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Terrain analysis and data modeling

for alpine glacier mapping
a b c
Michael P. Bishop , Radoslav Bonk , Ulrich Kamp Jr. & John
c
F. Shroder Jr.
a
Department of Geography and Geology , University of
Nebraska at Omaha , Omaha, Nebraska, 68182 E-mail:
b
Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology ,
Comenius University , Bratislava, 84215, Slovak Republic
c
Department of Geography and Geology , University of
Nebraska at Omaha , Omaha, Nebraska, 68182
Published online: 23 Dec 2008.

To cite this article: Michael P. Bishop , Radoslav Bonk , Ulrich Kamp Jr. & John F. Shroder Jr.
(2001) Terrain analysis and data modeling for alpine glacier mapping, Polar Geography, 25:3,
182-201, DOI: 10.1080/10889370109377712

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 TERRAIN ANALYSIS AND DATA MODELING FOR
ALPINE GLACIER MAPPING

Michael P. Bishop1
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska at Omaha,
Omaha, Nebraska 68182

Radoslav Bonk
Downloaded by [Queensland University of Technology] at 03:40 23 November 2014

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Comenius University,

Bratislava, 84215 Slovak Republic

Ulrich Kamp, Jr. and John F. Shroder, Jr.

Department of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska at Omaha,
Omaha, Nebraska 68182

Abstract: We investigate the utility of object-oriented data modeling and analysis of

the topography for alpine glacier mapping at Nanga Parbat, in northern Pakistan. Results
indicate that first- and second-order morphometric parameters can be used to study gla-
cier features and delineate debris-covered glaciers. Object-oriented data modeling using a
two-level hierarchy was found to be successful for delineating the Raikot Glacier,
although a three-level hierarchy is required for more detailed glacier mapping. These
findings are of special importance to the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space
(GLIMS) project, which will use satellite imagery to assess and map the Earth's glaciers.
Furthermore, hierarchical modeling of the topography may serve to provide a foundation
upon which scientists may learn more about the polygenetic nature of topographic evolu-
tion.

INTRODUCTION

Alpine glaciers play a significant role in various aspects of earth-system dynam-

ics. They directly and indirectly respond to climate forcing and can be used to study
climate fluctuations (Mayewski et al., 1980; Haserodt, 1984; Gellatly, 1985; Kotlya-
kov et. al, 1991; Seltzer, 1993; Phillips et al., 2000). In many regions they regulate the
local and regional hydrologic regime, and together with polar ice sheets, partly control
sea-level fluctuations (Meier, 1984; Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Mitrovica et al.,
2001). Furthermore, glacial erosion can remove significant quantities of debris,
thereby affecting uplift and relief production (Hallet et al., 1996; Brozovik et al.,
1
Corresponding author; email: bishop@data.unomaha.edu. This work was funded by the University
Committee on Research at the University of Nebraska at Omaha and the United States National Science
Foundation (Grant No. EAR 9418839 and EPS-9720643). UK would like to thank the Max Kade Founda-
tion in New York for post-doc funding. The paper was completed in September 2002 and went to press
early the following month.

182

Polar Geography, 2001, 25, No. 3, pp. 182-201.

Copyright © 2001 by V H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved.
 POLAR GEOGRAPHY 183

1997; Bishop and Shroder, 2000; Bishop et al., 2002). Consequently, detailed infor-
mation about their glaciological and geomorphological characteristics and role in cli-
mate and tectonic forcing is required.
Obtaining accurate quantitative glacier information in high mountains is difficult
due to a variety of factors. Even the relatively simple task of glacier mapping is com-
plicated by the need to account for glacier facies, morphology, and dynamics, which
dictate spatial and temporal variability of various glacier attributes (i.e., supraglacial
debris loads, ice velocities, ice thickness, mass balance gradient). Field work is
required for obtaining information on supraglacial debris-load depths, englacial
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debris-loads, and ice thickness, although topographic, albedo, and facies distributions
are best obtained and analyzed utilizing remote sensing and geographic information
systems (GIS) (Bishop et al., 1995,2000).
A variety of investigators have examined the potential of remote sensing for map-
ping and characterization of alpine glaciers (Hall et al., 1988, 1989; Williams et al.,
1991; Bayr et al., 1994; Bishop et al., 1995; Aniya et al., 1996; Bishop et al., 1998a,
1999). With the advent of new sensors and GIS technology, new opportunities exist
for glaciological and geomorphological studies (Haeberli et al., 1998; Bishop et al.,
2002). Numerous issues, however, must be addressed such as anisotropic-reflectance
correction and glacier facies spectral differentiation (Williams et al., 1991; Bishop
and Colby, 2002). Spectral analysis can especially be a problem for debris-covered
glaciers as supraglacial debris can have a similar spectral response to the surrounding
till deposits, sediments, and rocks. Therefore, additional information must be used.
Numerous studies have recognized and described the hierarchical nature of topog-
raphy and landforms (Koons, 1995; Bishop and Shroder, 2000). Consequently, land-
form mapping can be addressed by classification of the terrain surface into basic ele-
ments of surface morphology that are then used to classify terrain features at a larger
scale. Terrain features can then be used to classify terrain features/landforms at a
larger scale, and so on. This hierarchical organization of the topography has not been
thoroughly investigated for glacier mapping. Object-oriented data modeling and anal-
ysis, which seeks to characterize conceptual entities (i.e., elemental forms, terrain fea-
tures, and landforms) as objects and the relationships between objects, can be used for
studying the efficasy of diagnostic landform mapping. Therefore, our objective is to
evaluate terrain analysis and object-oriented data modeling for alpine glacier mapping
at Nanga Parbat, in northern Pakistan.

BACKGROUND

The Nanga Parbat massif is located south of the Karakoram range in Pakistan
(Fig. 1). Bishop and Shroder (2000) first noticed the superposition of surface pro-
cesses that generated the hierarchical topographic structure of the massif. Field work
and subsequent analysis of the topography revealed the complex spatial nature of the
topography and the scale-dependent nature of relief (Bishop et al., 2002).
In an attempt to characterize the complex nature of mountain and supraglacial
topography, a theoretical foundation should guide data modeling and analysis efforts.
Hierarchy theory can be used, as it attempts to reduce the level of complexity and
explain the spatial hierarchical structure of the topography. For landform mapping,
the topography is a hierarchy, such that elemental forms represent the lower-level
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Fig. 1. Location of the Nanga Parbat massif in northern Pakistan. The rectangle represents the
area of the digital elevation model.

terrain-form objects. At the second level, terrain-feature/landform objects are defined

based upon the spatial aggregation of multiple terrain-form objects, and subsequent
higher-order feature/landform objects result from the spatial aggregation of objects
from the appropriate lower level. In this way the spatial hierarchical structure of the
topography is modeled.
Hierarchy theory has been generally described with no formal mathematical
guidelines (Brandli, 1996). Numerous methodological issues that attempt to extract
terrain features and characterize the hierarchy are unresolved, including the concept
of "homogeneous terrain properties" (Brandli, 1996), determining the number of lev-
els in the hierarchy (Dikau, 1989, 1990), the problem of indeterminate boundaries
(Burrough and Frank, 1996), and the use of appropriate geometric and contextual
attributes to characterize terrain features/landforms at various levels in the hierarchy
(Dikau, 1989, 1990; Brandli, 1996; Schmidt and Dikau, 1999).
It is generally agreed upon that this situation is caused by the lack of a comprehen-
sive conceptual data model for characterizing the topography, as terrain features must
be generated from fields. While new data models have been proposed (e.g., Brandli,
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1996), a comprehensive theory that accounts for scale-dependent surface processes

and the hierarchical spatial structure of the topography still remains elusive. Hierar-
chy theory has much potential because nested hierarchies may potentially encode
genetic and taxonomic information.

METHODOLOGY

Our topographic analysis for glacier mapping was tested on the Raikot Glacier,
which is located on the northern side of Nanga Parbat (Fig. 2). It is one of the largest
glaciers on the Nanga Parbat massif and exhibits a high sediment transfer efficiency
(Shroder et al., 2000). Field work was conducted during the summers of 1995, 1996,
and 1997. Detailed information regarding the supraglacial debris load, ice velocities,
ice thickness, and morphological character of the glacier surface was obtained.
A digital elevation model (DEM) generated from previous research was used
(Bishop et al., 1998b). The DEM has a horizontal grid spacing of 20 m and a vertical
accuracy of ±8-12 m. It was generated from two SPOT panchromatic stereopairs
using the cross-correlation technique. The DEM exhibited high-frequency variation.
Consequently, we used a regularized spline with tension (RST) interpolation algo-
rithm (Mitasova and Mitas, 1993) to reduce the high-frequency variation.

Morphometric Analysis

We computed four morphometric parameters based upon the following simplify-

ing notations (i.e., directional differences in altitude and slope):

f =^£ f =*}£ f = L_E f = d z f = 9 z ,is

Jx
dxJy dy'Jxx J
d/ yy
Jx
dy2' y dxdy' { )
 186 BISHOP ET Al-

and

P=J2x+4>1=p+l. (2)

The slope angle (ftT) was computed as

(3 r = arctan Jp, (3)

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while the the slope aspect (§T) was computed as

§T = arctan -2 (4)
Jx

Profile and tangential curvature were also computed. Profile curvature (cop is in
the direction of maximum downward slope and can be represented as

„ _ JxJx JxylJy Jyy>y /c\

P l~3 '
4q
p*jq

The tangential curvature (co,) of the relief is in the direction tangent to the contours
and can be expressed as follows:

(jO = *x*y ~ *xyJJy Jyy>x /-g-v

pjq

Elemental Terrain-Form Objects

We used the concept of "homogeneous morphology" to identify elemental terrain-

form objects (TFOs) that represent the first level in the hierarchy. Some investigators
indicate that slope facets should be used, while others indicate that a typology of ele-
mental forms is required. We identified discrete TFOs on the basis of individual mor-
phometric parameters, such that a TFO represents a locally contiguous portion of the
landscape that exhibits similar values offl-p <j)p co^,, or ro(.
An unsupervised classification approach (ISODATA clustering algorithm) was
used to ensure the concept of "homogeneous morphology." This algorithm works very
well, as it is based upon the global variance structure of a morphometric parameter,
and it iteratively adapts to the variance structure based upon statistical separability.
For each morphometric parameter, eight cluster classes were produced. A clustering
convergence coefficient of 1.0 was used.
It was important to determine if the approach produced artificial TFOs that did
not characterize the topography and landform features. The results were compared to
field data and deemed representative. This approach prevented us from defining arti-
ficial ranges of morphometric parameters.
 POLAR GEOGRAPHY 187
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Scale Scale
Meters i Meters Meteis
2X0 0 2X0 23D 0 2X0 2X0 0 2ID
••Class 1 EssCbss ^HCIass 3r—Cbss 4 •; Cbss l e s c b s s 2^«Cbss :^SCbss fSTCbss 1 BHCbss 2BSSCbss 3^mZbs t
^ • C b s s 5 i Cbs-s tm^Cktss 7wmCK ' •Cbss 5»mCbss KresClass WmOass ! •Cbss 5B3Class «^«Class 7^BCbss f

Fig. 3. Elemental terrain-form objects generated from slope angle (A), profile curvature (B),
and tangential curvature(C).

Each classification map identified the spatial distribution of TFOs (Fig. 3). Fur-
ther spatial analysis was required to uniquely enumerate each individual TFO.

Spatial Clumping

Spatial clumping was used to identify each TFO on the basis of local spatial con-
tinuity. The classification maps were submitted to a clumping algorithm that identi-
fied the total number of TFOs over the landscape. This procedure was done for each
morphometric classification map. This resulted in thousands of TFOs that exhibited
different shapes and sizes based upon the morphometric characteristics of the topog-
raphy.
Spatial analysis was then implemented to calculate the inherent geometric
attributes of each TFO. It is important to note that there is a plethora of possible geo-
metric and contextual properties that can be computed for each TFO. A simple
approach was taken to examine basic geometry, relief, and slope characteristics.
These attributes were generated by spatially stratifying the elevation and slope fields
using the TFO classification maps. This spatial analysis procedure resulted in 12
attributes that could be used for aggregation and mapping (Table 1).

RESULTS

The Raikot Glacier (Fig. 2) has been extensively studied and has fluctuated signif-
icantly over the last 100 ka (Shroder and Bishop, 2000; Phillips et al., 2000; Shroder
et al., 2000). The upper portion of the glacier exhibits relatively high ice-flow veloci-
ties, and accumulation is predominantly the result of summer snowfall and snow ava-
lanching. The terminus exhibits extensive debris cover up to 5 m in thickness,
although debris depth is highly variable. The supraglacial debris loads and the debris
along the sides of the glacier are periodically removed by glacier breakout flooding
(Shroder et al., 1998).
 188 BISHOP ET AL.

TABLE 1

Terrain-Form Object Attributes

1. Planimetric area 2. Surface area
3. Minimum altitude 4. Minimum slope angle
5. Maximum altitude 6. Maximum slope angle
7. Mean altitude 8. Mean slope angle
9. o o f altitude 10. o o f slope angle
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11. Relief 12. Range of slope angle

Fig. 4. Slope angle map of the Raikot Glacier. Shallow slope angles are characteristic of glacier
surfaces in the Nanga Parbat Himalaya. The equilibrium-line altitude zone is located in the
bottom-right corner of the image where slope angles abruptly change from low to high.

The morphological characteristics of the glacier surface are unique compared to

the surrounding topography. In general, the glacier exhibits shallow slope angles up to
the equilibrium line altitude (ELA), which is ~5000 m asl (Fig. 4). The terminus
region is delineated by the steep slopes of adjacent laterial moraines. Shallow slope
angles are characteristic of glaciation in the western Himalaya, as erosion and distri-
bution of sediment alters the landscape at various altitudes. This topographic parame-
ter, however, cannot be used to differentiate the glacier surface from the ablation val-
leys, moraines, and outwash plain.
The dynamic nature of the Raikot Glacier produces significant glacier topo-
graphic relief. Consequently, the azimuth orientation of slopes highlighted the edges
of the glacier and supraglacial features such as ice cliffs and debris mounds. Slope
 POLAR GEOGRAPHY 189
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100

Fig. 5. Profile curvature map of the Raikot Glacier. The glacier is delineated by concave slopes.
Convex slopes characterize the lateral moraines adjacent to the glacier.

aspect was not useful for delineating other glaciers such as Sachen Glacier on the east
side of Nanga Parbat.
Profile curvature highlighted a variety of terrain features (Fig. 5). In general, it
highlighted the convexity associated with the lateral moraines. It also highlighted the
concavity associated with the glacier-ablation valley boundary where slopes are steep
and concave. Tangential curvature did a remarkable job of highlighting the crests of
ridges and alpine-basin valley bottoms (Fig. 6). Furthermore, it accurately delineated
the entire boundary of the glacier. Kieffer et al. (2000) described a similar algorithm
that was used to map the boundaries of the Raikot Glacier.
These results indicated that morphometric analysis was very useful for character-
izing the surface morphology of the Raikot Glacier. Consequently, manual interpreta-
tion and mapping based upon topographic information is feasible.

Terrain-Form Objects

Experiments were conducted to determine the number of classes that should be

produced for each morphometric parameter. Eight classes satisfied the required crite-
ria of producing discrete TFOs that are limited in size and exhibit reasonable statisti-
cal separability.
The distribution of TFOs based upon slope angle revealed an interesting pattern,
in which large TFOs characterized the glacier surface (Fig. 3A). Conversely, other
TFOs were smaller and collectively exhibited a more complex spatial pattern. In
 190 BISHOP ET AL.
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1000

Fig. 6. Tangential curvature map of the Raikot Glacier. The glacier is perfectly delineated by
concave slopes.

general, these large TFOs characterize portions of the landscape that have been
affected by glaciation. Other portions of the landscape exhibit a very different pattern,
as polygenetic slope-forming processes are associated with complex patterns, while
glacial erosion and deposition is associated with less variability in slope over larger
areas. This same pattern, although reversed, was found for TFOs based upon the azi-
muth orientation of the slope. Due to the dynamic nature of glaciers, a greater fre-
quency of smaller TFOs were associated with the glacier surface, while larger sized
TFOs characterized other portions of the landscape. Glacier dynamics generate a vari-
ety of features such as ice cliffs, debris mounds, seracs, and supraglacial fluvial
action. These features dictate unidirectional orientation of slopes. Similarly, the size,
shape, and contextual relationships depicted unique patterns that differentiated the
Raikot Glacier surface from other portions of the landscape.
Terrain-form object distributions based upon profile curvature revealed interesting
glacier surface curvature patterns compared to other portions of the landscape
(Fig. 3B). Glacier surface TFOs based upon profile curvature exhibited a directional
shape that was perpendicular to the profile orientation (flow direction) of the glacier.
Other TFOs patterns were highly correlated to erosional and depositional features
associated with mass movement in alpine basins. Contextual analysis of object
attributes is required to define the nature of the differences.
Similarly, glacier surface TFOs based upon tangential curvature exhibited a direc-
tional shape that was parallel to the profile orientation of the glacier (Fig. 3C). Other
portions of the landscape exhibited dendritic object shapes that were oriented in a dif-
ferent direction. Although it would be difficult to manually map glaciers using this
 POLAR GEOGRAPHY 191

information, it is clear that the size, shape and context of these elemental terrain-form
objects may be used to differentiate the glacier surface from the surrounding land-
scape.
Collectively, these results indicate that slope angle and slope aspect were best at
defining the boundaries of the Raikot Glacier, while curvature was useful in differen-
tiating glacier surfaces from non-glacier surfaces. These results indicate that TFOs
are useful as a basis for subsequent analysis, although a better approach is required to
produce elemental terrain-form objects that represent a combination of morphometric
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parameters. In this way unique patterns can be used in a diagnostic manner.

TFO Attributes

The spatial extent and shape of TFOs served as a spatial constraint for the calcula-
tion of TFO attributes. Twelve statistical attributes were computed for all TFOs. The
objective was to identify attributes that could be used to differentiate glacier surface
topography from non-glacier surface topography.
The slope angle-based TFO attribute images are presented in Figure 7. Many of
the attributes did not accurately differentiate glacier surface topography from other
portions of the landscape. For example, planimetric area and surface area highlighted
portions of the Raikot Glacier and portions of the steep valley wall on the east side of
the basin. Altitude-related attributes highlighted the bottom portion of the valley asso-
ciated with modern-day glaciation, although a strong gradient exists down-valley,
which made the use of these attributes problematic. Attributes related to measures of
dispersion did not appear to be useful, although slope-related attributes did differenti-
ate modern-day glacial terrain from other portions of the landscape. In particular, the
minimum, maximum, and mean slope angle attributes produced the best results.
Similarly, the slope aspect-based TFO attribute images were evaluated (Fig. 8).
The maximum altitude and slope-angle attributes highlighted the glacier, although the
mean slope angle attribute was best for delineating the terminus region. Dispersion
metrics produced mixed results and could not be used to map the glacier terminus
position.
The profile curvature-based TFO attribute images are presented in Figure 9. Area
metrics did not uniquely differentiate the glacier surface from other topographic sur-
faces; however, the glacier surface is highlighted compared to the local area. This pat-
tern represents the surface of the glacier. The altitude and dispersion metrics did not
appear to be useful, although subtle patterns related to the glacier surface were found.
Slope metrics produced the most consistent results for glacier mapping.
The tangential curvature-based TFO attribute images exhibited unique spatial pat-
terns that were not diagnostic of glacier surfaces (Fig. 10). The patterns were highly
variable, and slope metrics did the best job of highlighting the terrain that was influ-
enced by modern-day glaciation.
These results indicate that of the 12 statistical attributes examined, slope metrics
were the most useful for differentiating glacier surfaces from other portions of the
landscape. It is important to note, however, that the statistical attributes have been
evaluated on the basis of TFOs that were generated by one morphometric parameter.
It is plausible that these attributes may have value when computed from TFOs that are
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 196 BISHOP ETAL.

generated from the integration of two or more morphometric properties (e.g., slope
facets).
It was not possible to automatically produce a landform object from the attributes
of TFOs using cluster analysis. It is clear from our analysis that additional attributes
must be used, and a two-level hierarchical model (i.e., TFOs to landform objects) is
overly simplistic. Alpine glaciers are morphologically complex, and we speculate that
a three-level hierarchical model is required.
The results of various phases in the analysis indicate that there is significant
potential for diagnostic mapping, as more complex TFOs can be generated, additional
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TFO attributes can be computed and evaluated, and numerous methodologies regard-
ing classification and spatial aggregation offer new possibilities for accurately charac-
terizing the topographic structure of alpine glaciers. The results strongly suggest that
landform-feature objects must be individually modeled as an intermediate step before
final classification.

DISCUSSION

Addressing the problems of hierarchy theory and scale-dependent geomorpholog-

ical mapping in complex mountain environments is a notoriously difficult endeavor.
The literature on these topics is essentially theoretical, and simplistic attempts to
solve the mapping problem using morphometric parameters and hierarchy theory
have been proposed (Dikau, 1992; Brandli, 1996; Schmidt and Dikau, 1999). Empiri-
cal results, however, indicate that the use of morphometric fields is valuable, but still
an obstacle in automated computer mapping. Furthermore, issues associated with data
modeling and an object-oriented approach are still debated, and there is a paucity of
research demonstrating its use for glacier mapping. Consequently, it is difficult to
compare this work to other studies.

Terrain-Form Objects

It is very clear from the visualization of the morphometric parameter images that
they contain important information about surface processes and landforms. The con-
cept of identifying homogeneous terrain properties has been proposed as an approach
that can be utilized to identify TFOs. Other researchers have indicated that this con-
cept might not necessarily produce adequate results, and that other approaches need to
be investigated (Brandli, 1996). Although this may be true for terrain objects of larger
size, alpine glaciers exhibit a variety of features that are small to moderate in size, and
our results indicate that this concept has validity for glacier mapping.
Our results indicate that accurately characterizing TFOs for glacier mapping is not
associated with the concept of homogeneity, but is related to the issue of defining a
topology of elemental forms that can be used to map supraglacial features. Dikau
(1992) indicated that slope facets, a combination of slope aspect and slope angle, can
be used as a fundamental TFO, although we have shown that curvature is very impor-
tant. To date, the problem of effectively utilizing curvature to identify TFOs or
higher-order objects has not been adequately addressed. Brandli (1996) indicated the
significance of curvature, and suggested that a topology of TFOs should be based
upon this property alone. Our research has indicated that planimetric, profile, and
 POLAR GEOGRAPHY 197

tangential curvature, when combined, can be used to identify elemental forms associ-
ated with medial moraines, ice cliffs, and supraglacial fluvial features.
Combining curvature and slope facets may be necessary to produce terrain-feature
objects. Using this approach, it may be possible to map ice cliffs, debris mounds, and
other supraglacial features.

Terrain-Form Object Attributes

Examination of the TFO maps indicated that glacier surface TFOs exhibited
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unique patterns compared to other objects. The differences include shape, frequency,
and orientation.
Simple metrics exist that provide crude measures of shape. In ecological and
hydrological research, shape indices such as planimetric area and perimeter are fre-
quently used. Other indices include the length-to-width ratio. These metrics may be
useful in determining the value of shape for characterizing glacier TFOs; however,
more robust metrics seem warranted because of the countless number of TFOs that
must be evaluated and compared.
The need for additional geometric and contextual information becomes most
important when attempting to characterize the hierarchical structure of the topogra-
phy, and when examining the patterns that emerged. Contextual information such as
distance, direction, and spatial topology are critical attributes that describe the topo-
graphic complexity of TFOs. Boundary and containment relationships also need to be
evaluated. These TFO attributes could be related to the self-organizing nature of the
landscape. If diagnostic process-form relationships can be established, object-oriented
data modeling and analysis may be used to identify the operational scale of various
surface processes. Consequently, more spatial and contextual topographic analysis of
terrain objects is required.
With additional geometric and contextual attributes, automated alpine glacier
mapping might be possible. Doing so would then depend upon the production of
higher-order objects, based upon the use of landform-feature objects.

Higher-Order Objects

Cluster analysis was used to create higher-order landform objects based upon TFO
attributes. Theoretically, this approach can work, if the attributes are diagnostic or
unique for different landforms. Furthermore, topographic modeling of landforms
requires multiple hierarchical levels to account for the operational scale of surface
processes.
Researchers do not know the number of hierarchical levels that must be used to
characterize a particular landform or landscape. Furthermore, the role of system
dynamics on the complexity of the topography is not well understood given the poly-
genetic nature of topographic evolution. Our results indicate that for accurate glacial
mapping in the western Himalaya, a three-level hierarchical model should be used to
account for supraglacial features that are diagnostic of alpine glaciers. Geometric and
contextual information appears to be well suited for establishing criteria for the classi-
fication or spatial aggregation of TFOs to produce landform-feature objects. Simple
landform taxonomy could then be used as the rules for spatial aggregation and the
 198 BISHOP ETAL.

generation of higher-order objects. An important research question will be to deter-

mine whether contextual information can be used in a diagnostic fashion for genera-
tion of higher-order objects.
It is also plausible that the nature of relationships between object attributes may be
used as a basis for spatial aggregation. For example, it is known that object attribute
relationships change given the size and shape of an object (Brandli, 1996). Changing
patterns in the magnitude of attributes and/or relationships, which are a function of
spatial aggregation, could be used to represent levels in the hierarchy, thereby
enabling the identification of thresholds and spatial constraints that govern the opera-
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tional scale of surface processes. By examining specific attributes in new ways, the
concept of equilibrium may be used to examine the validity of generating more hierar-
chical levels. If we assume that the self-organizing processes and properties of the
landscape strive to attain some form of equilibrium at a higher-order hierarchical
level, we could examine topographic parameters such as slope angle and relief, which
are controlled by the erosion-uplift feedback mechanism. How these parameters vary,
or how their relationship to other important attributes at various object scales and
hierarchical levels change, may provide insight into the magnitude of denudation and
the role of surface processes in topographic evolution. Consequently, hierarchical
modeling may serve to provide a foundation upon which scientists may learn more
about alpine glaciers, erosion, and feedback mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

A high-resolution DEM was used to study the morphological complexity of the

landscape at Nanga Parbat to determine the utility of object-oriented data modeling
and analysis for alpine glacier mapping. Morphometric characterization of the land-
scape was found to be useful for highlighting and delineating geomorphological fea-
tures and landforms.
Our results indicate that first- and second-order morphometric parameters can be
used for manual mapping of alpine glaciers. Our automated approach using a
two-level hierarchical model was found to reasonably delineate the Raikot Glacier,
although a three-level hierarchical model has greater potential for diagnostic mapping
capabilities. Such capabilities are of special importance to the Global Land Ice Mea-
surements from Space (GLIMS) project, which will use satellite data to assess and
map the Earth's glaciers. More research involving shape analysis and characterization
of the three-dimensional contextual relationships between terrain objects is necessary.
Consequently, object-oriented data modeling and analysis may provide new insights
into process-form relationships and glacier dynamics. Furthermore, this approach has
tremendous potential for detailed glacier mapping and studying the polygenetic
nature of topographic evolution.

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