Introduction

1. The period from 1898 to 1901 in China was marked by the Boxer Movement or ‘Yi Ho
Tuan’ Movement, a significant peasant uprising characterized by anti-Manchu and
anti-foreign sentiments. Following the Opium Wars, Sino-Western relations underwent a
shift, leading to increased foreign influence and exposing the Manchus' inefficacy. The
Boxer Movement reflected growing discontent against internal unrest and foreign
encroachments, making it the last major anti-imperialist movement of the 19th century in
China.
2. In 1899, anti-missionary and anti-Manchu riots erupted in Shantung. Foreign powers
pressured the imperial government to act against the Boxers after a British missionary was
killed. In June 1900, foreign troops marched on Peking, resulting in a siege. Initially siding
with the Boxers, the imperial authority's intentions became ambiguous. The arrival of
foreign brigades led to the collapse of the Manchu-Boxer alliance. The Boxers'
anti-dynastic stance emerged again, and by early 1901, the uprising was quelled. This event
underscored the societal discontent, internal turmoil, and foreign intrusion in China,
highlighting the complexities of the period.

Causes of Boxer Movement

1. The Boxer Uprising in late 19th and early 20th century China was a complex and
multi-causal phenomenon, resulting from a convergence of factors that profoundly
influenced traditional Chinese society and economy. These factors included the rigid
hierarchical structure rooted in Confucianism, the impact of Western imperialism, and the
role of the Manchu rulers. All of these elements contributed to the escalating discontent
among the Chinese populace during the 19th century, culminating in the Boxer Rebellion.
2. Traditional Chinese society, guided by Confucian principles, was far from the democratic
and flexible structure portrayed by some Western scholars. The society was highly
stratified, with a rigid hierarchical order that limited social mobility. Max Weber's analysis
highlighted the exploitation inherent in this system, where the elite gentry, defined by their
power, wealth, and knowledge, controlled tax collection and administration. The peasantry,
burdened by heavy taxes and exploitation despite the theoretical promise of social mobility,
remained discontented. Although peasant uprisings were common, they were often
spontaneous and scattered, making them easy to suppress. However, this simmering
discontent found a collective voice in the Boxer Movement.
3. Natural calamities exacerbated the already dire situation. Frequent floods, particularly the
devastating Yellow River floods in Shantung, and a severe drought in 1900 intensified the
suffering of millions. Additionally, a significant rise in population between 1873-1893
further strained limited resources. This population growth led to greater fragmentation of
land and adversely affected agricultural production. The peasantry faced high rents, heavy
taxes, and mounting debt, causing widespread impoverishment in regions like South Zhili,
Henan, and Shandong. Meanwhile, the Manchu rulers continued their extravagant lifestyle,
disconnected from the dire conditions faced by their subjects. The ruling elite, notably the
Manchu Bannermen and the Green Standard Army, consumed a significant portion of the
revenue, further deepening resentment among the population.
4. The failure of the 1898 Reform Movement intensified disillusionment with the Manchu
government. The Boxer Movement, according to historian Chesneaux, became a crusade
for the common people to protect their country when the government appeared incapable.
Foreign encroachment on Chinese sovereignty further fueled discontent. After China's
defeat by Japan, the unequal Treaty of Shimonoseki imposed heavy war indemnities,
leading China to borrow extensively from foreign countries. The resulting economic strain
 allowed foreign banks to dictate terms to the Manchu government, exacerbating
impoverishment.
5. Imperialist expansion in the late 19th century led to the division of China into spheres of
influence claimed by foreign powers, including Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Italy, Japan, and Russia. The influx of foreign goods and capital led to a trade deficit,
further destabilizing the Chinese economy. Farmers, responding to market demands,
increasingly focused on cash crops, but their prices rose more slowly than imported
products due to foreign control over customs tariffs and the credit system. The rise of
foreign trade, coupled with industrialization and the growth of large towns, disrupted
traditional agrarian economy, leading to exploitation, unemployment, and social
antagonism.
6. Missionary activities in China further deepened social tensions. Churches, often built on the
ruins of Chinese temples, were perceived as symbols of Western arrogance. Christian
doctrines clashed with traditional Chinese beliefs, and Chinese converts, often anti-social
elements, received preferential treatment. Anti-missionary riots, such as the Tientsin
Massacre of 1870, fueled resentment and strengthened existing secret societies like the Big
Sword Society, aiming to eradicate foreigners.
7. In essence, the Boxer Uprising emerged from a volatile mix of social, economic, and
political factors, highlighting the deep-seated discontent within Chinese society. The
convergence of traditional hierarchies, foreign imperialism, and internal corruption led to a
collective outburst in the form of the Boxer Movement, as the common people sought to
reclaim their nation and cultural identity amidst overwhelming challenges.

Nature of the Movement

1. The Boxer Uprising of 1899-1901 in China stands as a complex and contested episode in
history, characterized by a blend of social, political, and religious factors. Emerging
spontaneously in 1898 on the borders of Chihli and Shantung, the Boxers were closely
associated with secret societies like the Eight Trigrams and the White Lotus Society. In
1899, they formalized themselves into a distinct society known as the ‘Righteous and
Harmonious Fists’ (Yi Ho Tuan). Their practices included animistic rituals and spells,
believed to make them impervious to bullets and pain, which contributed to their mystique.
2. The Boxer Movement was marked by its multi-dimensional character, drawing participants
from various societal strata. Peasants, urban poor, disbanded soldiers, and even some
members of the gentry joined their ranks. Women played a crucial role, organized into
different branches based on age, highlighting the movement's diversity. The Boxers'
military organization, despite lacking a single leader and hierarchical structure, exhibited
better organization and discipline than the Manchu army, refraining from looting and
plundering. However, their weakness lay in the absence of a unified military leader, a
formal hierarchy, and a clearly defined code of conduct.
3. Historians have debated the nature of the Boxer Movement, presenting varied perspectives.
Western historians often portrayed it as a frenzied xenophobic reaction against progress
and modernization brought by foreign powers, especially missionaries. In contrast, Chinese
Communist historians viewed it as a nationalistic patriotic revolution or a peasant
movement rooted in traditional patterns. Scholars like Victor Purcell and Chesneaux
offered nuanced analyses, emphasizing the movement's complexity and rejecting simplistic
interpretations.
4. The Boxer Movement exhibited anti-missionary sentiments, primarily because missionaries
represented visible symbols of foreign presence, particularly in rural China. Fundamental
ideological differences between Christianity and Confucianism, along with tactless acts by
missionaries, fueled anti-Christian sentiments among the Boxers. While some scholars like
 G.N. Steiger argued that the movement was not inherently anti-Christian, others like A.H.
Smith placed blame on Christian missionaries for their arrogance, leading to the Boxer
Uprising. Victor Purcell, however, contended that the Boxers opposed missionaries not
solely due to religious reasons but because they represented foreign imperialism.
5. Examining the Boxer Uprising in terms of its peasant or plebeian character, historians like
Chesneaux pointed out that approximately 70% of the Boxers were of peasant origin,
leading Chinese historians to term it as a peasant uprising. However, the Boxer Movement
also attracted support from various social classes, including boatmen, peddlers, monks,
teachers, porters, craftsmen, traders, merchants, disbanded soldiers, and members of the
gentry. Women, organized into different groups, played significant roles. The involvement
of different social classes highlighted the movement's unity and diversity, emphasizing its
broad-based appeal.
6. The nature of the Boxer Movement's anti-foreign sentiments remains a subject of debate.
While some Western historians portrayed it as a xenophobic outburst against all foreign
progress in China, the movement's widespread appeal indicated deeper-rooted causes. It
exhibited a strong anti-Manchu leaning, reflecting a nationalistic and patriotic foundation.
The Boxers' slogan, ‘Overthrow the Ching, restore the Ming,’ underscored their
anti-Manchu sentiments. Economic changes, combined with foreign intrusion and
missionary activities, contributed to the movement's anti-foreign sentiments, shaping its
multifaceted character.
7. The leadership and religious affiliations of the Boxer Movement have also been contentious
topics. G.N. Steiger denied its heretical character, considering the Boxers a legally
constituted militia loyal to the Manchus. In contrast, scholars like Victor Purcell
highlighted the movement's evolving anti-Manchu stance and its association with secret
societies, which influenced its religious and heretical character. The Boxers' struggle
against the Manchus, their changing identities, and their interaction with different secret
societies showcased the movement's complex dynamics.
8. Despite its eventual suppression, the Boxer Movement had a lasting impact. It exposed the
Manchus' inability to handle foreign powers, hastening their fall. The movement led to
some reform measures, albeit ineffective, and paved the way for independent revolutionary
forces like Sun Yat Sen. It temporarily slowed foreign attempts to partition China and
marked the birth of Chinese nationalism, viewed as proto-nationalism or a primitive form
of patriotic peasant uprising by different scholars.

Significance
1. The Boxer Movement exposed the Qing Dynasty's weaknesses, hastening its fall and
influencing future revolutionary endeavors, notably the 1911 Revolution. As a consequence
of the Boxer Movement, the Qing government stood exposed as a collaborator of the
imperialists, leading a large number of people to believe in revolution as the only panacea
for the country's problems.
2. The Boxer Uprising was a bold attempt to give a blow to imperialist aggression. Purcell
thinks the Movement not only stopped the foreign powers' attempt to partition China, but
also signalized the birth of Chinese nationalism. According to him, the Boxer Movement
was a resurgence of revolutionary fevour of the peasantry of North China in the true
tradition of heretical sects.
3. In the opinion of Chinese historians, the Boxer Movement scared the imperialist powers out
of their wits and put the brakes on imperialist designs to partition China. Another great
historical significance of the Boxer Movement lies in the awakening of the Chinese
people's patriotic consciousness. Chinese historians believe that the Movement not only
 educated the Chinese people about the true nature of imperialist aggression, but also
exposed the treasonous character of the Qing authorities.
4. Fan Wenlan observes that the Boxer Movement shook the entire country. Even the coolies
and domestic servants of the foreigners in Shanghai felt that the hour of finally settling
score with the foreigners had arrived. Hu Sheng further goes on to say that after this
Movement, the Chinese people never looked back. Their revolutionary movement surged
forward wave after wave till they achieved complete victory over feudalism and
imperialism. The Chinese government in its official declarations calls this Movement "a
patriotic anti-imperialist uprising, mainly of peasants" and the climax of the Chinese
people's struggle against aggression and partition which also hit hard at (the imperialism's)
appendages, the feudal forces. Thus, the Movement is also seen as "a cornerstone of the
victory of the Chinese communist revolution."
5. The movement, rooted in anti-foreign and anti-Manchu sentiments, represented the birth of
Chinese nationalism, as noted by Chesneaux, marking the unity of diverse social classes
against perceived threats. Victor Purcell emphasized its multifaceted nature, associating it
with secret societies, blending traditional beliefs with anti-foreign fervor.
6. Historians like G.N. Steiger and A. J. Smith debated the role of missionaries and foreign
powers, with Steiger denying a heretical character, while Smith blamed arrogant
missionaries for provoking the Chinese masses.
7. Additionally, it temporarily halted foreign attempts to partition China, challenging
imperialist dominance. This multifaceted impact, spanning nationalism, politics, society,
culture, foreign relations, and historiography, underscores the Boxer Movement's enduring
significance in Chinese history.

Conclusion
1. There were certain inherent weaknesses in the organization of the Boxer Movement. The
absence of any definite leadership, hierarchy and ideology, especially when compared to
the Taiping Movement, were key factors in their ultimate failure. The Boxers did not
question Confucianism and were also less revolutionary than the Taipings. The Boxers were
conservative and laid great emphasis on spiritual and physical superiority. It was essentially
a “traditional Movement”, which sought to remove all modernizing and Western
elements, and in this context the age-old concept of Chung-kuo was invoked and restored
once again. They never spoke of any land reforms or attacked feudalism. The only
progressive element in their ideology was the focus on equality of gender. The common
bond was due to a commitment to Taoist, Confucian and Buddhist thought.
2. The Boxer Uprising of the late 19th century, although a massive upheaval, failed in its
anti-imperial and anti-feudal goals. Participation of anti-social elements and lack of
organization and ideology weakened their cause. Despite declaring war, the Boxers did not
seize full control of Peking or instigate significant changes, raising doubts about their
revolutionary character. Historian Hu Sheng attributed their failure to the absence of
initiative and coherent leadership, distinguishing them from earlier movements like the
Taiping Rebellion. The Boxers, instead of implementing change, primarily focused on
protecting the Manchus, highlighting the complexities and limitations of their uprising.
3. Thus, The Boxer Movement expressed China’s growing unrest, her resentment against
foreign encroachment and, above all, the will of the Chinese people to resist. As
Schurmann and Schell put it, “the Boxer Rebellion represented a fusion of two distinct
currents of 19th century China – humiliation by the West and decline from within, the
former expressed in the powerful West’s encroachment and the latter expressed in
popular internal rebellion.”