CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.

c CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

OVERVIEW

A basic function of civil and construction engineering is to provide and maintain the
infrastructure needs of society. The infrastructure includes buildings, water treatment and distribution
systems, waste water removal and processing, dams, and highway and airport bridges and
pavements. Although some civil and construction engineers are involved in the planning process,
most are concerned with the design, construction, and maintenance of facilities.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. Understand the concept of Engineering Materials

2. Recognize the importance of different kinds of Construction Materials

DEFINITION

There are, it is said, more than 50,000 materials available to the engineer. In designing a
structure or device, how is the engineer to choose from the vast menu the material which best suits
the purpose? Mistakes can cause disasters. During World War II, one class of welded merchant ship
suffered heavy losses, not by enemy attack, but by breaking in half at sea: the fracture toughness of
the steel – and, particularly, of the welds was too low. More recently, three Comet aircraft were lost
before it was realized that the design called for a fatigue strength that – given the design of the
window frames – was greater than that possessed by the material.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

The common denominator among these responsibilities is the need to understand the behavior and
performance of materials. Although not all civil and construction engineers need to be material
specialists, a basic understanding of the material selection process, and the behavior of materials,
is a fundamental requirement for all civil and construction engineers performing design, construction,
and maintenance.

Material requirements in civil engineering and construction facilities are different from material
requirements in other engineering disciplines. Frequently, civil engineering structures require tons of
materials with relatively low replications of specific designs. Generally, the materials used in civil
engineering have relatively low unit costs. In many cases, civil engineering structures are formed or
fabricated in the field under adverse conditions. Finally, many civil engineering structures are directly
exposed to detrimental effects of the environment.

The subject of engineering materials has advanced greatly in the past few decades. As a result,
many of the conventional materials have either been replaced by more efficient materials or
modified to improve their performance. Civil and construction engineers have to be aware of these
advances and be able to select the most cost-effective.

The introduction to materials engineering includes information on the basic mechanistic properties
of materials, environmental influences, and basic material classes. In addition, one of the
responsibilities of civil and construction engineers is the inspection and quality control of materials in
the construction process. This requires an understanding of material variability and testing
procedures.

Later on, this course also presents the characteristics of the primary material types used in civil and
construction engineering: steel, aluminum, concrete, masonry, asphalt, wood, and composites.
Since the discussion of concrete and asphalt materials requires a basic knowledge of aggregates,
there is a chapter on aggregates. Moreover, since composites are gaining wide acceptance
among engineers and are replacing many of the conventional materials, there is a chapter
introducing composites. The discussion of each type of material includes information on the
following:

■■ Basic structure of the materials

■■ Material production process
■■ Mechanistic behavior of the material and other properties
■■ Environmental influences
■■ Construction considerations
■■ Special topics related to the material discussed in each chapter

For every material, it includes an overview of various test procedures to introduce the test methods
used with each material. However, the detailed description of the test procedures is left to the
appropriate standards organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Also, there
are sample problems in most chapters, as well as selected questions and problems at the end of
each chapter. Answering these questions and problems will lead to a better understanding of the
subject matter.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.1

REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.2

c CHAPTER 2

APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENTS USED IN TESTING OF MATERIALS

OVERVIEW

Construction Materials Testing (CMT) is the testing of materials used to build new projects, add to
existing projects, or amend existing construction projects. The services involved in a comprehensive
CMT process greatly depends on the project, the land, and the scope of services.

Testing services can generally be divided into two areas: Field Testing and Laboratory Testing.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. Know the different kinds of Laboratory Measuring devices

2. Site some samples of Construction Materials Testing Equipments
3. Understand the purpose of using apparatus and devices for materials
4. Recognize the importance of different kinds of Construction Materials

DEFINITION

Laboratory tests measure material properties. Frequently, specimens are made of

the material in question and tested in the laboratory to measure their response to
the applied forces or certain environmental conditions. These tests require the measurement of
certain parameters such as time, deformation, or force. Some of these parameters are measured
directly, while others are measured indirectly by relating parameters to each other. Length and

deformation can be measured directly using simple devices such as rulers, dial gauges, and
calipers. In other cases, indirect measurements are made by measuring electric voltage and

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.2

relating it to deformation, force, stress, or strain. Examples of such devices include linear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs), strain gauges, and load cells. Noncontact deformation measuring
devices using lasers and various optical devices are also available. Electronic measuring devices
can easily be connected to chart recorders, digital readout devices, or computers, where the results
can be easily displayed and processed.

Each device has a certain sensitivity, which is the smallest value that can be read on the device’s
scale. The selection of the measuring device and its sensitivity depends on the required accuracy of
measurement. The required accuracy, on the other hand, depends on the significance and use of
the measurement

In engineering tests, the accuracy of measurement must be determined in advance to ensure

proper use of such measurements and, at the same time, to avoid unnecessary effort and expense
during testing. Many standardized test methods, such as those of ASTM and AASHTO, state the
sensitivity of the measuring devices used in a given experiment. In any case, care must be taken to
ensure proper calibration, connections, use, and interpretation of the test results of various
measuring devices. Next, we will briefly describe measuring devices commonly used in material
testing, such as dial gauges, LVDTs, strain gauges, proving rings, and load cells.

Dial Gauge

Dial gauges are used in many laboratory tests to measure deformation. The dial gauge is attached
at two points, between which the relative movement is measured. Most of the dial gauges include
two scales with two different pointers, as depicted in figure 1.26a below. The smallest division of the
large scale determines the sensitivity of the device and is usually recorded on the face of the
gauge. One division of the small pointer corresponds to one full rotation of the large pointer. The full
range of the small pointer determines the range of measurement of the dial gauge. Dial gauges
used in civil engineering material testing frequently have sensitivities ranging from
0.1 to 0.002 mm. The dial gauge shown in Figure 1.26a has a sensitivity of 0.001 in.
and a range of 1 in. The gauge can be “zeroed” by rotating the large scale in order to
start the reading at the current pointer position.

Dial gauges can be attached to frames or holders with different configurations to

measure the deformation of a certain gauge length or the relative movement between
two points. For example, the extensometer shown in Figure 1.27 is used to measure
the deformation of the gauge length of a metal bar during the tensile test. Note that
because of the extensometer configuration shown in the figure, the deformation of
the bar is one-half of the reading indicated by the dial gauge.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.2

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The linear variable differential transformer (transducer), or LVDT, is an electronic

device commonly used in laboratory experiments to measure small movements or
deformations of specimens. The LVDT consists of a nonmagnetic shell and a magnetic
core. The shell contains one primary and two secondary electric coils, as illustrated
in Figure 1.28. An electric voltage is input to the LVDT and an output voltage
is obtained. When the core is in the null position at the center of the shell, the output
voltage is zero. When the core is moved slightly in one direction, an output voltage
is obtained. Displacing the core in the opposite direction produces an output voltage
with the opposite sign. The relationship between the core position and the output
voltage is linear within a certain range determined by the manufacturer. If this relation
is known, the displacement can be determined by measuring the output voltage
using a voltmeter or a readout device. LVDTs can measure both static and dynamic
movements.

LVDTs vary widely in sensitivity and range. The sensitivity of commercially

available LVDTs ranges from 0.003 to 0.25 V/mm (0.08 to 6.3 V/in.) of displacement
per volt of excitation. Normal excitation supplied to the primary coil is 3 Vac with
a frequency ranging from 50 Hz to 10 kHz. If 3 V is used, the most sensitive LVDTs
provide an output of 18.9 mV/mm (Dally and Riley, 2005). In general, very sensitive
LVDTs have small linear ranges, whereas LVDTs with greater linear ranges are less
sensitive. The sensitivity and the linear range needed depend on the accuracy and
the amount of displacement required for the measurement.
Before use, the LVDT must be calibrated to determine the relation between
the output voltage and the displacement. A calibration device consisting of a
micrometer, a voltmeter, and a holder is used to calibrate the LVDT, as shown in
Figure 1.29.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.2

Strain Gauge

Strain gauges are used to measure small deformations within a certain gauge length.
There are several types of strain gauges, but the most dominant type is the electrical
strain gauge, which consists of a foil or wire bonded to a thin base of plastic or paper
(Figure 1.32). An electric current is passed through the element (foil or wire). As
the element is strained, its electrical resistance changes proportionally. The strain
gauge is bonded via an adhesive to the surface on which the strain measurement is
desired. As the surface deforms, the strain gauge also deforms and, consequently, the
resistance changes. Since the amount of resistance change is very small, an ordinary
ohmmeter cannot be used. Therefore, special electric circuits, such as the Wheatstone
bridge, are used to detect the change in resistance (Dally and Riley, 2005).
Strain gauges are manufactured with different sizes, but the most convenient
strain gauges have a gauge length of about 5 to 15 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.). Larger strain
gauges can also be made and used in some applications.

Proving Ring

Proving rings are used to measure forces in many laboratory tests. The proving ring consists of a steel
ring with a dial gauge attached, as shown in Figure 1.34. When a force is applied on the proving
ring, the ring deforms, as measured with the dial gauge. If the relation between the force and dial
gauge reading is known, the proving ring can be used to measure the applied force. Therefore, the
proving ring comes with a calibration relationship, in either a linear equation or a table, which allows
the user to determine the magnitude of the force based on measuring the deformation of the
proving ring. To avoid damage, it is important not to apply a force on the proving ring higher than
the capacity specified by the manufacturer. Moreover, periodic calibration of the proving ring is
advisable to insure proper measurements.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.2

Load Cell

The load cell is an electronic force-measuring device used for many laboratory tests.
In this device, strain gauges are attached to a member within the load cell, which is
subjected to either axial loading or bending. An electric voltage is input to the load
cell and an output voltage is obtained. If the relation between the force and the output
voltage is known, the force can easily be determined by measuring the output
voltage.

Load cells are manufactured in different shapes and load capacities. Figure
1.35(a) illustrates a tensile load cell fabricated by mounting four strain gauges on the central
region of a tension specimen. Figure 1.35(b) shows an S-shaped load cell in which
strain gauges are bonded to the central portion and calibrated to measure the force
applied on the top and bottom of the load cell. Figure 1.35(c) illustrates a diaphragm
strain gauge bonded to the inside surface of an enclosure that measures the amount
of pressure applied on the load cell.

Load cells must be regularly calibrated using either dead loads or a calibrated
loading machine. Care must be taken not to overload the load cell. If the load applied
on the load cell exceeds the capacity recommended by the manufacturer, permanent
deformation can develop, ruining the load cell.

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REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 3

c CHAPTER 3

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

OVERVIEW

Beer can be bought from the supermarket in aluminum cans or in glass bottles. Why aluminum? Why
glass? Both containers can be produced cheaply and the material cost is also low. Both materials can
be recycled. The main difference between the two is that the glass bottle is significantly heavier than
the aluminum can. In this chapter we take a look at how the properties of different types of materials
compare and the sources for data on material properties.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. To know the different general properties of materials, namely: structural, physical, mechanical,
electrical, thermal, chemical and optical
2. Understand the physical and mechanical properties of a material prior to a construction.

DEFINITION

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

These aren’t really ‘properties’ – more like definitions that relate to what’s under the hood. The goal
here is to relate structure to properties.

Composition - The kinds and relative count of elements, ions or other constituents in a material;
chemical formula, percent in an alloy, etc. Note that a single composition can have different
structures, for instance allotropes of sulfur or polymorphs in iron-carbon systems. The basic starting point
is:

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Composition Bonding
Metals metallic elements metallic
Ceramics metals + nonmetals ionic & covalent
Polymers carbon, hydrogen covalent

Crystal structure - atomic scale order; the manner in which atoms or ions are spatially arranged. It is
defined in terms of unit cell geometry. A material with long-range order is called crystalline (contrasted
with amorphous).

Microstructure - The structural features that can be seen using a microscope, but seldom with the
naked eye; ranges from glassy to crystalline; includes grain boundaries and phase structures.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Bulk density - is the ratio of mass to the volume of the material in its natural state that is including
voids and pores. It is expressed in kg/m 3. Bulk density influences the mechanical properties of
materials like strength, heat and conductivity etc. bulk density values of some of the engineering
materials are given below.

Porosity - gives the volume of the material occupied by pores. It is the ratio of volume of pores to the
volume of material. Porosity influences many properties like thermal conductivity, strength, bulk
density, durability etc.

Durability - The property of a material to withstand against the combined action of atmospheric and
other factors is known as durability of material. If the material is more durable, it will be useful for
longer life. Maintenance cost of material is dependent of durability.

Density – is the ratio of mass of the material to its volume in homogeneous state. Almost all the
physical properties of materials are influenced by its density values. Density values of some building
materials are given below.

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Specific gravity - is the ratio of mass of given substance to the mass of water at 4oC for the equal
volumes. Specific gravity of some materials is listed below.

Fire resistance – The ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and other properties.
Fire resistance of a material is tested by the combined actions of water and fire. Fireproof materials
should provide more safety in case of fire.

Frost resistance - The ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing is called frost resistance. It is
depending upon the density and bulk density of material. Denser materials will have more frost
resistance. Moist material have low frost resistance and they lose their strength in freezing and
become brittle.

Weathering resistance - The property of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions
without losing its strength and shape. Weathering effects the durability of material. For example,
corrosion occurs in iron due to weathering. To resist this paint layer is provided.

Water absorption - The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water in it is known as water
absorption. It is expressed in % of weight of dry material. It depends up on the size, shape and
number of pores of material.

Water permeability - The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water permeability.
Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious materials which cannot allow water
through it.

Refractoriness - The property of a material which cannot melts or lose its shape at prolonged high
temperatures (1580oC or more). Example: fire clay is high refractory material.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

A material subject to external forces which stretch it is said to be in tension, when subject to forces
which squeeze to be in compression. In discussing the application of forces to materials the concern
is the force applied per unit area, this being termed the stress. When a material is subject to tensile or
compressive forces, it changes in length, the term strain, symbol ε, is used for the change in
length/original length. Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. However, strain is frequently
expressed as a percentage, i.e., the percentage change in length.

The following are some of the more frequently encountered terms that are used to describe
mechanical properties:

Strength – this is ability of it to resist the application of forces without breaking. The term tensile strength
is used for the maximum value of the tensile stress that a material can withstand without breaking; the
compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress the material can withstand without
becoming crushed.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 3

Below are some samples of tensile strength and tensile modulus for every material:

Stiffness - this is the ability of a material to resist bending. When a strip of material is bent, one surface
is stretched and the opposite face is compressed, the more it bends the greater is the amount by
which the stretched surface extends and the compressed surface contracts. For most materials a
graph of stress against strain gives initially a straight-line relationship, and so a large value of
stress/strain means a steep gradient of the stress-strain graph. This gradient is called the modulus of
elasticity (or sometimes Young's modulus).

Ductility - this is the ability of a material to suffer significant deformation before it breaks. Glass is a
brittle material and if you drop a glass it breaks; however, it is possible to stick all the pieces together
again and restore the glass to its original shape. A measure of the ductility of a material is obtained
by determining the length of a test-piece of the material, then stretching it until it breaks and then, by
putting the pieces together, measuring the final length of the test-piece. The percentage elongation
of a test-piece after breaking is thus used as a measure of ductility.

Malleability – this term is used to describe the amount of plastic deformation that occurs as a result of
a compressive load. A malleable material can be squeezed to the required shape by such processes
as forging and rolling.

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Toughness - a tough material can be considered to be one that, though it may contain a crack, resists
the crack growing and running through the material. Toughness can be defined in terms of the work
that has to be done to propagate a crack through a material, a tough material requiring more energy

than a less tough one. One way of obtaining a measure of toughness is in terms of the ability of a
material to withstand shock loads - the so-called impact tests such as the Charpy and Izod.

Hardness - this is a measure of the resistance of a material to abrasion or indentation. A number of

scales are used for hardness, depending on the method that has been used to measure it.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Resistivity – It is a measure of a material’s resistance to the flow of electric current. Resistivity is an

important concept in semiconductors; depends on electronic structure, temperature and
microstructure.

Conductivity - A measure of how easily a material allows electrical current to flow through. Metals like
copper, aluminum and iron have much higher electrical conductivities than ceramics, plastics, glass
and rubber. It is the reciprocal of electric resistivity.

THERMAL PROPERTIES

Thermal properties that are generally of interest in the selection of materials include:

Linear expansivity (α)- or also known as coefficient of linear expansion is a measure of the amount by
which a length of material expands when the temperature increases. It is defined as:
and has the unit of K-1.

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CE 222 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 3

Heat Capacity (c)- is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of an object by 1 K. The
specific heat capacity c is the amount of heat needed per kilogram of material to raise the
temperature by 1 K, hence:

It has the unit of J kg-1 K-1. Weight-for-weight, metals require less heat to reach a particular temperature
than plastics, e.g., copper has a specific heat capacity of about 340 J kg-1 K-1, while polythene is about
1800 J kg-1 K-1.

Thermal Conductivity λ - is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat and is defined in
terms of the quantity of heat that will flow per second divided by the temperature
gradient, i.e.: and has a unit of W m-1 K-1

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Toxicity - A measure of a material’s ability to damage or disrupt the metabolism of living tissue; can
be acute or chronic; can be administered by contact, inhalation, ingestion, or injection.

Chemical Resistance - A material’s ability to withstand degradation from acids, solvents, water, or
oxygen (corrosion is a special process); generally marked by weight change, discoloration, cracking,
or change in mechanical properties.

Corrosion resistance - Corrosion is an electrochemical process that is closely related to the activity
series. Corrosion is strongly dependent on environmental variables.

Combustibility - A material’s ability to catch fire and burn; important for organic materials and reactive
metals (especially finely divided).

Passivity - The loss of chemical reactivity by some active metals and alloys, frequently by formation of
a thin oxide surface coating.

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Biocompatibility - Use in or on the human body without eliciting a rejection response from the
surrounding body tissues; includes materials made of polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites .

OPTICAL PROPERTIES

Optical properties relate to a material’s response to electromagnetic radiation, primarily visible light.
Light can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected. Optical properties are important for all materials, not
just transparent materials (think photoelectric effect).

Transmissivity - A measure of a material’s ability to allow the passage of light; the ratio of transmitted
light to incident light.

Absorptivity - A measure of a material’s ability to absorb light as is passes through; the ratio of
absorbed light to incident light.

Index of refraction - The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light as is passes
through a material; a measure of how much light ‘bends’ as it passes from one medium to another.

Photoconductivity - Some materials become positively charged when exposed to radiation, due to the
ejection of electrons (photoelectrons). Photoconductivity describes the increase in conductivity as a
result of incident light; use it to teach quantum mechanics.

Polarization - Orientation polarization results from the alignment (by rotation) of permanent electric
dipole moments. As a result, only the incident light that is aligned to the material’s ‘slits’ can pass
through. Used to develop sunglasses and LCDs. Note that there are many uses for the word
polarization.

REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

ASTM International.Org / Types of Properties

The Constructor.Org/ Building properties of building materials

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