00:02

we take up the first major topic under flexible AC controllers. They are shunt war compensator systems,
SVC units and STATCOM units.

00:22

a word about the reference test book for this course. You may use this test book, Understanding Facts
written by Narain Ingrani and Goi Gai. You may use this book as reference test book for all topics of this
course. Of course we will need other books. I will mention other books as and when we need them. In
this book, Shunt Capacitive Compensation.

00:52

is covered in Chapter 5. So Chapter 5 is the reference for this topic, Shunt Capacitive Compensator Units.

01:05

Before we take up specific FACTS controllers aimed at doing Shunt Capacity Compensation, we will have
a theoretical look at why Shunt Capacity Compensation is needed and what are the advantages that will
accrue from using Shunt Capacity Compensation, etc. And some terminology will also be covered.

01:34

fixed or switched capacitors or SVC static war compensator SVC stands for static war compensator or by
using STATCOM STATCOM stands for static synchronous compensator so using one of these three

02:04

using fixed capacitors or switched capacitors where the capacitors are switched in and switched out by
mechanical switches, I mean circuit breakers or by electronic switches. That is one class of shunt
compensation equipment. Second class of shunt compensation equipment will be called SVC static war
controller or static war compensator.

02:32
And the third class of shunt compensating equipment will be called STATCOM, which stands for Static
Synchronous Compensator. So using one of these three, we will deliver capacitive reactive or we will take
capacitive reactive R in parallel from the power system at a particular location, I mean at a particular

03:01

Now this kind of equipment will be used in various locations in a power system. They are used in the
distribution level, they are used in the sub-transmission level and they are also used in the transmission
level. And they are used to derive various operational advantages.

03:20

Before we look at the various operational advantages that will come from use of shunt capacitive
compensation, let's clarify the terminology a little bit. By the way, shunt compensation is not always
capacitive. Under some rare situations, you may have to do inductive compensation as well.

03:42

Therefore, standard SVC units in the industry and standard STATCOM units in the industry are capable of
providing inductive as well as capacitive compensation. Of course, whether they are able to deliver
inductive or capacitive compensation to the same extent in both directions will depend upon the
particular design of the unit. STATCOMs are generally capable of delivering

04:08

capacitive compensation as well as inductive compensation to the same magnitude. Whereas, SPCs may
not be able to do with the same magnitude, but they are capable of delivering inductive compensation,
maybe a little less than the amount they can deliver in the capacitive mode. And of course, fixed and
switched capacitors cannot deliver inductive.

04:32

If you need inductive compensation and you don't want to use SVC or STATCOM, then you have to use
reactances in parallel to the power system. They are called shunt compensating reactances. Traditionally
they were used. I mean shunt reactors were used for compensation in a particular context. You know
that
04:56

In a long transmission line, the receiving end voltage tends to become more than the sending end
voltage under low loading condition, especially under open circuited condition. So when the load is low,
receiving end voltage tends to go above sending end voltage and create over voltage problems. This as
you very well know is called Ferranti effect. To suppress Ferranti effect, the power system engineers
traditionally used shunt reactive compensation.

05:26

So inductive compensation is also needed. That is also covered under shunt compensation. But mostly, in
most of the situations, it is capacitive. That is where I'm focusing on capacitive. Now, I have used two
words, svc and statcom. Let me differentiate between svc and statcom. The application context,
whatever be the operational advantage you are aiming at.

05:51

The application context is given in this diagram. This is the way it is applied. So you have a power system
bus, the point of common coupling. At this bus, there may be other transmission lines going away from
the bus. There may be local load. There may be many transmission lines delivering or taking power from
that bus. I'm just showing one incoming transmission line and one outgoing transmission line.

06:20

but there could be more and there could also be local load. A general power system bus is what I have in
mind. At this bus you are connecting an equipment, power equipment, which I am calling static war
generator, SVG. This equipment is capable of taking leading reactive current or lagging reactive current
with equal or unequal capacities in both directions.

06:50

It can take capacitive current or it can take inductive current. It can do both. The amount of maximum
capacitive current it can take may be same as the amount of maximum inductive current it can take or it
may not be the same. That depends upon the design. This unit does not take active power. Neither does
it deliver active power.
07:15

it might take a little active power to support the losses within the unit but other than that it won't
handle active power it will handle only reactive power such a unit which remains synchronous to the bus
and from the sinusoidal voltage available at the bus this equipment takes sinusoidal capacitive current

07:47

So this equipment is capable of taking capacitive or inductive pure sinusoidal current. How much it takes
and how will it take? That depends upon the internal control logic of this unit. So a static war generator
contains an internal controller. This internal controller will control the elements of this hardware in such
a manner that

08:17

This hardware will take capacitive current or inductive current of suitable magnitude as called for by a
reference given to the unit. This reference is the reference for the internal controller. This is usually the
amount of current you want to take. Usually a positive reference given here means you are asking the
unit

08:46

to take that much of capacitive current from the bus. This number you are giving here may represent the
amplitude of the sine wave current you want to take.

08:57

or it may represent the RMS value of the sine wave current you want to take etc. That all depends on the
sign but in some way or other this reference here indicates what is the amount of capacitive current or
inductive current this unit must draw from here. The internal control system of this unit will ensure that
that current will be taken from the bus, the demanded current will be taken from the bus.

09:24

but this SVG and internal control alone will not make it SVC or STATCOM to make it a static war
compensator unit or static synchronous compensator unit an SVG which is simply a static war generator
has to be supplemented by an external controller has to be aided by an external controller
09:51

This external controller will provide the reference for the internal controller. This external controller will
tell the internal controller how much capacitive current or inductive current is to be taken by the unit
from the connection point. That's the job of external controller. This external controller receives an input
which I am calling control objective reference input. So there is a control objective in our mind.

10:22

we want to vary the capacitive current taken by this static war generator in such a manner that certain
objective, control objective is met what could be the control objective? the most common control
objective in this context is to maintain the voltage of this bus at a specified value that's the most
common objective

10:48

or if not at the specified value at least at an improved value according to certain rule. So the most
common objective in this context is to control the bus voltage magnitude either as a constant value or
according to certain rule allowed to vary but only according to certain rule. Certain algorithm.

11:16

So essentially it is for controlling the bus voltage in some manner or other. That's the most common
objective. But that's not the only objective. There are other important objectives for which static work
compensation is used. I will mention those objectives as and when we come across them.

11:34

But by far the most common objective is to control the bus voltage. Either as a constant in which case
you will call it a regulation problem, regulator problem or as per some algorithm. If you are varying it or
if you are controlling the bus voltage as per some rule or algorithm,

11:54

What you mean to say is I am not asking for a constant voltage but I want an improved voltage. I want
the static work compensator to do some job such that the voltage there will be better than the voltage I
will get if I remove the static work compensator. Better according to some written law. Maybe I will write
an equation, it has to follow that equation. That kind of control is what is usually attempted.

12:23

That is what I mean by control objective. A reference is given. For example, take the simple case of
voltage regulation problem. I want to maintain this bus voltage at one angle something. Magnitude I
want it to be, let's say one PU. So I'll set a reference here, which is representative of the number one PU.

12:43

doesn't mean that I'm going to set a number one here. I will use some voltage or current or something
which will stand for one PU. So such a reference is given here. Now this controller hardware will process
that information along with the power system signal information available from the bus as well as
elsewhere. From the bus, what are the information available to us?

13:13

we can sense the bus voltage, this line. That is needed because it's a closed loop controlled system. You
need the reference and you need the feedback. And then you can sense the current in all the lines
coming and going away at that bus. And when you're sensing voltage, you can sense its frequency, right?

13:34

So many such, I mean, from the sensed quantities, you can calculate active power, reactive power, all
that. So these are all various power system signals. But they're all local signals, that the signals I talked
about till now are local signals. But in power system, it's also possible to make use of the power system
signals from the other buses by means of some communication system, the data from other buses may
reach this bus controller, and this bus controller,

14:04

buses also. Nowadays all such things are possible. But for simplicity, after all we are going to, we are
beginning to study this topic so let's not complicate it further. So for simplicity I will assume that our
static war controller will make use of local information.
14:21

and by local information I mean all voltages and currents pertinent to that bus including the current
taken by the static war generator that also you can sense, I am sensing it here so using all such
information and the control objective reference this controller will process the data and produce a
reference signal for this static war generator reference signal will be given to the internal control of the
static war generator

14:51

power hardware of the static-wire generator such that the static-wire generator will will take suitable
magnitude current, reactive current either capacitive or inductive, suitable such that your control
objective will be finally met in steady state.

15:12

Now this static war generator plus its internal control hardware plus the external control hardware will
be called a static war compensator or static comm, synchronous compensator, I mean SVC or STATCOM.
Now comes the difference between SVC and STATCOM. So note the point that both SVC and STATCOM
will have

15:41

essentially three blocks. One is a static war generator unit which is a power hardware which is capable of
taking capacitive reactive power or inductive reactive power from a sinusoidal bus voltage. Second block
is internal control of that static war generator which will control the static war generator components in
such a manner that

16:10

the amplitude of current drawn by the unit will be equal to the amplitude set at the reference. The third
unit is an external controller. The external controller has to receive a control objective reference and
then it has to receive all the bus signals. And based on these two sets of signals it has to calculate what is
the...

16:35
what is the reactive current that should be drawn by the static war generator and then it must send that
information as a reference for the internal controller of static war generator these three blocks put
together of course including the sensing block so this entire system will be called the SVC or STATCOM so
SVC or STATCOM will necessarily contain a static war generator unit which is the core power hardware

17:04

Now this static war generator unit could be of two types. It can be the variable impedance type SVG or
the switched converter type SVG. In variable impedance type SVG

17:24

The impedance of a capacitor or a capacitive impedance is made continuously variable with the help of
some other elements in parallel. So you are simulating a variable capacitance unit or variable inductance
unit or both. So essentially variable impedance type SVG is essentially a passive element.

17:54

It is an impedance. Only that its impedance can be controlled. Impedance of a fixed capacitor is 1 by
omega c. Magnitude I mean. But suppose you can make that capacitance variable, then it becomes a
variable capacitive impedance. A variable capacitive impedance can absorb variable amounts of leading
reactive power as per your wish. So in variable impedance type SVG, essentially you make a variable
impedance.

18:22

by controlling an impedance. This is often done by using a fixed capacitor and a variable inductor in
parallel.

18:33

the inductor is sized in such a way that the inductive impedance can overpower the capacitive
impedance and make the overall impedance inductive. So when you want inductive compensation the
value of inductance will be such that its impedance will overpower the parallel capacitive impedance and
make the parallel combination inductive. And then you will gradually reduce the inductive impedance.
19:04

sorry you will vary the inductance in such a way that the capacitive impedance will dominate ok. So, this
way you can make a continuous spectrum of impedance going from inductive to capacitive. The question
is how do we vary the inductance.

19:26

by making a physically variable inductance and then changing the inductance well that doesn't work in
power system because we want to vary this in very short time within a cycle or so we want to vary it so
some electronic means will have to be used there are methods in fact we will take up immediately after
we cover this topic we will be taking a variable impedance type static war generator

19:54

So they are essentially variable impedance type. That's the point we observe now. The impedance of a
fixed capacitor is put in parallel with the impedance of a variable inductance thereby simulating a
variable capacitive impedance.

20:13

Now, when the SVG unit within this system is of this type, variable impedance type, then this system is
called a SVC. So SVC, Static War Compensator, as per the usual IEEE terminology, a Static War
Compensator, SVC.

20:38

is a system containing an SVG, its internal control and an external controller. And that SVG has to be of
variable impedance type. Then you will call the system SVC. However, when this static power generator
is of a different type called switched converter type,

20:59

then you will call it a STATCOM. I mean, then you will call the composite system containing SVG, internal
control, external controller, and the signaling, you will call that composite system a STATCOM. That's the
difference between SVC and STATCOM. Now, what is meant by switched converter type SVG? That is
simple. A switched converter type SVG, the block diagram is given here.
21:27

it contains a three-phase inverter. From that point of view it is simple, but then when you go into the
details of three-phase inverter so many options open up. It may be a very simple two-level three-phase
inverter or it may be a complicated multi-level H-bridge I mean what you call...

21:49

cascaded H bridge inverter or multi-level Neutral clamped inverter or whatever there are so many
possibilities nowadays anyway It's a three-phase inverter a three-phase inverter will accept a DC voltage
on its DC side and Convert this DC voltage into a three-phase AC sine wave That's what a three-phase
inverter does as far as this discussion is concerned

22:12

and in order to do this it must use power semiconductor units the power semiconductor units are in the
switched mode i mean they will operate either on or off condition so they are going to be in the
switched mode commonly for fax equipment the power semiconductors used in three phase inverter will
be gtos or ijbts or something called mcts

22:40

MOSFETs and power transistors are out because they cannot handle this kind of voltages and currents.
Even IGBTs cannot take you to very high rating. So when it comes to transmission level fax controllers,
that means when you are dealing with hundreds of kilo volt and hundreds of MBA.

23:01

you have no option even now I think it is gto's only gate triggered thyristors gto's anyway we will look at
those aspects in detail later but there are power semiconductor switches inside configured in the form of
a bridge okay using one of the popular three phase inverter topologies and that will constitute the three
phase inverter for this discussion it is sufficient to take it as some power semiconductor unit capable of
converting a

23:31
into balanced three phase AC voltages. The frequency of the AC voltage, the amplitude of AC voltage,
etc. will depend upon the controller. So this inverter has to have a control system. The function of the
control system will be to produce gating. The inverter controls, inverter contains power semiconductor
switches. These switches will have to be switched on and off.

23:59

for that you need gating control signals so the gating control signals will be generated by the internal
control unit of course the internal control unit will be receiving lot of information the inverter I haven't
shown that here but it is understood the output voltage of the inverter the current delivered by the
inverter various other details etc will be fed back to the internal control

24:25

and the internal controller will receive one reference from the outside world that is this line, reference
for internal controller is usually the amount of current, reactive current that this generator must draw
from them that information will be given.

24:45

Using that information and using the extra information from the inverter terminal itself, internal control
of the inverter will produce the gating signal for all the switches within this inverter. The switches will be
gated in such a manner that the right amount of current will be pulled from the bus by these three lines,
RYB lines. Now the DC system.

25:14

The DC system of an inverter should be a DC bus which is maintained at a constant level. Here two
possibilities open up. One is let the DC system be independently controlled by some DC energy source,
for example a battery. Or let the DC system by

25:35

System be a regulated DC voltage generated from the same three phase power supply using a controlled
rectifier So from the same bus you may run a phase controlled rectifier or some other power electronic
system Which will produce a constant DC voltage? So the DC system can be as it can be a battery or it
can be any other Renewable energy source for that matter it can be
26:02

a DC voltage generated from the AC mains itself by means of power electronics. In all those cases, the DC
system has an energy source. It can deliver energy. If it is a battery, then it can take energy also. But if it
is a AC-DC converter, it may not be able to take energy.

26:25

So the DC system in this situation will contain an energy source which is capable of delivering energy at
least and sometimes it is capable of delivering as well as absorbing energy in a steady manner. Please
note that I am not talking about the temporary energy delivery capability of a charged capacitor. After
all, a charged capacitor will behave like a battery for a short time.

26:55

It can deliver energy. A capacitor can take energy. But that's not what I'm talking about. What I'm talking
about is delivering energy at a constant rate for a long time. On a continuous basis. That is something a
capacitor cannot do. Taking energy at a constant rate for a long time.

27:21

That is something which a capacitor cannot do because if a capacitor keeps on taking energy at a
constant rate, that means constant power, then the voltage of the capacitor will go on increasing and
finally the capacitor will blow. Similarly, if a capacitor is delivering energy at a constant rate, soon it will
run out of energy and go to zero voltage. So that's not... though a charged capacitor is an energy source.

27:49

That's not the kind of energy source we are talking here. We are talking about energy sources which can
deliver energy at a constant rate for a long time or which can absorb energy at a constant rate for a long
time. Such a source is possible only if you have a battery or if you have a fuel cell or you have a solar
panel or an AC-DC rectifier where the AC is taken from the mains itself.

28:15

Well, if the DC system has that kind of an energy source, then you will call this SVG, static synchronous
generator. So it is a switched converter type SVG, special name is static synchronous generator. However,
if the DC system is a charged capacitor,

28:40

Suppose you charged a capacitor and you are keeping it as the DC bus here. Just a capacitor having
certain voltage.

28:50

Now that voltage.

28:56

Now this 3 phase inverter is expected to deliver or take only reactive power. Suppose the 3 phase
inverter is controlled by the internal controller in such a manner that it will take or deliver only reactive
power.

29:13

Now, active power or reactive power, if the inverter is to handle any power, currents will have to flow in
switches, currents will have to flow in conductors. There may be filter inductors also in the inverter, so
currents will have to flow through that. So there are resistive paths everywhere, switches are somewhat
lossy. So inverter has losses.

29:42

who will supply that energy needed by the losses of the inverter if you are handling only reactive power
of these three terminals so if you are delivering or taking only reactive current then the active power
taken by the inverter is zero then where will the losses, who will supply the losses and the losses will
have to come from the DC side

30:07

If it is only a charged capacitor on the DC side, won't the capacitor lose energy gradually and therefore
won't the voltage come down and therefore won't the operation of the inverter be affected. May be the
internal control and gating mechanism can hold on for some time and produce the required AC voltage
from even a lowered DC voltage. But after certain low value, no kind of control can manage to produce
the required AC voltage here.

30:37

For example, suppose you consider a single phase case. Suppose the DC side is 400 volt bus. You want to
generate 320 volt peak AC, I mean 230 volt RMS. It is possible. By sinusoidal PWM it is possible. Now
suppose instead of 400 volt it comes down to 380, 360 etc. So what is the minimum voltage it can come
down to before you will fail to make 230 volt RMS? The answer is theoretically it is 320.

31:07

If the DC bus is 320V in a single phase inverter, you can make a 320V sine wave. Just about make it. But if
the DC bus comes down even below 320V, then you cannot make a 230V RMS sine wave. Similarly, here
also, there is a minimum value of DC bus voltage, such that the voltage you can make here will be exactly
equal to the grid voltage.

31:31

Now suppose you go below that DC voltage, then you won't be able to make the required AC voltage
here. Remember this unit is connected in parallel to the bus here. So if you cannot make a voltage equal
to bus voltage, the bus is going to pump a large amount of current into the inverter and lead to failure.
Because inverter is not able to meet the bus voltage. So unlimited amount of current will flow into the
inverter. So you cannot afford.

32:01

to let the capacitor DC voltage come down. So if the capacitor DC voltage should not come down then
the capacitor should not be asked to deliver any energy or take any energy. Then who will deliver the
losses for the inverter? Well, losses for the inverter has to be taken from the grid only. So now...

32:24

a second control system will be needed, maybe a control system which is going to look at the DC side
capacitor voltage and whenever that capacitor voltage deviates from a reference value that control
system should ask the inverter to take active power or to deliver active
32:50

with the addition of that kind of a control system also into the internal control. In that case, the internal
control will be looking at this DC bus voltage and then a closed loop feedback system will be used to
produce an active current reference which will be added to this reactive current reference and then
which will be used to produce the gating of inverter. So finally, the inverter will have

33:17

two components of current drawn from the bus. One component of current is highly reactive, large
amount of reactive current, how much? As much as demanded by this reference. Second component of
current is an active component of current, power bearing component of current, how much? The answer
is, that will be decided by the DC voltage control rule.

33:41

the DC voltage control loop where you are looking at the DC voltage of the capacitor, comparing it to the
reference, passing it through a PI controller and finally converting the information into active current
reference. That will decide how much active current is drawn. What is the role of that active current?
Role of active current is to deliver active power and thereby energy to the inverter such that the inverter
will be able to meet its own losses and why are there losses?

34:10

to meet its own losses incurred because of conducting the large reactive current. Of course, the active
current is also carried by the inverter that also will produce a little loss but the major loss producing
mechanism is carrying the reactive current. So the inverter contains switches which are holding large
voltages and currents so they produce little dissipation. So this dissipation is usually small. Therefore the
final...

34:38

required active current will be small compared to reactive current. But the point is that there has to be a
closed-loop control of the DC side capacitor voltage. This kind of a closed-loop control is not needed if
the DC system is a source like battery or fuel cell or solar panel or AC-DC rectifier. But if the DC system is
a self sustained DC bus
35:05

By self sustained DC bus what we mean is it's only a charged capacitor. And its charge is maintained
constant or its voltage is maintained constant by a supplementary outer loop control mechanism which I
explained already. The voltage control mechanism will take information from the capacitor voltage and
whenever the capacitor voltage deviates from the set reference value this control system will.

35:32

ask the inverter either to draw active power or deliver active power as the case may be. When should it
draw active power? When the capacitor voltage shows a tendency to go down, we must draw active
power from the grid and that active power should be more than the losses. So the excess active power
will go into the capacitor and thereby raise its voltage. And similarly,

35:59

when the capacitor voltage is going above the set value then you must deliver energy from the capacitor
so that its voltage will go down and when you deliver energy into the inverter inverter has to flush it out
into the grid that means inverter has to deliver active current so this way depending upon the polarity of
error the voltage control loop has to adjust the active component of current

36:27

So if you are using that kind of a self-sustained DC bus in this unit, then this unit will be called a static
synchronous condenser.

36:41

Why is it called a static synchronous condenser? Because a synchronous condenser will handle only
reactive power.

36:50

That's a first order statement. If you question that statement, is it true? Will it handle only reactive
power? Won't it have to handle a little active power? Then answer will be, yes, it has to handle a little
active power. Why use that little active power?
37:11

because the shaft is rotating.

37:15

and there are mechanical losses and the windings are carrying reactive current. So there are winding
losses, copper losses in the winding. These losses will have to be given by someone.

37:31

Even if the mechanical losses can be given by some prime mover, the electrical losses, winding losses will
have to come from the grid only. Therefore, to support the losses, the synchronous condenser will draw
a little active power. But the major power drawn by the synchronous condenser will be capacitive
reactive power or inductive reactive power depending upon the excitation. And here the system is
similar to that.

38:00

That's why it's called a static synchronous condenser. Whereas the first one where the DC system was an
independent system, it was an energy source. In that case we called it static synchronous generator
because this system is capable of developing active power and pushing it into the grid. And if this side is
a battery, it can take active power from the grid and charge the battery.

38:30

So either way it's possible. And that is similar to a generator, right? And so we call it static synchronous
generator. So these are the two possibilities for switched converter type static war generator. When the
possibility is SSG, you don't call it STATCOM. When the possibility is SSC, then you call it STATCOM. So a
STATCOM is a system which contains some three or four subsystems.

39:00

It contains a static war generator. It contains internal controller for that generator. It also contains an
external controller with a stated control objective. And then it has a signaling unit. I mean, acquiring the
signal, processing the signal, et cetera. These four systems put together will be called a STATCOM, Static
Synchronous Compensator, short form is STATCOM.

39:26

provided the static war generators of switched converter type and in addition it has a self sustained DC
bus if the system has a switched converter type SVG but the DC side is a energy source for example
suppose it is a battery then you call it a battery energy storage system you don't call it a static war

39:51

Okay, so there are many different names coming in this category. I mean, static signal generator has a DC
system, energy source, etc. There are many names. But the name stat com is reserved for this situation
where the switched converter type SVG has a self-sustained DC bus. Which is another way of saying that
the DC side is a simple charged capacitor.

40:18

the voltage across that capacitor will be maintained constant by drawing or delivering a little amount of
active power from the grid. Therefore in this situation the inverter or the switched converter will handle
both reactive power and active power. Reactive power it handles for compensation, active power it
handles for its own losses, indirectly to maintain the capacitor voltage constant. So this is the difference.
This is the

40:47

This is the description of SVC and STATCOM and differences between them. Now let's see whether it is a
fixed or switched capacitors or SVC or STATCOM. Why are we using them? What are the operational
advantages that we aim at by using Shant Compensation?

41:14

the answer.

41:18

So the list of beneficial effects of shunt capacitive compensation is given here. There are eight major
advantages or beneficial effects of shunt capacitive compensation. And we are using shunt
compensation only to obtain either all the advantages or a subset of these advantages.

41:41

Whether we get all the advantages or a subset depends upon the way we deploy the shunt capacitive
compensation and the location at which we deploy such compensation etc. I mean it depends upon our
system design and our system design objective. The first and foremost beneficial effect is improvement
in bus voltage. I should correct it as bus voltages.

42:09

improvement in bus voltages. This aspect we had already witnessed in the load flow studies given in the
previous lectures.

42:21

A shunt compensating equipment, especially shunt capacitive compensation equipment, essentially tries
to absorb or deliver the load reactive power demand locally, so that the reactive power required by the
load doesn't have to flow through lines. So this results in reduced line flows usually.

42:49

Reduced line flow means reduced current in the lines Reduced current in the line means reduced voltage
drop in the line inductances and reduced line Drop in the inductances will mean that bus voltages will
climb so In an inductively loaded power system see whatever statement I met till now. This is all
conditional because you see

43:18

It doesn't follow that whenever you use capacitive compensation, line current will go down. No, it
doesn't mean that. Because leading or lagging both require current. But if the lines were carrying lagging
current, if they were delivering lagging reactive power before, now you put capacitive or compensation
at a particular bus, now the lagging reactive power flowing in the lines will go down.

43:48
because the leading reactive power taken by the capacitor also is coming through those lines and leading
and lagging will cancel to a certain extent and therefore the reactive flows in the lines will come down
but suppose the reactive flows in the lines were already at a small level before maybe the power system
load was small or maybe the load was mostly at UPF there were no

44:16

lagging reactive power flows of any sizeable magnitude in the lines. If you assume that, now suppose you
go and put a huge capacitive load at one of the buses, I mean shunt capacitive compensation of a large
magnitude if you implement, then what will happen? Line flows will become capacitive.

44:38

Earlier they were inductive but they were very close to UPF. Reactive power was pretty low. Now the
reactive power is large but it is capacity. So now also the current will increase only, right? So when the
current increases, what will happen? Losses will come. Okay. Power loss will come. So...

45:02

From this explanation it follows that just because you implemented shunned capacitive compensation,
you can't say all the line flows will come down. No. Line current may increase for that matter. If you do
wrong capacitive compensation, if you compensate unnecessarily, line currents may increase. Okay. So
losses may not always come down because of compensation. Okay.

45:31

That was my point. So I didn't want you to get an impression that the moment you use shunt capacitive
compensation, all the line currents will go down. No, that is a wrong conclusion. Line currents will go
down if the line current had a large lagging reactive component before. But if they had only small
amount of reactive component or zero reactive component,

45:59

then if you switch on a capacitive compensation then the line current will increase. That point is settled.
So improvement in bus voltages? Yes, bus voltages will improve. Bus voltages will improve.
46:17

Even when the initial loading in the lines is not all that inductive. That is even when you are
overcompensating using capacitive compensation, even then bus voltage will improve. Only that
sometimes bus voltage will cross the upper limit. You will have over improvement. So the first effect, I
mean beneficial effect of improvement in bus voltage is unconditional. You put a shunt capacitive
compensation anywhere in the system.

46:46

bus voltage will improve and that conclusion is okay it is always correct even when the line was not
loaded much even when the line reactive power was not much before even when you are over
compensating using capacitive compensation even then bus voltage will improve.

47:08

Second objective is control of voltage profile over a long time.

47:18

Over a long transmission line, the voltage distribution... Well, we don't have time to go into the theory of
transmission line. You're supposed to have covered it. You know that the voltage distribution over a
transmission line is a standing wave. So, you know, there can be points where the voltage is over voltage
on a transmission line because of distributed nature of the transmission line. One cure for this problem is
to deploy capacitive compensation at regular intervals.

47:48

I will stop with that. As a special case of this beneficial effect, I will illustrate a special case, the so called
midpoint compensation after an auto lectures. That's only a special case of this particular beneficial
effect. But this is more general than what we are going to call as midpoint compensation later.

48:16

Third is reduction in line flows. I have explained why the line flows will come down when you use
capacitive compensation. Reduction in line flows will happen only if the line flows initially had lagging
reactive power component. If they had small lagging reactive power component, as already explained
some moments back, switching on shunt capacitive compensation will only increase line flow. So.

48:45

The third beneficial effect is usually correct but not always. This is third beneficial effect is not correct in
the case of an underloaded power system or zero-loaded power system. So under low load conditions
this conclusion is not right. Next release of capacity of various equipment. This also is not correct in a
low-loaded power system but under normal load or heavy load this is correct.

49:12

Because under normal load or heavy load, all the lines, all the transformers, etc. will usually be carrying a
large amount of reactive power because load is usually inductive. Right? Capacity of an equipment or
rating of an equipment is decided by the RMS value of current. Essentially rating of electrical equipment
is decided by heating. Okay? Heating is decided by RMS value, not the active component and reactive
component. So

49:40

if you are unnecessarily consuming a large current because of reactive nature of the load, you are
unnecessarily using a large RMS value current.

49:51

the power bearing component of current is only I cos theta where theta is the power of that triangle. So
you could have transmitted the active power by using a current of I cos theta but now you have to use a
current of I because the load is reactive. So there is an inefficiency in current utilization but current
immediately translates to capacity and rating.

50:22

So for example, you take a 250 kVA transformer. Is the transformer passing active power or reactive
power? It doesn't matter. Suppose you are transferring only 250 kilowatt of reactive power to that
transformer. Suppose the transformer second is loaded by an inductor. Transformer is not handling any
active power now. It is passing on 250 kilowatt kVA of reactive power. Won't the transformer get heated
up?
50:51

Yes it will because it depends only on the RMS current. So whether it's 250 kilowatt going through the
transformer or 250 kilowatt going through the transformer, heating in the transformer is the same.

51:04

So RMS value of current is what matters when you talk about capacity of an equipment. So if you are
tying up capacity of equipment, by equipment I mean the transmission lines, transformers, even
generators, etc. So if you are tying up the capacity of various equipment by forcing them to carry reactive

51:33

naturally you won't have capacity to serve additional load.

51:41

Maybe because of load growth, a certain transmission line now has to carry a little extra power for the
new load, but it doesn't have capacity. Then you examine what it is doing right now. You see that it is, for
example, suppose it is carrying 80 megawatt of power, but the MVA is 100 MVA. So by carrying 100 MVA,
it is able to transfer only 80 megawatt. That is because there is reactive power.

52:12

Now suppose you can kill the reactive flow in that line, then it will carry 80 megawatt only. And MbA will
also be 80. And that will release 20 additional megawatt capacity. So you will be able to serve the new
load without making a new transmission.

52:32

So if you can release capacity of existing equipment, then you will be able to postpone construction of
new equipment, and you will be able to postpone huge investment for a few years. You will be able to
use the existing facilities to serve new load. You'll be able to do that without making new facilities. This is
what is meant by release of capacity.
52:58

When you release capacity, that released capacity is available for serving new load.

53:04

Okay, so how is capacity released? By reducing reactive power flow or by reducing reactive current. How
does it release capacity? When you reduce reactive current, the RMS value of current goes down.
Therefore, the I squared R heating in the equipment goes down. And therefore, it'll run at a lower
temperature. And therefore, the temperature can go higher if you want. That means you can put more
load on that equipment. More active load can be handled.

53:34

This is what is meant by release of capacity.

53:38

Now, where does this release of capacity take place? The answer is, from the bus where you are putting
the compensating equipment, from starting from there, capacity will be released everywhere up to
generating stations. Because usually when you put a compensation equipment at a bus, the line flows in
the lines, all lines in that bus will go down a little.

54:09

and therefore this reduced line flows will travel back, travel backward into the core of the power system.
Everywhere currents will go down. Of course, after a few buses or after a few hundreds of kilometers,
maybe the effect is going to be very, very small. But theoretically, the reduction in current will take place
everywhere up to generating stations. Voltage improvement will be there everywhere up to the inner
core of the power system.

54:39

But significant change will be seen only in the immediate vicinity of the bus at which you put the
compensating equipment. Maybe, you know, you take a bus and consider all the neighbouring buses, the
first layer, and then consider the second layer of neighbouring buses. Maybe up to second layer or third
layer, the effect of compensation will travel.
55:09

After that, maybe the effect is negligibly small, but theoretically the effect will travel up to the generating
stations. Therefore, capacity will be released everywhere in the system.

55:21

everywhere in the system starting from the bus to the generating stations not in the other direction. So if
you put a compensating equipment in the you know transmission system the sub-transmission system
will not get the benefit distribution system will not get the benefit but the transmission system and the
generation system will get the benefit. Similarly if you put a capacitor across an induction motor in your
industry or in your house

55:49

then the entire power system will get the benefit of that. Because the capacitor you put across an
induction motor in your house or in your industry will immediately bring down the line current of that
system. The current taken by the motor will be partially compensated by the capacitor, so the RMS value
of current drawn by the motor will come down. And this current will travel in the feeder. And finally, it
will go to the 440 volt bar 11 kV distribution transformer.

56:20

Therefore the 11 kV distribution transformer primary current also will go down a little and that will travel
to 110 kV system, 220 kV system and finally up to generating station. Everywhere the effect will be felt.
Everywhere release of capacity will take place and similarly everywhere reduction of system losses will
take place. Now the points number 4, 3, 4, 5 are conditional.

56:48

I am assuming that the system is heavily loaded and there is considerable lagging reactive flow
everywhere and that is why my capacitive compensation is able to reduce line flows and release capacity
and reduction of system losses. But if the system is under loaded, then using shunt capacitive
compensation unnecessarily will only produce increase in line flows and tying up of capacity and
increase of system losses.
57:17

because whether the lines carry in leading or lagging, they will carry high currents. Okay. So the idea is if
the lines, equipment, etc. are carrying large currents because of lagging reactive current, you kill part of
that lagging reactive current by using leading reactive current so that the RMS value of currents will go
down everywhere, so that line flows will come down everywhere.

57:46

capacity will get released everywhere and system losses will get reduced. By system losses I mean the
resistive power losses in various portions of the system. So done properly shunt capacitive compensation
will produce reduction of line flows and release of capacity of all equipment upstream. All equipment
upstream and reduction of system losses everywhere upstream.

58:15

compensation is affected up to generating station you will get reduction of losses.

58:22

Next point, increase of power transfer capability of lines and consequent increase in transient stability
limits.

58:32

If you are already familiar with transient stability, equal area criterion, power angle curve, et cetera, this
sixth point will make sense. Otherwise, I'll explain it later. Right now, take it as one of the beneficial
effects. You can increase the power transfer capability of lines and thereby increase the transient
stability margins by using shunt compensation. Similarly, improvement in voltage stability margins.

59:00

If you have studied what is meant by voltage stability, you will understand it. Otherwise, time permitting,
I will explain it later. There is something called voltage stability, similar to transient stability of machines.
We will discuss it later. And the last beneficial effect is, if the SVC or STATCOM can be controlled in a
rapid, fast manner, then another possibility opens up.
59:30

A power system is always in transient condition. It is never in steady state. The various controllers
involved in the power system, I mean the excitation control of all the generating stations, the turbine
governor control of all the generating stations, and various other control systems coming as a part of
power system, all these complicated multi-order control systems will render.

59:58

a large number of eigenvalues or poles to the system. So in response to any transient in the power
system, for example, somebody, some industry switching on a large load, or some industry switching off
a large motor, or some line in the sub-transition system or primary distribution system breaking, right?
Some small generator going out of action. So many such transients can be thought of.

01:00:27

Whenever such transients take place, these eigenvalues of the system will get energized or excited and
therefore the power system will contain a large number of transient waveforms.

01:00:40

These transient waveforms which arise in an electrical system as a result of some kind of disturbance are
generally expected to be tapered down to zero. Gradually they should disappear. We expect them to be
either decreasing exponential waveforms or decreasing and oscillating waveforms. Oscillatory
waveforms which are exponentially damped. That's what we expect. If all such transients are of that kind

01:01:07

after some time they will vanish and the system will settle and we will call the system stable, dynamically
stable.

01:01:16

But unfortunately in a power system, there could be some of these waveforms, transient waveforms,
which grow instead of decay, which cause instability. This problem is called dynamic instability. If any
such wave shape, transient waveform, fails to go down instead, increases in amplitude, then it's going to
be a big problem. We have to damp that oscillation.
01:01:46

So damping of power oscillations in lines and tie lines. This can be achieved by controlling the SVCR stat
com suitably. By suitably, I mean you'll have to use supplementary signals derived from the power
system. Supplementary signals like frequency, rate of change of frequency, angle of synchronous
machines, et cetera. So if you have such supplementary signals,

01:02:13

you may design a control system which will vary the amount of capacitive compensation in such a
manner that the resulting voltage variation of the bus will produce a damping effect on the power
oscillations. Power oscillations are damped by suitably manipulating the reactive power flows in the
lines.

01:02:41

reactive and active power flows. Power flows are manipulated by suitably changing the bus voltages. And
bus voltages are suitably changed by controlling the SVCs and STATCOMs suitably. All the suitably will
have to be studied theoretically properly. A lot of maths and control system theory involved in it. We can
always escape by saying suitably and all that, but it's a vast area with a lot of papers published in that
area.

01:03:10

anyone who's planning to do any further work in this eighth objective, he has to study quite a lot and
read a lot of papers before he can, you know, do something about it. But theoretically it is possible to
damp power oscillations in lines and tie lines by suitably varying shunt compensation levels.

01:03:37

We will, in the ensuing lectures, we will take up more quantitative analysis of many of these
improvements. For example, we will analyze shunt compensation for voltage support. That is, we are
focusing on this objective. We are doing compensation only because we want that beneficial effect.
That's going to be our first topic in the next lecture. Similarly,
01:04:07

we will look at a shunt compensation strategy, which is aimed at this beneficial effect and so on. So we'll
continue the topic in the next lecture.