Module 3

TECHNICAL DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

o FRAMING SYSTEM
• TENSION MEMBERS
• COMPRESSION MEMBERS
o STEEL TRUSS DESIGN
o STEEL CONNECTIONS
• STEEL PLATES AND BOLTS
o MODERN ARCHITECTURAL STEEL DESIGN AND CONNECTIONS
o TECHNICAL DESIGN OF STEEL 56

FRAMING SYSTEM
TENSION MEMBERS
Tension members may consist of round bars, wire cables, plates, and rolled sections. End
connections may consist of threaded ends, eyebars, pinned, (a) bolted, and (b) welded
connections.

The limiting states for the tensile members and the connecting elements are controlled by the
following modes:
1. Tensile strength
2. Shear strength of connection
3. Block shear strength of connection along the shear/tension failure path

Theoretically, the tension member transmitting a direct tension between two points in a structure
is the simplest and most efficient structural element. In many cases this efficiency is seriously
impaired by the end connections required to join tension members to other members in the
structure.

57
FRAMING SYSTEM

EYE BAR
PIN CONNECTED

58

FRAMING SYSTEM

The main types of tension member, their applications and behaviour:

a) open and closed single rolled sections such as angles, tees, channels and the structural hollow sections.
These are the main sections used for tension members in light trusses and lattice girders for bracing.
b) compound sections consisting of double angles or channels. At least one axis of symmetry is present
and so the eccentricity in the end connection can be minimized. When angles or other shapes are used
in this fashion, they should be interconnected at intervals to prevent vibration, especially when moving
loads are present.
c) heavy rolled sections and heavy compound sections of built-up H- and box sections. The built-up
sections are tied together either at intervals (batten plates) or continuously (lacing or perforated cover
plates).
d) bars and flats. In the sizes generally used, the stiffness of these members is very low; they may sag
under their own weight or that of workmen. Their small cross-sectional dimensions also mean high
slenderness values and, as a consequence, they may tend to flutter under wind loads or vibrate under
moving loads.
59
e) ropes and cables.
FRAMING SYSTEM

60

FRAMING SYSTEM

Typical uses of tension members:

a) tension chords and internal ties in trusses and lattice girders in buildings and bridges.
b) bracing members in buildings.
c) main cables and deck suspension cables in cable-stayed and suspension bridges.
d) hangers in suspended structures.

61
FRAMING SYSTEM

FABRICATION AND ERECTION

The behaviour of tension members in service depends on the fabrication tolerances and the erection
sequence and procedure. Care must be taken to ensure that no tension member is slack after erection, so
that they are all immediately active in resisting service loads.

Screwed ends and turnbuckles can be used to adjust lengths of bars and cables after they are in place.
Bracing members fabricated from rolled sections should be installed and properly tightened before other
connections and column base plates are bolted up, to bring the structure into line and square. Bracing
members are usually specified slightly shorter than the exact length to avoid sagging and allow them to be
immediately effective.

62

FRAMING SYSTEM
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
A compression member is a structural element that supports loads applied along its longitudinal
axis. Axially loaded members are compression members that are nominally free from applied
bendingg moments

A strut in a roof truss,

as shown in Fig. c, is a
web member that
provides the required
compression force.

Fig. d, the top chord

provides the
compression members
in a truss.

Fig. a, supports the gravity A brace in a braced frame, as

loads applied to the frame.
Failure of a column may cause
complete collapse of the
structure above the failed
column.
shown in Fig. b, provides the
lateral restraint to resist the
horizontal forces caused by
63
wind or earthquake.
FRAMING SYSTEM
The compression capacity is more often controlled by the rigidity of the column against buckling
instead of the yielding.

Common modes of failure:

1. Local instability: If the parts (elements) comprising a column are relatively very thin, a localized
buckling or winkling of one or more of these elements may occur prior to the instability of the entire
column. Based on the ratio of width to thickness of the element, a section is classified as a slender or a
non-slender section for the purpose of local instability.

2. Overall instability: Instead of an individual element getting winkled, the entire column may bend or
buckle lengthwise under the action of the axial compression force. This can occur in three different
ways.

1. Flexural buckling: A deflection occurs by bending about the

weak axis, as shown in Figure. The slenderness ratio is a measure of
the flexure buckling of a member. When the buckling occurs at a
stress level within the proportionality limit of steel, it is called the
elastic buckling. When the stress at buckling is beyond the
proportionality limit, it is an inelastic buckling. The columns of any
shape can fail in this mode by either the elastic or inelastic buckling.

64

FRAMING SYSTEM

2. Torsional buckling: 3. Flexural–torsional

This type of failure is buckling: This failure
caused by the twisting of occurs by the
the member combination of flexure
longitudinally, as shown and torsional buckling
in Figure. The standard when a member twists
hot-rolled shapes are not while bending, as
susceptible to this mode shown. Only the
of buckling. A thinly section with a single
built-up section may be axis of symmetry or an
exposed to torsional nonsymmetric section
buckling. such as a channel, tee,
and angle is subjected
to this mode of
buckling.

65
FRAMING SYSTEM

TRUSSES
The most common use of trusses in
buildings is to provide support to
roofs, floors and such internal loading
as services and suspended ceilings.
There are many types and forms of
trusses; some of the most widely used.
The type of truss adopted in design is
governed by architectural and client
requirements, varied in detail by
dimensional and economic factors. A
structural steel grid system simply
establishes the location of the structural
steel columns so that beam spans will
not be uneconomically long and steel 66
(a) Pratt – pitched, (b) Howe, (c) Fink, (d) mansard,
fabrication costs will be reasonable. (e) Pratt – flat, (f) Warren, (g) modified Warren, (h) saw-tooth

FRAMING SYSTEM
TRUSS - GUIDANCE ON OVER-ALL CONCEPT.

For pitched-roof trusses such as the Pratt, Howe or Fink, Fig. (a), (b) and (c), the most economical span-to-depth
ratio (at apex) is between 4 and 5, with a span range of 6m to 12m, the Fink truss being the most economical at
the higher end of the span range. Spans of up to 15 m are possible but the unusable roof space becomes excessive
and increases the running costs of the building. In such circumstances the span-to-depth ratio may be increased to
about 6 to 7, the additional steel weight (increase in initial capital expenditure) being offset by the long-term
savings in the running costs.

For spans of between 15m and 30m, the mansard truss, Fig. (d), reduces the unusable roof space but retains the
pitched appearance and offers an economic structure at span-to-depth ratios of about 7 to 8.

The parallel (or near parallel) chord trusses (also known as lattice girders) such as the Pratt or Warren, Fig. (e)
and (f), have an economic span range of between 6m and 50m, with a span-to-depth ratio of between 15 and 25
depending on the intensity of the applied loads. For the top end of the span range the bay width should be such
that the web members are inclined at approximately 50° or slightly steeper. For long, deep trusses the bay widths
become too large and are often subdivided with secondary web members.

For roof trusses the web member intersection points with the chords should ideally coincide with the secondary
transverse roof members (purlins). In practice this is not often the case for economic truss member arrangements,
thus resulting in the supporting chord being subject to local bending stresses.

The most economical spacing for roof trusses is a function of the span and load intensity and to a lesser extent 67
the span and spacing of the purlins, but as a general rule the spacing should be between 1/4 and 1/5 of the span,
which results in a spacing of between 4m and 10 m for the economic range of truss spans.
FRAMING SYSTEM
TRUSS DESIGN PRINCIPLE.

Loads are generally assumed to be applied at

the intersection point of the members, so that
they are principally subjected to direct stresses.
To simplify the analysis the weights of the truss
members are assumed to be apportioned to the
top and bottom chord panel points and the truss
members are assumed to be pinned at their
ends, even though this is usually not the case.
Normally chords are continuous and the
connections are either welded or contain
multiple bolts; such joints tend to restrict
relative rotations of the members at the nodes
and end moments develop.

Careful consideration must be given to the out-

of-plane stability of a truss and resistance to
lateral loads such as wind loads or eccentric
loads causing torsion about their longitudinal
axis. An individual truss is very inefficient, and
generally sufficient bracing must be provided
between trusses to prevent instability. 68

FRAMING SYSTEM

69
FRAMING SYSTEM

OTHER TRUSS APPLICATION 70

FRAMING SYSTEM

OTHER TRUSS APPLICATION 71

FRAMING
NG SYSTEM

72

OTHER TRUSS APPLICATION

FRAMING SYSTEM

STEEL CONNECTIONS
In general the cost of the design, fabrication and erection of the structural frame in a steel framed
building is approximately 30% of the total cost of construction. Of these three items, fabrication and
erection account for approximately 67%. Any savings in the fabrication and erection costs can
significantly reduce the overall cost of construction. The majority of the fabrication costs are
absorbed by the connections, and the choice of connection also has a significant influence on the
speed, ease, and, therefore, the cost of erection. It is evident that the potential for reducing the cost
of steel construction lies in the suitable choice of the beam-to-column and beam-to-beam
connections. Indeed, because of the repetitive nature of connections, even small material and labour
savings in one connection can have an important effect on the overall economy of the building.

73
FRAMING SYSTEM

STEEL CONNECTIONS – DESIGN PRINCIPLE

There is a need for the design of connections to be consistent with the engineer’s assumptions
regarding the structural behaviour of the steel frame. Therefore, when choosing and proportioning
connections the engineer should always bear in mind the basic requirements such as the stiffness or
flexibility of the connection, strength and the required rotational capacity.

Care should also be taken to ensure that the assumptions made for the design of the various
elements of the connection are compatible. For example, in a cover plate splice, sharing the load
between ordinary bolts (in shear and tension) and a fillet weld is not acceptable because the
deformation characteristics of ordinary bolts and fillet welds are incompatible. The fillet welds are
stiff compared with the bolts in clearance holes, and as the load is applied the welds will initially
carry most of the load. Then due to their limited ductility, the fillet welds will break before the
bolts can take up their share of the load.
74

FRAMING SYSTEM

TYPES OF CONNECTIONS AND JOINTS

Most structures’ failure occur at a connection. Accordingly, codes has placed lots of emphasis on
connections and has brought out separate detailed design specifications related to connections.
Steel connections are made by bolting and welding; riveting is obsolete now. Bolting of steel structures is
rapid and requires less skilled labor. On the other hand, welding is simple and many complex connections
with bolts become very simple when welds are used. But the requirements of skilled workers and
inspections make welding difficult and costly, which can be partially overcome by shop welding instead
of field welding. When a combination is used, welding can be done in shop and bolting in field.

Based on the mode of load transfer, the connections are categorized as:
• Simple or axially loaded connection when the resultant of the applied forces passes through the
center of gravity of the connection.

• Eccentrically loaded connection when the line of action of the resultant of the forces does not
pass through the center of gravity of the connection

75
FRAMING SYSTEM

TYPES OF JOINTS FORMED BY TWO

CONNECTING MEMBERS
1. Lap joint: As shown in Figure, the line off
action of the force in one member and
the line of action of the force in the other
connecting member have a gap between
them. This causes a bending within the
connection, as shown by the dashed
lines. For this reason, the lap joint is used
for minor connections only.
2. Butt joint: It provides a more
symmetrical loading, as shown in Figure
13.2, that eliminates the bending
condition.
76

FRAMING SYSTEM

TYPES OF CONNECTORS
The connectors (bolts or welds) are subjected to
the following types of forces (and stresses).

1. Shear: The forces acting on the splices shown

in Figure “bolts in shear” can shear the shank
of the bolt. Similarly, the weld in Figure
“welds in shear” resists the shear.

2. Tension: The hanger-type connection shown in

Figures imposes tension in bolts and welds.

77
FRAMING SYSTEM

TYPES OF CONNECTORS

3. Shear and tension combination: The column-to-

beam connections shown in Figures 13.7 and 13.8
cause both shear and tension in bolts and welds.
The welds are weak in shear and are usually
assumed to fail in shear regardless of the direction
of the loading.

78

FRAMING SYSTEM
STEEL CONNECTIONS – DESIGN PRINCIPLE

Double angle web cleats

These types of connection are popular because they have the facility to provide for minor site
adjustments when using untorqued bolts in 2 mm clearance holes. Normally the cleats are 79
used in pairs. Any simple equilibrium analysis is suitable for the design of this type of
connection.
FRAMING SYSTEM
STEEL CONNECTIONS – DESIGN PRINCIPLE

Flexible end-plates
Typical flexible end-plate connections about the major and minor axis of a column are shown. These
connections consist of a single plate fillet welded to the end of the beam and site bolted to a supporting
column.
This connection is relatively inexpensive but has the disadvantage that there is no room for site
adjustment. Overall beam lengths need to be fabricated within tight limits although packs can be used 80
to compensate for fabrication and erection tolerances. The end-plate is often detailed to extend to the
full depth of the beam but there is no need to weld the end-plate to the flanges of the beam.

FRAMING SYSTEM
STEEL CONNECTIONS – DESIGN PRINCIPLE

Fin plates
This type of connection is primarily used to transfer beam end reactions and is
economical to fabricate and simple to erect. There is clearance between the ends of
the supported beam and the supporting column, thus ensuring an easy fit. Figures
show a typical bolted fin plate connection to the major and minor axes of a column 81
respectively. These connections comprise a single plate with either pre-punched or
pre-drilled holes that is shop welded to the supporting column flange or web.
FRAMING SYSTEM
STEEL CONNECTIONS – DESIGN PRINCIPLE

Where both flanges of the beam are

notched, as in the case of the
connection shown in Figure, it is
recommended that each notch
82
8 2

FRAMING SYSTEM

TECHNICAL DRAWING DESIGNS OF STEEL

The Structural Grid System

o A structural steel grid system simply establishes the location of the structural steel columns so that
beam spans will not be uneconomically long and steel fabrication costs will be reasonable.

Steel Framing Plans

o The structural steel framing plan is a view cut on an imaginary plane just above and parallel to a
floor or roof elevation, showing only those items that are structural or of structural concern. The
main purpose of a framing plan is to show the size and location of beams, girders, open-web steel
joists, columns, and other steel members.

83

Illustration:
RSHM-QM1166-L200 - STRUC
FRAMING SYSTEM

Symbolic Representation on Structural

Steel Framing
structural members on steel framing plans
and elevations are indicated by symbols or
heavy single lines. Symbols for structural
steel columns are usually drawn oversized
for clarity, and their shapes represent the
end-view shapes of the members

Connection Representation on Structural

Steel Framing Plans
When preparing a structural steel framing plan, the
drafter should indicate the structural connections as
completely as possible. Although this can be done
on the framing plan, it is impossible to clearly show
every connection because the same symbol on a
framing plan may indicate two, or sometimes even
three, possible connection arrangements.
84
STANDARD STRUCTURAL
Illustration:
RSHM-QM1166-L200 - STRUC
BEAM SYMBOLS

FRAMING
AMING SYSTEM

85
PLAN VIEW ELEVATION VIEW
Illustration:
RSHM-QM1166-L200 - STRUC
STANDARD STRUCTURAL BEAM SYMBOLS
FRAMING SYSTEM

ELEVATION VIEW

86
STANDARD STRUCTURAL
COLUMN SYMBOLS

FRAMING SYSTEM
Beam Symbols.
The double-line elevation views under each symbol show that the beams could either be bolted to a
steel cap plate on top of the column or fastened to the column flanges directly with clip angle con-
nections. In either case, the single-line representation would be the same, so a detail would be
required.
A very important point to notice is that the single heavy lines representing the center lines of the
beams stop short of touching the column. On most structural steel framing plans, the open distance
between the end of the beam and the column to which it connects will be approximately 1/16".

87
STANDARD
STAN
STANDA
DARD
RD S
STRUCTURAL
TRUC
TRUCTU
TURA
RAL
L ST
STEE
STEEL
EEL
L
CONNECTION SYMBOLS
FRAMING SYS
YSTEM
STE
T M

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL

88
BEAM - COLUMN SYMBOLS

FRAMING SYSTEM

Column Symbols.
Beams framing into structural pipe
or tube columns are also denoted
by symbols on framing plans. But
once again, the symbol does not
clearly indicate the type of
connection desired. The figure
illustrates how symbols of W-
shape beams connecting to pipe or
tube columns might indicate that
the beams could fasten either to a
column cap plate or to a shear
plate

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL

BEAM - COLUMN SYMBOLS
89
FRAMING SYSTEM

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL

BEAM – GIRDER &
BEAM TO BEAM POCKET
SYMBOL
90

FRAMING SYSTEM

STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEEL

BEAM - COLUMN SYMBOLS 91

FOR OVER HANGING MEMBERS

FRAMING SYSTEM

FLEXIBLE CONNECTION Symbols.

When beams overhang their column supports,
they often connect to intermediate beams that
may or may not be the same depth as the
overhanging beam. In this common situation
for structural steel roof framing systems, the
negative moments caused by the loads on the
overhanging beams offset the maximum
positive moments found between the
columns. This makes the value of the positive
moments less than they would otherwise be
and results in a smaller, lighter, and thus
more economical beam. illustrates in single-
line plan view and double-line elevation view
how flexible connections between the
overhanging beams and the intermediate
beams can be made with either structural steel
angles or splice plates.

FLEXIBLE CONNECTIONS FOR

92
OVERHANGING BEAMS

FRAMING SYSTEM

STRUCTURAL STEEL PLAN

AND DETAIL
93
FRAMING SYSTEM

STRUCTURAL STEEL PLAN

AND DETAIL
94

FRAMING SYSTEM

COLUMN TO CONCRETE
ELEMENT CONNECTIONS

95