Linear Algebra

Department of Mathematics
SRM University-Andhra Pradesh
 Special Types of Matrices

Diagonal matrix: An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called a diagonal matrix

if aij = 0 for i 6= j. Thus, for a diagonal matrix, the terms other than
the main diagonal are all zero.
Example:

Scalar matrix: A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal

elements are equal.
Example:
Upper triangular matrix: An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called upper
triangular if aij = 0 for i > j. Thus, for a upper triangular matrix, the
terms below the main diagonal are all zero.
Example:

Lower triangular matrix: An n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called lower

triangular if aij = 0 for i < j. Thus, for a lower triangular matrix, the
terms above the main diagonal are all zero.
Example:

Note: A diagonal matrix is both upper triangular and lower triangular.

Symmetric matrix: A matrix A with real entries is called symmetric if
AT = A.
Example:

Skew symmetric matrix: A matrix A with real entries is called skew

symmetric if AT = −A.
Example:

Nonsingular Matrices: An n × n matrix A is called nonsingular, or

invertible, if there exist an n × n matrix B such that AB = BA = In ;
such a B is called an inverse of A. Otherwise, A is called singular. or
noninvertible.
Example:
Theorem: The inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Theorem: If A and B are both nonsingular n × n matrices, then AB is

nonsingular and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

Theorem: If A is nonsingular matrix, then A−1 is nonsingular and

(A−1 )−1 = A.

Theorem: If A is nonsingular matrix, then AT is nonsingular and

(AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .
 Linear Systems and Inverses

Note:
If A is an n × n matrix, then the linear system Ax = b has the unique
solution x = A−l b. Moreover, if b = 0, then the unique solution to the
homogeneous system Ax = 0 is x = 0.

Example:
 Echelon Form of a Matrix

Definition:
An m × n matrix A is said to be in reduced row echelon form if it
satisfies the following properties:
(a) All zero rows, if there are any, appear at the bottom of the matrix.
(b) The first nonzero entry from the left of a nonzero row is a l. This
entry is called a leading one of its row.
(c) For each nonzero row. the leading one appears to the right and
below any leading ones in preceding rows.
(d) If a column contains a leading one, then all other entries in that
column are zero.

Definition:
An m × n matrix satisfying properties (a), (b), and (c) is said to be in
row echelon form.

Note: A similar definition can be formulated in the obvious manner for

reduced column echelon form and column echelon form.
 Echelon Form of a Matrix

Example:

Note: A matrix in reduced row echelon form appears as a staircase

(“echelon") pattern of leading ones descending from the upper left
corner of the matrix.
The following matrices are not in reduced row echelon form:
The following are matrices in row echelon form:
 Elementary row operations

Definition:
An elementary row operation on a matrix A is any one of the following
operations:
(a) Type I: Interchange any two rows.
(b) Type II: Multiply a row by a nonzero number.
(c) Type III: Add a multiple of one row to another.

Notation: The following notation are used for elementary row

operations on matrices:
Interchange rows i and j, Type I:
ri ↔ rj .
Replace row i by k times row i, Type II:
ri = kri .
Replace row j by k times row i + row j, Type III:
rj = rj + kri .

Note: A similar definition and notation can be created for elementary

column operations.
Example:
 Row equivalent

Definition:
An m × n matrix B is said to be row equivalent to an m × n matrix A
if B can be produced by applying a finite sequence of elementary row
operations to A.

Theorem:
Every nonzero m × n matrix A = [aij ] is row equivalent to a matrix in
row echelon form.

Theorem:
Every nonzero m × n matrix A = [aij ] is row equivalent to a unique
matrix in reduced row echelon form.
Note: It should be noted that a row echelon form of a matrix is not
unique.
Example:

Reference
David Hill and Bernard Kolman, Elementary Linear Algebra with
Applications, 9th Edition | By Pearson 2019.