HYDROLOGY
to that from an open free-water surface. As soil
TOPIC#3
EVAPORATION – water returned to the air from a liquid
to gaseous state.
TRANSPIRATION – evaporation from plants.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION – evaporation + transpiration
CONSUMPTIVE USE – used interchangeably with
evapotranspiration but technically, it refers to the sum
of ET and water used by the plants for tissue building
processes.
IMPORTANCE
• For water conservation
• For determining irrigation requirements for
crops
• For determining water storage in reservoir
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
1. METEOROLOGICAL FACTOR
• Solar radiation directly affects
temperature.
• Evaporation is directly proportional to
air temperature.
• Vapor pressure affects the degree of air
saturation.
• Evaporation is fast in dry air.
• Evaporation is directly proportional to
wind speed.
2. NATURE OF THE EVAPORATING SURFACE
• All surface exposed to precipitation are
potentially evaporating surfaces.
• The larger the area exposed to
evaporation, the faster the rate of
evaporation.
3. EFFECTS OF WATER QUALITY
• Evaporation varies inversely with
salinity of water.
• Evaporation rate is faster in fresh water
due to high vapor pressure.
EVAPORATION FROM LAND SURFACES
• For saturated soils, evaporation may be similar
moisture decreases, the rate of evaporation also
decreases.
• Mulches help in moisture conversation because
they decrease the rate of evaporation.
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
EVAPORATION PAN –
LYSIMETER OR EVAPOTRANSPIRIMETERS – a
measurement that take these factors into account, it is
possible to physically isolate a portion of land from its
surroundings and continuously weigh it to monitor
changes in water content.
METHODS OF DETERMINING ET
1. FIELD EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS - the quantity of
water applied in these plots is kept small to
avoid deep percolation losses and surface runoff
is measured.
2. SOIL WATER STUDIES – samples are taken at
various depths in the root zone.
3. INTEGRATION METHODS – the water used by
plants and evaporation from the water and soil
surfaces are combined for the entire area
involved.
4. INFLOW-OUTFLOW METHOD – inflow into the
area (precipitation), outflow from the area and
change in groundwater level are evaluated.
CATEGORIES OF METHODS OF PREDICTING
EVAPORATION AND ET
1. MASS TRANSFER
• Water moves away from evaporating and
transpiring surfaces in response to the
combined phenomena of turbulent mixing
of the air and the vapor pressure gradient.
• Requires measurements of wind and
humidity at two or more elevations.
2. ENERGY BALANCE
• Heat is required for evaporation of water, so
if there is no change in water temperature,
the net radiation or heat supplied is a
measure of evaporation.
 3. EMPIRICAL METHODS
• developed from experience and field
research based on assumption that the
energy available for evaporation is
proportional to temperature.
TOPIC#2
RUNOFF AND STREAMFLOW
RUNOFF - process and pathways through which excess
water becomes streamflow’; excess water is that part of
the total rainfall amount which runs off the land surface,
and that which drains from the soil and is not consumed
in evapotranspiration.
CHANNEL INTERCEPTION – pathway in which rain falls
directly into the stream channel.
SURFACE RUNOFF OR OVERLAND WATER FLOW –
pathway in which excess water flows over the soil
surface.
SUBSURFACE FLOW OR INTERFLOW – pathway in which
excess water infiltrates into the soil but then arrives at a
stream channel in a short amount period of time.
DIRECT RUNOFF OR STORMFLOW – sum of channel
interception, surface flow and subsurface flow.
STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPH – a tabular or graphical
representation of streamflow discharge against time.
RUNOFF PROCESS
• Precipitation must satisfy the demands of
evaporation, interception, infiltration,
surface storage, surface detention, and
channel detention before runoff can occur.
RUNOFF AFFECTING RUNOFF
RAINFALL – duration, intensity, and areal distribution
• Duration influences total runoff.
• Intensity influences rate and volume of
runoff.
• An intense storm decreases infiltration rate
because of its destructive action on soil
structure at the surface.
• Areal distribution of rainfall influences rate
and volume of runoff.
WATERSHED - size, shape, orientation, topography,
geology, and surface culture.
• As watershed size increases, the volume and
rate of runoff increases.
• As the runoff area increases, the volume and
rate of runoff decreases.
• Long and narrow watersheds have low runoff
rate.
• Runoff is decreased for storms moving
upstream. Flat areas have low runoff.
• Geology, soil materials and vegetation affect
infiltration rate hence, runoff.
• Structures such as dams affect runoff rate.
MEASUREMENT OF STREAMFLOW
* STAGE – Height of water in a stream
INSTRUMENT OF STAGE
STAFF GAUGE – a graduated staff used for the visual
observation of water level.
CONTINUOUS WATER LEVEL RECORDER –
* RATING CURVE – graph of the stage and streamflow
discharge
* CONTROL SECTION – Section of the stream for which a
rating curve will be developed.
• should be stable and have a sufficient depth of
water for velocity measurements at the lowest
streamflow.
• Should be in a stream section that is straight for
a distance upstream equal to 5x the width of
 the stream, and for a distance downstream
equal to 2x the width of stream.
• Stream bed should be smooth and free from
vegetative growth, boulders, and other
obstructions.
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
FLOAT METHOD – The time required for a floating object
that is tossed into the stream to travel a specified
distance on the surface of the water is observed.
NOTE: The ave. velocity is taken as 80% to 85% of the
surface velocity
CURRENT METER METHOD
- An instrument in which a wheel is made to
rotate about its axis by the force of current.
- The speed of the rotation depends upon the
velocity of water.
WEIRS - barriers placed across the stream over which
water flows; provides a simple and accurate means of
measuring water.
• HEAD – height of water above the crest
• CREST – edge or surface over which the water
flows
* Rectangular, Trapezoidal (Cipolletti), or
Triangular (V-notch).
* Sharp-crested – has a blade with a sharp
upstream edge, so that the passing water
touches only a thin edge and clear the rest of
the crest.
* Broad-crested – has a flat or broad surface
over which the water flows.
FLUMES - artificial open channels built to contain
streamflow’s within designed cross-sectional areas and
length.
• Parshall Flume
• Trapezoidal Flume
TOPIC#3
GROUNDWATER
- Results predominantly from precipitation that
has reached the zone of saturation in the
earth through infiltration and percolation.
- Has the lowest priority on the water from
precipitation, hence, its utilization should be
limited.
- Sources of recharge and surface water
TWO KINDS OF ZONE
ZONE OF AERATION - the pores of soil contain both
water and air in varying amounts; the water in the
upper layers of this zone is called soil moisture.
ZONE OF SATURATION - the pores of the soil or rock
are filled with water; the water in this zone is called
groundwater.
AQUIFER - a geologic formation which contains water
transmits it at a rate sufficient to be economically
developed for pumping.
AQUICLUDE - a geologic formation containing water
but transmits it at a rate insufficient to be
economically developed for pumping.
TYPES OF ACQUIFER
• UNCONFINED/WATER TABLE AQUIFER - has a
water table serving as the upper surface of
the zone of saturation.
• CONFINED OR ARTESIAN AQUIFER - one
where the groundwater is confined by a
relatively impermeable layer.
• SEMI-CONFINED OR LEAKY AQUIFER - the
upper confining layer is leaky or semi-
permeable.
• PERCHED AQUIFER - its lower limit is
relatively impermeable layer while its upper
surface is a free water surface on water table.
ACQUIFER PROPERTIES * Careless household management lawn care and
parking lot
POROSITY - capacity of a formation to contain water.
* Other urban runoff
Specific yield - water can be extracted y gravity flow,
measure of the volume of water yield per unit soil 3. NONPOINT SOURCES - easily identified because
volume. the usually come out of pipe

SPECIFIC RETENTION - water retained by the soul. * Sewage treatment plants

AQUIFER CONDUCTIVITY OR PERMEABILITY - * Large injection wells

measure of the ease with which an aquifer will
* Industrial plants
transmit water.
* Livestock facilities
TRANSMISSIBILITY - measure of the potential
discharge of wells penetrating an aquifer. * Landfills
STORAGE COEFFICIENT - water yielding capacity of a * Others
confined aquifer.

THREATS TO GROUNDWATER

QUANTITY - an increased quantity of groundwater is

being withdrawn to meet the demands of a growing
population.

1. OVERDRAFT - removed faster than recharge

2. DRAWDOWN - it results in a temporarily lowered

water table generally caused by pumping

3. SUBSIDENCE - results from over pumping. As the

water table declines, water pressure is reduced.

POTENTIAL SOURCES IF
CONTAMINATION/POLLUTION
1. QUALITY -

2. POINT SOURCES - widespread, seemingly

insignificant amounts of pollutants which,
cumulatively, threaten water quality and natural
systems

* Septic systems

* Agriculture

* Construction

* Grazing

* Forestry

* Recreational activities