Unit 4

Earthquake Hazards
Table of Contents
Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Lesson 1: Ground Shaking 5

Starting Out 5
Learn about It 6
Check Your Understanding 10
Explore Your World 11
Case Study 11

Lesson 2: Ground Rupture 12

Starting Out 12
Learn about It 13
Check Your Understanding 18
Explore Your World 19
Case Study 20

Lesson 3: Liquefaction 21

Starting Out 21
Learn about It 22
Check Your Understanding 25
Explore Your World 26
Case Study 26

Lesson 4: Earthquake-Induced Landslides 27

Starting Out 27
Learn about It 27
Check Your Understanding 33
Explore Your World 34

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 Case Study 34

Lesson 5: Tsunamis 35

Starting Out 35
Learn about It 36
Check Your Understanding 39
Explore Your World 40
Case Study 40

Real World Challenge 41

Check and Reflect 43

Wrap Up 44

Bibliography 45

Glossary 47

Answers to Check Your Understanding 58

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GRADE 11/12 |Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Unit 4

Earthquake Hazards
More than a thousand fatalities and billions of pesos worth of damage were reported on the
1990 Luzon earthquake. The 7.8 magnitude earthquake lasted for 45 seconds, destroyed
man-made structures and caused landslides and floods. Was it solely the severity of the
earthquake that has caused such an impact? What other factors have contributed to the
death toll and loss of property? In the succeeding lessons, we will be discussing earthquake
hazards, their effects, and how to manage them.

Fig. 1. Examples of impacts of earthquakes to structures and land surface.

clockwise from top left: P199, Loon 6 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0, P199, Tubigon 2 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0, P199, Catigbian 1
earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0,P199, Loon 2 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0.

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 ● What are earthquake hazards?
● What are the factors that affect ground shaking?
● How are potential hazards identified?
● How do earthquake hazards affect infrastructure?
● How can hazard maps be used in preparing for earthquake hazards?
● What can be done as a safety measure before, during, and after an
earthquake-related hazard?

In this unit, you should be able to:

● identify potential earthquake hazards;
● recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami;
● analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards;
● interpret different earthquake hazard maps; and
● apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake.

● Faults are breaks on the surface of the earth that generate earthquakes when it moves.
● The earth has three main layers: crust, mantle, and core.

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Earthquake is a natural event feared by many, even by those who have not recalled any
experience of it or its effects. Ground shaking and earthquake are usually used synonymously
because people perceive earthquake often when the ground below shakes without warning.
What are the factors that affect ground shaking?

A shake table is a device used to simulate the response of structures to shaking. In this
activity, you will construct your own shake simulation table using common household items.

You will need:

● 1 used manila folder,
● 16 popsicle sticks or barbecue sticks,
● small clump of modelling clay,
● 1 large empty box (shoe box or something similar).

The box represents the ground on which the building stands. Assemble your 4 buildings using
the used folder, sticks, and clay. Make sure that the base is fastened onto the box.

Simulate an earthquake. Hold the box with both hands and shake!

What happened to the makeshift building after the shaking?

How does it behave when shaken up and down and from side to side?
Will the outcome be different if you shook your table faster, or for a longer period of time?

What happens to things of the surface when there is an earthquake?

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An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large volumes
of rock along fractures on the surface of the earth called faults. The outermost shell of the
earth, which includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, consists of tectonic plates. These
are massive and irregularly shaped slabs of rock. Due to their roughness, the edges of these
plates get stuck while the plates continue moving. Eventually, when the plates move far
enough to overcome the friction of the fault and separate; the energy stored in the rocks is
released in the form of seismic waves.

As these waves travel through rocks beneath the earth, they radiate energy in all directions
like ripples on water. This produces the shaking felt on the surface.

There are two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
seismic waves that travel through the interior of the earth.

Fig. 1.How P waves and S waves move the ground.

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Primary (P) waves are the first waves that reach the surface of the earth and make the
ground shake. They move the ground back and forth along the direction they are traveling.
The shaking from P waves is light or sometimes not felt.

Secondary (S) waves are body waves that vibrate perpendicular to their propagation
direction, producing an up and down motion. They move slower but shake the ground more
strongly than P waves.

Surface waves are waves that are trapped near the surface. Love waves are surface waves
that have a horizontal motion perpendicular to the direction they are traveling. Rayleigh
waves shake the ground in a rotational manner with no transverse motion.

Fig. 2.How Rayleigh and Love waves move the ground

We now know how different seismic waves move and shake the ground. But how do we
quantify their motion? The severity of an earthquake is measured based on the energy it
releases, or its magnitude, and its effects on people and man-made structures, or what we
call intensity.

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 ● P waves and S waves are seismic waves that move through the interior of the earth.
Love waves, and Rayleigh waves, on the other hand, are surface waves.
● P waves push and pull. S waves move the ground up and down. Love waves
resemble snakes. Rayleigh’s waves roll.

Whether these are weak tremors or violent vibrations, ground shaking typically lasts for a few
seconds to a minute. However, there are rare instances wherein shaking exceeds 60 seconds.
An example of this is the 2004 Sumantran-Andaman earthquake, or the Indian Ocean
earthquake, which lasted for at least 10 minutes. This earthquake is also known to have
generated the longest surface rupture ever observed, and a devastating tsunami.

Frequency is the number of times a movement such as ground shaking is repeated within a
certain amount of time. High frequency earthquakes affect small buildings more than the high
rise ones. Think of it this way: a small boat will not be significantly rocked by a single huge
wave. However, if struck by rapid, successive waves, the boat can capsize. On the other hand,
large structures like skyscrapers will sway more when experiencing low-frequency earthquake
waves or a long, slow shaking.

Fig. 3. Buildings of different size respond to certain frequencies.

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As demonstrated in the warm up activity, ground shaking varies depending on (1) the type of
seismic wave involved, whether moving the box vertically and laterally, (2) the duration and
the frequency of the earthquake, like changing how long and how fast you shake the box.

The intensity of ground shaking is also influenced by the distance from the fault. Intuitively,
you would expect to feel ground shaking more strongly if you were closer to the fault. This is
true for most earthquakes, but you may also experience the same strength of shaking even if
you were farther because of the physical properties of the ground that the structure was built
on, and the structure itself.

When waves travel from hard (e.g. igneous rocks) to soft materials (e.g. limestone, sandstone,
alluvium) and lose velocity, they must undergo an increase in amplitude to maintain the same
amount of energy. Hence, shaking is felt more strongly in areas with soft rock, where seismic
waves move slower.

How a building is constructed can increase or decrease the damage from ground shaking as
well. Numerous studies on earthquakes that have occurred in different parts of the world
show that high mortality rates are a consequence of poorly constructed buildings. In 2010, a
magnitude 7 earthquake struck Haiti and left more than 316,000 dead or missing, 300,000
injured, and more than 1 million people homeless. Most of the buildings destroyed were
found to have been constructed without considering earthquake hazards. Columns had
minimal reinforcement which made the buildings vulnerable to earthquake damage.

Ground shaking is the primary cause of earthquake damage to man-made structures. It

causes buildings and other infrastructures to collapse which may result to injuries or
casualties. In cases where it breaks water dams, flash floods may occur. Fire is a secondary
hazard if the shaking sufficiently damages electric and gas lines. Ground shaking also triggers
other earthquake hazards such as landslides and liquefaction.

It is not impossible to minimize the damage caused by ground shaking. Thorough geologic site
investigation, stricter building code implementations, and earthquake-resistant construction
are some ways of doing this.

Knowing the characteristics of the ground you intend to build a structure on can help reduce
potential ground shaking damage. You may opt to avoid constructing in an area if the
underlying material amplifies ground shaking.

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A building code is a set of rules that set standards on the construction of buildings. If
properly implemented, it can ensure that buildings are constructed properly, can survive an
earthquake with minimal damage, and therefore, not endanger the occupants.
Earthquake-resistant buildings are by no means immune to earthquakes, but will sustain less
damage than their conventional counterparts.

A. Recall / Comprehension Questions

1. What are the types of surface waves?

2. Small buildings are more affected by _______ frequency earthquakes, while tall buildings
are more affected by _______ frequency earthquakes.
3. Which seismic wave is felt first?
4. What is the measure of an earthquake’s effect to people and properties?
5. What is the measure of an earthquake’s energy?

B. Application, Analysis

1. Why does the ground shake during an earthquake?

2. Why do soft underlying materials amplify ground shaking?
3. How does the quality of construction affect the building’s capacity to withstand
damages from ground shaking?
4. If an earthquake strikes the Philippines, which of the four seismic waves is sure to be
detected on the other side of the world? Briefly explain your answer.

C. Synthesis and evaluation

1. Which of the four seismic waves do you think would cause the most destruction? Why?

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The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PhIVOLCS) in collaboration with the
Association of Structural Engineers (ASEP) developed a method in evaluating the earthquake
safety of concrete hollow block (CHB) houses in the Philippines. This test shall assess how
much you know about your house and will improve your earthquake disaster awareness.

You may find the Self-check for Earthquake Safety of Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) Houses in
the Philippines in this website:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/Flyer-How-Safe-Is-Your-House.pdf

Based on your score, what do you think should be the next step in preparing for ground
shaking? List down what you can do in order to minimize the damage to your house.

Prediction, Preparation, Predicament

On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck Haiti, claiming an estimated 300,000
lives and destroying nearly half of the structures within the area of the epicenter. The country
is poor with less than 10% and 3% having access to potable water and electricity, respectively.
There are only few seismologists, and limited data on previous earthquakes that can help them
prepare for future ones. The building code exists, but is outdated and not well-implemented,
which allowed the construction of buildings in places where they should not be made, and with
substandard materials.

Let us Investigate!
The Philippines has data on previous historical earthquakes and has agencies monitoring
movements of known active faults. Efforts have been made towards disseminating information
on disaster risk management. Comparing the conditions of the Philippines to pre-2010
earthquake Haiti, how do you think our country will fare in the event of a similar disaster?
How prepared is the Philippines?
What factors could lead to a repeat of the destruction caused by the 1990 Luzon earthquake or
to a devastation similar to that experience in Haiti?

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In the movies, earthquakes are depicted dramatically by showing the ground literally splitting
or rupturing within a short period of time. What is ground rupture? What causes ground
rupture?

Study the image showing one of the effects of the earthquake in Bohol in 2013. What
damages or changes can you infer based on the picture? What do you think are the
movements below the surface that caused these changes. List at least three inferences from
your observations and share them in class.

Fig. 1. Ground ruptures from the October 15, 2013, earthquake; Catigbian, Bohol, Philippines
P199, Catigbian 2 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0

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 Fig. 2. Block diagrams showing the events leading up to ground rupture.

Ground rupture is the visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along the
trace of a fault. It may be a vertical movement, a lateral movement, or a combination of both,
depending on the type of fault generating it.

Strike-slip faults are vertical or near-vertical faults that displace rock horizontally. If the block
opposite you when looking across a fault moves to the left, it is a sinistral (or left-lateral) fault.
If the block moves to the right, it is a dextral (or right-lateral) fault.

Fig. 3. Sense of movement for sinistral and dextral faults

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 An example of strike-slip fault ground rupture
was observed in California. During the 1906
magnitude 7.8 San Francisco earthquake,
fences were offset (or pulled apart) by as much
as 7 meters.

This earthquake has also misaligned once

continuous linear features such as mountain
ridges and streams. It is normal for rivers to
have curves and bends, but if these changes in
direction occur at right angles, a fault must
have been involved.

Normal faults are characterized by the downward movement of the hanging wall with respect
to the footwall. Reverse or thrust faults are faults which move the hanging wall up. These
faults are dip-slip faults, which causes a vertical displacement of the ground.

Fig. 5. Sense of movement for normal and reverse faults

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In the following examples, we will see that a fault can have both strike-slip and dip-slip
components. A fault can be both normal and strike-slip (either sinistral or dextral), or reverse
and strike-slip. But it can never, at the same time, be both sinistral and dextral strike-slip, or
both normal and reverse. The primary type of a fault depends on which slip component is
predominant or more obvious.

During the early morning of 21st of September 1999, a magnitude 7.6 earthquake, which
would be Taiwan’s greatest shake for the 20th century, struck near the town of Chi-Chi, 7 km
underground. This caused over 2,300 fatalities and 8,700 injuries in five severely devastated
towns alone, not to mention the other surrounding towns.

Fig. 6. Reverse fault ground rupture in Taichung, Taiwan

Oregon State University, Running track after 1999 Chichi earthquake in Taiwan, CC BY-SA 2.0

The force of this earthquake came a long way, built-up from Philippine Sea Plate colliding with
the Eurasian plate. This pent-up force was released along a 75-km long rupture with the
primarily left-lateral strike-slip of the Chelungpu fault. Aside from being a strike-slip fault,
Chelungpu fault also had vertical movements during the quake, which is of normal or reverse
fault. The rupture raised half of the fault by 1 meter in some areas, and as much as 8 meters
in the case of the Tachia River. This 8-meter rise destroyed a bridge and formed a new
waterfall.

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Chi-Chi Earthquake was Taiwan’s largest for the 20th century, and this earthquake has a
Philippine counterpart. It occurred nine years before the one in Chi-Chi, by the same
accumulating forces from the long colliding Philippine Sea Plate and Eurasian Plate with the
Philippines sandwiched in between.

On 16 July 1990, the emphasis of being continuously squeezed between two plates was partly
released through a 125-km-long rupture along the left-lateral strike-slip of the Philippine Fault
Zone and its major branch, the Digdig Fault, running from Dingalan, Aurora to Kayapa, Nueva
Vizcaya. Ground rupture is usually not a single simple lengthy linear break (primary), but
rather, a complex zone of secondary faults and fractures which could be parallel, branching,
or meshed to the primary fault. In the case of this earthquake, branched faults and fractures
reached up to 500 meters away from the primary fault. The widths, of which, range from a few
centimeters to hundreds of meters, with the underlying material affecting them. Faults and
fractures that run through solid bedrock are generally narrower than those that run through
soft substrate like sand and mud.

Although the Philippine Fault Zone and Digdig Faults are primarily left-lateral strike-slip, there
was also significant vertical movements (as in normal or reverse faulting) during the rupture,
enough to toss boulders around. Local large-scale flooding, damming, and water diversions
occurred as agricultural structures and water systems were disrupted by the quake. Rice fields
on the side of the fault that was raised could no longer be irrigated while those on the other
side had been flooded. Fortunately, no casualty was reported during the ground rupture.

Another notable earthquake that struck the Philippines is the 7.2-magnitude earthquake in
Bohol. It happened on the 15th of October 2013, originating 6 km below the ground surface of
Sagbayan, Bohol. This time, it was caused by a reverse fault.

The East Bohol Fault, the only known one active in the island, was suspected to have
generated the earthquake, but the evidence points to the village of Anonang, municipality of
Inabanga. What once was a gently sloping open ground, became a 3-meter-tall and 5-km-long
wall of rock and soil. The earthquake ripped half of the ground up along the fault towards the
other half, the kind of motion that a reverse fault would cause. And because of this
earthquake event, this previously unknown fault has been named the Inabanga Fault.

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 Fig. 7. Reverse fault ground rupture in Inabanga, Bohol
Jhoven Sulla at English Wikipedia, North Bohol fault, CC BY-SA 4.0

There is no effective engineering measure for ground rupture. Any building or infrastructure
resting on a fault or near it is susceptible to ground rupture. The best you can do is to avoid
building structures on faults or within the recommended minimum buffer zone of at least 5
meters from either side of the active fault trace.

● Strike-slip faults cause lateral (dextral or sinistral) movement.

● Dip-slip faults cause vertical (normal or reverse) movement.
● Ground rupture can be a combination or lateral and vertical movements such as
left-lateral normal, right-lateral reverse, left-lateral reverse, right-lateral normal.

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A. Recall / Comprehension
Complete the table. Describe how the faults move.

Fault type Description

Dextral (right-lateral)

Reverse

Left-lateral normal

Right-lateral reverse

Right-lateral normal

B. Application, Analysis
1. How are the ground ruptures produced by dip-slip faults different from
strike-slip ground ruptures?
2. Consider a beach front property where subsidence or downward movement
of land have occurred. If you were the owner of this property, would you
continue expanding your resort? Why or why not?
3. You always pass by a creek on your way to school. One day, about the time
you got up, you were awakened by a minute-long tremor, as if your
grandfather clock had a bass sound system instead of a cuckoo. As you travel
to school, you notice that the creek is gone, and there’s a pond of water
beside. What could have happened?
4. How can the earth create a waterfall within minutes?

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C. Synthesis and evaluation

Years ago, you planted a mango tree and took very good care of it. In all those years, you have
known every single part of that tree. Now, that mango tree is bearing fruits that are glean,
pest-resistant, and sweeter than your average mango.

One day, you were invited by your relatives to come over for a week to a distant town. During
that same week, your neighbor was out on a business trip. When both of you came back, you
find mess all over the place, and your mango tree somehow is now in your neighbor’s yard.
Both of you are dismayed and confused. You do not want to give up your tree, but it looks like
your neighbor’s having an interest to this new addition. How will you explain to your neighbor
that the mango tree is really yours?

Imagine your room as it is right now. Now imagine what would it be like the when you come
home from school. Imagine that a dextral reverse fault has run through it. What would it look
now?

In an A4 paper, draw what your room would look like. Try to fill in as many details and colors
as possible, but be realistic. Bear in mind the sense of movement of the fault.

● Do you think a fault like that would also slice your bed in half if the bed was in the
fault’s way? Will the legs of the bed be broken?
● What things would fly across the room?
● Where will your cat or dog or fish be?
● How will the fault rearrange the things in your room?
● Explain why you picture your room like that after it has been subjected to a right-lateral
reverse fault.

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The Philippines is sandwiched between two colliding tectonic plates: the Eurasian plate
to the west and the Philippine Sea plate to the east. Stress of continental proportions is
breaking the Philippines in half along the Philippine Fault Zone. This fault zone runs
1,200 km from northwestern Philippines down to southeastern Philippines, and little by
little through small and occasionally large earthquakes, stress from the collision is being
released here. The Philippine Fault Zone is generally sinistral, and it is the immediate
effect of the collision on the Philippines.

What can you infer about the direction the Philippine Sea Plate is heading with respect
to the Philippines?

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There are cases wherein water rising from the ground as the ground shakes. Sometimes,
witnesses would describe the ground seemingly act like a liquid during an earthquake. Those
descriptions of earthquake impacts are associated with the phenomenon called liquefaction.
What is liquefaction?

The effects of earthquakes and earthquake hazards are often amplified in areas with
loosely-consolidated, saturated sediments. Buildings and infrastructure are usually erected on
this type of material, particularly in the case of cities.

In this activity, we will attempt to simulate the effect of shaking on sand and water. You will
need:
● a plastic container,
● sand, enough to fill said container,
● water,
● toy houses, wooden blocks, or lego figures,
● black marker

Pour the sand into the container. Note the height of the sediments by drawing a line. Slowly
add water enough to wet the sand but not enough to flood it. Place your toy houses, wooden
blocks, or lego figures on the ‘ground’ you created.

Start an earthquake!

Was the top part of the sand still dry? Or did water rise to the surface? What happened to the
toy houses after the shaking? Did the level of the sand change with respect to the mark you
drew earlier? What causes liquefaction?

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Liquefaction occurs when the ground loses stiffness and behaves like liquid in response to
earthquakes. When shaking happens, grains of the underlying material vibrate and undergo
compaction, wherein the sediments are compressed and fluids in the pore spaces are
squeezed out. As a result of the decrease in the spaces between grains, the pore water
pressure increases. When the pore water pressure is equal to the weight of the overlying
material, liquefaction occurs.

Fig. 1. Liquefaction caused by the 1964 magnitude 7.5-7.6 Niigata earthquake

The ground becomes unable to support the structures on top of it, causing buildings to tilt on
their sides and/or sink into the ground. Objects underground like pipes and storage tanks can
literally float to the surface. In some cases, groundwater rises and causes flood.

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 Fig. 2. Flooding as a result of liquefaction following a 2011 earthquake
in the Canterbury Region, New Zealand.
Peter Prue, The Palms in liquefaction, CC BY-SA 2.0

Liquefaction is affected by different factors such as duration, intensity of the shaking,

proximity to the fault, density of infrastructure in the area, and geology. Stronger, prolonged
shaking produces a greater degree of liquefaction. Liquefaction at depth can cause geysers of
sand and water to shoot from the ground, a phenomenon called sand boils.

Fig. 3. Sand boil in the Colorado Desert region, Southern California after the 1979
Imperial Valley earthquake

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Most earthquake hazards in areas closer to the fault or earthquake-generating structure are
more likely to experience the brunt of liquefaction. However, this does not necessarily mean
that places distal to the source of the shaking will be spared. Research on earthquakes
occurring in different areas by Leeder (1982) shows that liquefaction affect areas as far as
hundreds of kilometers away from the epicenter.

Denser infrastructure or
more buildings in a certain
area contributes to the
weight of the sediments. It is
for this reason that the
impact of liquefaction on
populated centers is more
severe as compared with the
less populated or
underdeveloped areas.

Loosely-packed, saturated
sediments are especially
vulnerable to this earthquake
hazard. Most urban
communities are built upon
such materials. In the case
for Metro Manila,
liquefaction susceptibility
maps have been prepared by
PHIVOLCS to monitor
potential liquefaction sites
and to disseminate this
information to the public.
You can find these and other
hazard maps on their
website.

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 ● In liquefaction, the ground is unable to support the structures on top of it, causing
buildings to tilt and/or sink into the ground.
● Liquefaction is affected by the duration and intensity of the shaking, proximity to
the fault, density of structures on the surface; and the kind of materials underneath
the surface.

A. Recall / Comprehension
1. What is liquefaction?
2. What happens to pore spaces in liquefaction?
3. What kind of materials undergo compaction when the ground vibrates?
4. Sand boils are geysers of water and sand that are caused by ___________.

B. Application, Analysis
1. What happens to loosely-consolidated and saturated sediments during ground
shaking?
2. Which areas in Metro Manila are most prone to liquefaction, based from the hazard
map?
3. Why is the impact of liquefaction more severe in urban areas than in rural areas?

C. Synthesis and evaluation

1. How will stiffer, drier materials behave during an earthquake compared to more
saturated, less indurated rocks or sediments?

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If you have done the activities in the previous lessons, you should have a good idea of the
structure of your house, the properties of the ground it stands on, and the nearest faults or
earthquake-generating structures surrounding it.

Is your house and the surrounding area likely to experience liquefaction? Illustrate what you
think will happen if your town/city is struck by an earthquake.

Liquefaction Action, Possible Big One Reaction?

Consider the popular “Big One,” a magnitude 7.2 earthquake to be generated by the West Valley
Fault. This predicted magnitude is lower than the 1990 Luzon earthquake. However, it is not
something to be belittled. Given the population and urbanization of Metro Manila, the effects
are expected to be devastating.

Let us Investigate!
Keeping in mind the geology of the area, the overlying man-made structures, and the strength
of the earthquake, what degree of liquefaction can you expect from the “Big One?”
Do you think it will be similar to the liquefaction caused by the 1990 Luzon earthquake?

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Landslides sometimes occur during or after an earthquake. How does an earthquake
induce a landslide?

Starting Out

Have you ever noticed that most of the landslides reported on the news are usually associated
with heavy rain or typhoons? You hear terms like debris flow, avalanche, slope failure, and the
culprit is often because of human activities such as deforestation and mining.

Can landslides occur occur without any human influence?

Is rainfall the only natural trigger for landslides?

Mass wasting, more commonly known as a landslide, is the downslope movement of rocks
or sediments under the influence of gravity. It is the process that follows weathering or the
removal of rock or debris from their original source. Landslides can be triggered by factors
such as heavy or prolonged rain, oversteepened slopes, removal of vegetation, and
earthquakes.

An example of a landslide due to an earthquake occurred on July 6, 2017 when a magnitude

6.5 earthquake struck the island of Leyte. The epicenter was located 15.5 km northeast of
Ormoc City. This earthquake triggered liquefaction and landslides that resulted to damages of
up to at least Php 271M.In this lesson, we shall focus on earthquake-induced landslides.

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 Fig. 1. Building crushed by a landslide due to an earthquake that hit
Canterbury region, New Zealand in 2011.
Schwede66, Sumner RSA, CC BY-SA 3.0

Vibrations from an earthquake and its aftershocks can displace significant amounts of rock or
sediment. For an earthquake to induce landslides, the following factors must be considered:
the strength of the earthquake, the distance from the fault, topography, climate, and the
characteristics of the rock or soil.

Keefer (1984) determined that the minimum magnitude required to trigger a landslide is 4.0.
The 2006 Guinsaugon landslide in Southern Leyte was the result of a magnitude 2.6
earthquake. It is important to note, however, that other factors were at play in this disaster.
Aside from the earthquake, the landslide was also caused by intense, prolonged rainfall and
creep. Creep is the gradual, almost imperceptible downward displacement of sloping rock or
soil caused by buildup of significant strain.

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 Fig. 2. Effects of the 2006 Guinsaugon earthquake, Southern Leyte

Earthquake-induced landslides are more likely to occur in areas located at a certain distance
from the fault. In the case of the 1990 Luzon earthquake, landslides were not confined to the
immediate vicinity of the Digdig segment of the Philippine Fault. They were observed as far as
Lagayan, Abra in the north, Dingalan, Aurora in the southeast, and Agoo, La Union in the west.
These locations are hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter.

Specific topographies have a greater likelihood of experiencing earthquake-induced

landslides. These landslides typically occur in hilly and mountainous areas, especially in
portions where the slope is cut to build roads and other man-made structures. Moderate to
steep slopes promote the gravity-driven movement of rock and sediments.

Extended periods of rainfall increase the moisture content of the soil/sediments on a slope,
making these materials more susceptible to earthquake-induced failure. This was what

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happened during the 2006 Guinsaugon earthquake and landslide. Southern Leyte
experienced excessive rainfall on the days leading to the earthquake on February 17, 2006.
The Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA)
reported a rainfall of 683.6 mm from February 8-14.

The characteristics of the rock or soil in an area affects the occurrence of earthquake-induced
landslides. Old, weathered rocks are more prone to collapse from ground shaking than
younger, relatively unweathered ones. Loose, unconsolidated materials are more likely to fall
in the event of an earthquake than indurated rock. However, when the rock (even an
indurated one) has fractures and other planes of weaknesses, earthquake-induced landslides
may occur.

How soon a landslide occurs after an earthquake varies. It can be abrupt, giving you little time
to prepare or flee. In some cases, there are warning signs you can watch out for. These
include:
● cracks or bulges in the road or ground that weren’t there before;
● increased soil content in streams;
● leaning poles or walls;
● a rumbling sound that grows louder (indicating the approach of a landslide); and
● unusual sounds such as cracking trees and colliding rocks.

The effects of earthquake-induced landslides can be minimized by avoiding construction on or

near steep slopes and natural drainage ways. Knowing what kind of material your house is
built on and if there are any nearby faults or earthquake-generating structures can help you
plan what to do and evacuate, when necessary. Stabilizing slopes or walls of rock also reduces
the chances of an earthquake-induced landslide.

The following factors affect the occurence of an earthquake-induced landslide: the strength
of the earthquake, the distance from the fault, topography, climate, and the characteristics
of the rock or soil, and the man-made changes or structures on the area.

30
An earthquake-induced landslide susceptibility map is useful in determining vulnerable areas.
Maps prepared by PHIVOLCS for the different regions of the Philippines are available on their
website. These take into consideration two factors: critical acceleration and intensity.

Fig. 3. Earthquake-induced landslide susceptibility map of the Philippines based on critical acceleration values
and intensities
Image from http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/EIL/eil_phils.pdf

Note that the legend includes two intensity scales, the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI),
and the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS). Both scales do not have a
mathematical basis; the levels are based on the effects of the earthquake observed. Higher
numbers indicate greater structural damage or shaking felt. PEIS was developed specifically
for the Philippine setting and takes into account the geography and geology of the country.

31
Intensity Description

I Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly.
Still Water in containers oscillates slowly.

II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates
noticeably.

III Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck.
Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates
moderately.

IV Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is
felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors
and walls of wood framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

V Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some
run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and
clink; some are broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing
vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.

VI Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat
tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly
built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and
rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.

VII Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and
furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built
structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block walls.
Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by
which loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like liquid).

VIII Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or
broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and
sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple.
Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly
near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or
banks of rivers.

IX Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges
and elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or
broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sand boils are
widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are
commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slopes over dikes and banks.

X Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale
subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive
seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

Fig. 4. PhIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

image from http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=100

32
A. Recall / Comprehension
1. Mass wasting or landslide is the process that follows ____________.
2. What are the observable signs of an impending landslide about to happen or
may already be occurring. Enumerate them below.
a. __________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________________________________
d. __________________________________________________________________________

B. Application, Analysis
1. How does topography affect earthquake-induced landslides?
2. What is the difference between the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale and the
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale?

C. Synthesis and evaluation

1. How can you determine whether a landslide is earthquake or rainfall-induced?

33
Pick a partner, if your class has an odd number of students they can work in triads. Research
about the different visual materials which present signs of an impending earthquake-induced
landslide.

Assemble your visual materials in the form of an infographic. Present it to the class. Consider
forwarding your work to the disaster management team of your school as possible future
visual aids for disaster preparedness activities.

As A Mapmaker...

Agencies or institutions involved in geosciences and disaster risk reduction have studied and
mapped potential areas in the Philippines for earthquake-induced landslides. The map by
PHIVOLCs is based on critical acceleration and intensities.

If you were to make an earthquake-induced landslide susceptibility map, consider the following:

1. How would you do it?

2. Will you restrict yourself to the aforementioned factors?
3. Will you consider using other factors such as geology or density of infrastructure?
4. What will be the skills composition of your team?

34
Big waves are commonly seen on the ocean surface and these waves are often enjoyed by
surfers. However, a certain type of ocean waves known as tsunami, are too big and
considered dangerous, even by communities near the shore. What is a tsunami and how
does it form?

Throughout the lessons in this unit, you are learning about earthquake hazards that occur on
land. But how about underwater earthquakes? What do you think happens when the shaking
occur beneath the sea or ocean?

Study the picture below. Share with a partner what you think about the possible impacts of a
tsunami based on the picture.

Fig. 1. People fleeing from tsunami in Ao Nang, Krabi Province, Thailand

What can be done to prevent or reduce the impacts of earthquakes and tsunamis?

35
A tsunami is a series of waves generated by large-scale displacements of water which are
usually triggered by earthquakes or major submarine landslides. It is a Japanese word which
translates to ‘harbor wave’ (tsu meaning ‘harbor’ and nami meaning ‘wave’).

When an earthquake occurs beneath the sea, the water above the affected area moves
upward and produces tsunamis. These waves initially have a small height but grow as they
move through shallower depths, a process called wave shoaling, and approach the shore.

Similar to seismic waves traveling from hard to soft material, tsunamis lose velocity as they
move across lower water depths. This decrease in velocity is compensated by an increase in
amplitude or wave height.

A tsunami that is only hundreds of centimeters offshore can grow up to hundreds of meters!
Such was the case for the 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami which had a record height of 524 m.

Fig. 2. Block diagrams showing tsunami generation at a subduction zone.

Tsunamis usually originate from earthquakes that occur in subduction zones. Subduction
zones are sites at convergent boundaries, where two or more tectonic plates collide,
wherein one plate descends (subducts) beneath another. The downward movement of the
subducting plate is driven by temperature. Colder lithosphere is denser and will sink.

A tsunami can be local or regional. Local tsunamis are from a nearby source. They are
confined to coasts within 100 km or the distance they travel within less than an hour. An
example of this is the 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan. On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.1
earthquake occurred offshore east of Tohoku along the subduction zone where the Pacific
Plate and the Eurasian Plate collide.

36
Regional tsunamis affect a wide geographical area, typically within 1,000 km or 1-3 hours of
the wave travel time. The 2004 Sumatran-Andaman earthquake (and tsunami), for instance,
devastated not only the islands near its epicenter Sumatra, but also countries surrounding the
Indian Ocean such as India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Africa, and the Maldives.

The damage and destruction from tsunamis depend on the degree of flooding, wave impact
on structures, and erosion. A tsunami may only induce flooding similar to an increase in tide
levels. In some cases, it causes intense inundation which can move and overturn buildings
and cars.

Fig. 3. A boat is among debris in after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami in 2011 in Japan.

Wave impact can be strong enough to break walls and building frames. Death by drowning or
physical trauma is also a common consequence. Debris from damaged structures can be
carried by the current, adding to the destructive force of the tsunami. Tsunamis can erode
foundations and coasts, leading to the collapse of structures within the vicinity.

37
Tsunamis can be predicted, as was done for the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. However, the
magnitude of the tsunami and the devastation it had caused were beyond what had been
anticipated.

Tsunamis are detected by open-ocean buoys and tide gauges, which monitor and report any
changes in sea level. An earthquake of magnitude 7.5 is enough to put into effect a tsunami
watch. When a tsunami is observed to have passed that triggered the tide stations, a tsunami
warning is issued and evacuation procedures are then followed.

You can check if a tsunami is approaching. The following are some natural signs of an
impending tsunami:
● prolonged, severe ground shaking;
● receding sea level or retreating ocean, exposing rocks, fish, and corals in the ocean
bottom;
● loud ‘roaring’ similar to the sound of a freight train or aircraft; and
● a huge incoming wall of water.

If you find yourself in such a situation, evacuate to higher ground immediately. Stay clear of
any low-lying or coastal areas even after the first wave has struck. Tsunamis arrive in series of
waves that may be several hours apart.

● Tsunamis usually originate from underwater earthquakes due to movements in

subduction zones.
● Tsunamis can be predicted but the damage and destruction it will cause cannot be
precisely anticipated.

38
A. Recall / Comprehension
1. Colder lithosphere tends to be ___________ than warmer ones.
2. What do you call the descending plate in a subduction zone?
3. Some signs of an impending tsunami are:
a. __________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________________________________
d. __________________________________________________________________________

B. Application, Analysis
1. How do tsunamis grow?
2. How does the tsunami warning system work?

C. Synthesis and evaluation

1. How can the extent of damage of a local tsunami be elevated to that of a
regional one?

39
The typical response to an incoming tsunami is to run and seek higher ground. If you are living
in a coastal area or on a beach vacation, you will have to move away from the shore.

What is your emergency evacuation plan? You should take into account nearby, safe
temporary settlements, basic supplies, and actions to be taken in the aftermath.

Shake, Rattle, and Rolling Waves

The Philippine Fault Zone is a generally sinistral fault that runs practically through the entire
length of the archipelago, and it is the immediate effect of the collision on the Philippines. It is
known to have caused several major earthquakes with varying degrees of destruction and
damage throughout the country.

Do you think this fault or segments of this fault can trigger tsunamis, particularly in relation to
the “Big One?” Explain your answer.

40
Your goal is to make sure that the school is ready for the conduct of the nationwide quarterly
earthquake preparedness drill. You are part of the school DRR volunteers and your team is
assigned to assess the level of readiness of your school in case of an earthquake. Your team
will conduct an assessment and create a report with recommendations to the school
administration.

Your DRR team will design and implement data-collection activities to determine the status of
the following:

1. knowledge of the students and staff on what to do in case of earthquake

2. physical hazards that can increase the severity of earthquake impacts
3. school’s preparedness, response, and evacuation plan
4. level of preparedness of students and staff in responding to earthquake

Your team will document and use the data collected to make an assessment of the school’s
earthquake readiness. Your team will also create recommendations based on the assessed
readiness level of the school.

The DRR assessment and recommendations report will be rated based on the following:

Criteria Beginning Developing Accomplished (17-20

(0-12 points) (13-16 points) points)

lacking assessment/ assessment is based on assessment is based on

recommendation; or evidences gathered but evidences gathered and
assessment was not recommendations are recommendations are
evidently based on data lacking or mostly lacks sound, practical, and
collected or the theoretical basis from clearly based on the
recommendations were concepts learned about concepts learned about
not derived from earthquake hazards earthquake hazards
concepts learned about
earthquake hazards

41
Criteria Beginning Developing Accomplished (17-20
(0-12 points) (13-16 points) points)

most required details are most required details are all required details are
missing; summaries are present; lacks present; organized and in
given; lacks organization organization and correct sequence; with
and coherence; lacks coherence; lacks visual photos, tables, or graphs
visual organizers or organizers or photo included; well written
photo documentation; documentation; needs (coherent, correct style
needs improvement in improvement in writing. and grammar)
writing.

plan is not sound or will plan is sound and plan is sound and
not achieve most of the achieves most of the achieves objectives;
objectives; objectives; implementation is done
implementation lacks implementation needs correctly, organized, and
organization; no data improvement; most of in a timely manner;
gathered or are not the important details important details were
evidently factual and were included; data included; data gathered
from actual conduct of gathered are evidently are evidently factual and
activities factual but incomplete from actual conduct of
activities

42
Check I can…

...identify potential earthquake hazards.

...recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami.

...analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards.

...interpret different earthquake and hazard maps.

...apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an

earthquake.

Reflect

I find __________________________ the most interesting because ______________________.

I got ____ checks because _______________________________________________________.
I need to improve on _______________________because _____________________________.
I need to practice _________________________ because _____________________________.
I plan to _____________________________________________________________________ .

43
● An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large
volumes of rock along fractures on the surface of the earth called faults.
● Ground rupture is the visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along
the trace of a fault.
● Liquefaction occurs when the ground loses stiffness and behaves like liquid in response
to earthquakes.
● Landslides can be triggered by factors such as heavy or prolonged rain, oversteepened
slopes, removal of vegetation, and earthquakes.
● A tsunami is a series of waves generated by large-scale displacements of water which
are usually triggered by earthquakes or major submarine landslides.

44
Aurelio, M. A., Pena, R. E., Taguibao, K. J. L. “Sculpting the Philippine archipelago since the
Cretaceous through rifting, oceanic spreading, subduction, obduction, collision and
strike-slip faulting: contribution to IGMA5000.” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013),
102-107.

CNN. "2011 Japan Earthquake - Tsunami Fast Facts." March 05, 2017. Accessed January 23,
2018
http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/17/world/asia/japan-earthquake---tsunami-fast-facts/ind
ex.html/.

DesRoches, Reginald, et al. "Overview Of The 2010 Haiti Earthquake". Earthquake Spectra 27,
no. 1 (2011): S1-S21. doi:10.1193/1.3630129.

International Tsunami Information Center. “Natural Warning Signs - International Tsunami

Information Center.” Accessed January 23, 2018.
http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1019%3A5&c
atid=1142&Itemid=2433.

Keefer, D.K. “Landslides caused by earthquake.” Geological Society of America Bulletin no. 95,
406-421.

Leeder, Mike R. Sedimentology: Process and Product. Dordrecht: Springer, 1982.

Ma, K.-F., Lee, C.-T., Tsai, Y.-B. “The Chi-Chi, Taiwan Earthquake: Large Surface Displacements
on an Inland Thrust Fault.” Eos 80, no. 50 (1999), 605-620.

Manila Bulletin. “Quake damage reaches P271 M.” Published July 11, 2017. Accessed January
24, 2018. https://news.mb.com.ph/2017/07/11/quake-damage-reaches-p271-m/.

National Geographic News. “Tsunami Fact: How They Form, Warning Signs, and Safety Tips.”
Accessed January 24, 2018.
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/04/070402-tsunami_2.html.

Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards. “Guinsaugon Landslide (2006) in Southern

Leyte” last modified February 17, 2006.
http://center.noah.up.edu.ph/guinsaugon-landslide-2006-in-southern-leyte/.

45
Obermeier, Stephen F. “Use of liquefaction-induced features for paleoseismic analysis — An
overview of how seismic liquefaction features can be distinguished from other features
and how their regional distribution and properties of source sediment can be used to
infer the location and strength of Holocene paleo-earthquakes.” Engineering Geology, no.
44 (1996), 1-76.

Ohio Division of Geological Survey. "HANDS ON EARTH SCIENCE." Modified by the California
Geological Survey a.
http://www2.ohiodnr.com/geosurvey/publications-maps-data/freedownloads/hands-on-
activities.

Pacific Northwest Seismic Network. “Surface Rupture.” Accessed January 16, 2018.
https://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakehazards/surface-rupture.

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. "Liquefaction Susceptibility Map."

Accessed January 23, 2018.
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=418&I
temid=500026.

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. “The 15 October 2013 Magnitude 7.2
Bohol Earthquake” last modified December 2013.
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/attachments/article/3140/boholeq_2013.pdf

Punongbayan, Raymundo, Rolly Rimando, Jessie Daligdig, Glenda Besana, Arturo Daag,
Takashi Nakata, and Hiroyuki Tsutsumi. "The 16 July 1990 Luzon Earthquake Ground
Rupture". Accessed January 15, 2018.
http://202.90.128.67/html/update_SOEPD/1990LuzonEQ_Monograph/pp001/pp011_016.
html.

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. “PRIMER ON THE 06 JULY 2017

MAGNITUDE 6.5 LEYTE EARTHQUAKE 07 July 2017.” Accessed January 24, 2018.
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7641:
primer-on-the-06-july-2017-magnitude-65-leyte-earthquake-07-july-2017&catid=60:latest-
news&Itemid=19.

Punongbayan, Raymundo, Rolly Rimando, Jessie Daligdig, Glenda Besana, Arturo Daag,
Takashi Nakata, and Hiroyuki Tsutsumi. "The 16 July 1990 Luzon Earthquake Ground
Rupture". Accessed January 15, 2018.
http://202.90.128.67/html/update_SOEPD/1990LuzonEQ_Monograph/pp001/pp011_016.
html.

46
Tarbuck, Edward J, and Frederick K Lutgens. Earth Science. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2012.

United States Geological Survey. “Earthquake Glossary.” Accessed January 15, 2018.
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/.

United States Geological Survey. “How Seismic Waves Affect Different Size Buildings.” Accessed
January 16, 2018. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/buildings-eqs.php.

United States Geological Survey. “Earthquake Glossary.” Accessed January 23, 2018.
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/.

United States Geological Survey. “Landslide Preparedness.” Accessed January 23, 2018.
https://landslides.usgs.gov/lear

Glossary
Bedrock - solid unweathered rock that lies beneath the unconsolidated surface materials
(such as soil)
Epicenter - the part of the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
Footwall - the lower wall of an inclined fault
Geyser - a vent in Earth's surface that periodically ejects a column of hot water and steam
Hanging wall - the upper or overhanging wall of an inclined fault
Indurated - firm or hardened
Plan view - the appearance of an object as seen from above
Pore water pressure - pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock, in gaps between
particles
Seismic wave - wave propagated outward in all directions from the epicenter of an
earthquake
Submarine - underwater
Topography - the configuration of a surface including its relief and the position of its natural
(and man-made) features
Wave shoaling - effect by which surface waves entering shallower water change in wave
height

47
 Lesson 1: Ground Shaking
A.
1. Love and Rayleigh
2. higher, lower
3. body waves
4. intensity
5. magnitude
B.
1. Waves radiate energy that produces the shaking felt on the surface.
2. Shaking is felt more strongly in areas with soft rock, where seismic waves move slower.
3. Earthquake-resistant buildings are by no means immune to earthquakes, but will
sustain less damage than their conventional counterparts.
4. Body waves because they radiate energy from the origin under the surface, to all
directions.
C.
1. Answers may vary but reasons can be acceptable only if the wave action, condition of
the surface and the consequent damages are explained correctly.

Lesson 2: Ground Rupture

A.
1. dextral- displaces rock horizontally to the right
2. reverse- moves hanging wall upwards
3. left-lateral normal- moves rock downwards and to the left
4. right-lateral reverse- moves the rock upwards and to the right
5. right-lateral normal- moves the rock downwards and to the right
B.
1. Ruptures from dip-slip faults raise or lower the ground while ruptures from strike-slip
faults move the ground sideways.
2. No. There are hazards involved including potential damage property, changed
elevation, flooding, change in water flow, etc.
3. Movement from dip-slip fault caused a change in the body of water.
4. Dip-slip fault can raise the ground and change the flow in bodies of water.

48
C.
1. Discuss how land surface changes due to fault movements.

Lesson 3: Liquefaction
A.
1. Liquefaction is when ground behaves like liquid and this results from compaction of
loose sediments underneath during earthquake.
2. Fluids in pore spaces are squeezed out.
3. loosely-consolidated, saturated sediments
4. liquefaction at depth
B.
1. They are compressed or compacted.
2. Pasig, Manila
3. Denser infrastructure or more buildings in a certain area contributes to the weight of
the sediments.
C.
1. Liquefaction results from compaction of materials with loose sediments and pore
saturated pore spaces. Compact/dense materials are not prone to liquefaction.

Lesson 4: Earthquake-induced Landslide

A.
1. weathering
2. in any order:
a. cracks or bulges in the road or ground that weren’t there before;
b. increased soil content in streams;
c. leaning poles or walls;
d. a rumbling sound that grows louder or unusual sound like cracking of trees
B.
1. steeper slopes are more susceptible to landslides
2. PEIS is specifically developed for the Philippine setting.
C.
1. Earthquake-induced follows an earthquake event, usually near the fault where the
earthquake originated.

49
Lesson 5: Tsunami
A.
1. denser
2. subducting plate
3. in any order:
a. prolonged, severe ground shaking;
b. receding sea level or retreating ocean, exposing rocks, fish, and corals in the
ocean bottom;
c. loud ‘roaring’ similar to the sound of a freight train or aircraft; and
d. a huge incoming wall of water.
B.
1. Tsunamis lose velocity as they move across lower water depths and this decrease in
velocity is compensated by an increase in amplitude or wave height.
2. Tsunamis are detected by open-ocean buoys and tide gauges, which monitor and
report any changes in sea level. When a tsunami is observed to have passed that
triggered the tide stations, a tsunami warning is issued and evacuation procedures are
then followed.
C.
1. Regional tsunamis affect a wide geographical area, typically within 1,000 km or 1-3
hours of the wave travel time.

50