ratio, and where can it be of significance in concrete work?

Poisson's ratio is a dimensionless number describing the ratio of transverse strain (perpendicular to the
applied stress) to the longitudinal strain (in the direction of the applied stress) in a material under load.
In concrete work, it can be significant because it affects:

• Crack development: High Poisson's ratio can exacerbate crack propagation due to transverse
shrinkage induced by longitudinal compression.
• Prestress design: Understanding Poisson's ratio is crucial for calculating prestressing forces and
predicting deflections of beams and slabs.
• Volume changes: Poisson's ratio influences the overall dimensional changes of concrete
structures under various loading conditions.

Problem 1.3:

What factors influence the creep of concrete?

Several factors influence the creep of concrete, which is the time-dependent increase in strain under
sustained load:

• Water-cement ratio: Higher water-cement ratio leads to higher creep due to a less dense
microstructure.
• Strength: High-strength concrete generally creeps less than lower-strength concrete due to a
denser microstructure.
• Type of cement: Some cements, like Portland-pozzolan blends, creep less than ordinary Portland
cement.
 • Age at loading: Concrete creeps more at a younger age and the rate of creep decreases with
time.
• Stress level: Higher stress levels induce more creep compared to lower stresses.
• Humidity: Higher humidity environments exacerbate creep by facilitating the movement of
water within the concrete.

Problem 1.4:

What steps can be taken to reduce creep?

Several steps can be taken to reduce creep in concrete:

• Use a low water-cement ratio: This creates a denser concrete with lower porosity, reducing the
space for water movement and minimizing creep.
• Use high-strength concrete: Higher strength concrete typically creeps less due to its denser
microstructure.
• Use Portland-pozzolan blends: These cements offer lower creep compared to ordinary Portland
cement.
• Minimize early age loading: Allow concrete to gain strength before applying sustained loads to
reduce its susceptibility to creep.
• Prestress the structure: Applying a compressive prestressing force can counteract the tensile
creep strains.
• Control humidity: Controlling the humidity during curing and in service can minimize water
movement within the concrete, reducing creep.

Problem 1.5:

What is the effect of creep in reinforced concrete columns that are subjected to axial compression
loads?

The effect of creep in reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial compression loads can be:

• Increased deflection: Creep can lead to additional long-term deflections under sustained load,
potentially exceeding acceptable limits.
• Loss of prestress: If the column is prestressed, creep can cause a reduction in the prestressing
force, compromising the design performance.
• Reduction in load-carrying capacity: In extreme cases, excessive creep can lead to cracking and
reduced load-carrying capacity, impacting the structural integrity of the column.

Problem 1.6:

Why is silica fume used in high-strength concrete? What does it do?

Silica fume is used in high-strength concrete for several reasons:

 • Strength enhancement: Silica fume particles fill the voids in the concrete matrix, leading to a
denser microstructure and significantly higher compressive strength.
• Improved durability: Silica fume reduces permeability, enhancing resistance to chemical attack
and aggressive environments.
• Enhanced workability: Despite its strength-enhancing properties, silica fume can improve the
workability of high-strength concrete mixes with proper mix design.

Problem 1.7:

Why do the surfaces of reinforcing bars have rolled-on deformations?

Reinforcing bars have rolled-on deformations for several reasons:

• Improved bond: Deformations enhance the mechanical interlock between the steel and
surrounding concrete, increasing the bond strength and preventing slippage under load.
• Increased anchorage: Deformations provide better anchorage for the bars within the concrete,
resisting pull-out forces during tension loads.
• Crack control: Deformation ribs create small stress concentrations around the bar, promoting
the development of multiple smaller cracks rather than a single large crack, improving overall
ductility and crack resistance.

Problem 1.8:

What are “soft metric” reinforcing bars?

"Soft metric" reinforcing bars are a type of bar with slightly smaller diameters than the nominal size
listed in American standard sizes. They were introduced to meet specific design requirements while
maintaining equivalent cross-sectional area and load-carrying capacity. However, their use has been
largely discontinued.

Problem 1.9:

What are three factors that influence the magnitude of the earthquake load on a structure?

Three main factors influence the magnitude of the earthquake load on a structure:

• Earthquake intensity: This refers to the energy released by the earthquake and is measured on
scales like the Richter magnitude scale. Higher intensity earthquakes will generate larger seismic
forces on the structure.
• Distance from the epicenter: The closer the structure is to the earthquake's epicenter, the
stronger the ground motion and hence the higher the earthquake load.
• Soil characteristics: The type and properties of the soil beneath the foundation can significantly
affect how the earthquake's energy is transmitted to the structure. Soft soils tend to amplify
ground motion, leading to higher earthquake loads on the structure.
Problem 1.10:

Why are epoxy-coated bars sometimes used in the construction of reinforced concrete?

Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are sometimes used in reinforced concrete for several reasons:

• Corrosion protection: The epoxy coating acts as a barrier against chloride ions and other
aggressive chemicals that can cause steel corrosion, particularly in environments like marine
structures or areas with deicing salts.
• Improved bond: The epoxy coating can enhance the bond between the steel and concrete
compared to uncoated bars due to its rougher surface texture.
• Reduced maintenance: Epoxy coating helps to prolong the lifespan of the concrete structure by
minimizing the need for repairs due to steel corrosion.

Problem 1.11:

What is the diameter and cross-sectional area of a #5 reinforcing bar?

A #5 reinforcing bar:

• Diameter: 0.625 inches (15.875 millimeters)

• Cross-sectional area: 0.31 square inches (200 square millimeters)