Laser Physics

PAPER Related content

- Effect of concentration of hyaluronic acid
Wear resistance of laser-induced annealing of AISI and NaCl on corrosion behavior of 316L
austenitic stainless steel
316 (EN 1.4401) stainless steel Ankur V Bansod, Nilay N Khobragade,
Karansagar V Giradkar et al.

- Effect of dissolved oxygen on the

To cite this article: K M cka et al 2018 Laser Phys. 28 096005 corrosion behavior of 304 SS in 0.1 N nitric
acid containing chloride
Nilay N Khobragade, Ankur V Bansod and
Awanikumar P Patil

- Effects of carbon ions irradiation on the

View the article online for updates and enhancements. electrochemical response of AISI 304
stainless steel
Mohsin Rafique, Naveed Afzal, A Farooq
et al.

This content was downloaded from IP address 128.113.26.88 on 18/09/2018 at 09:15

 Astro Ltd Laser Physics

Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005 (8pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1555-6611/aac507

Wear resistance of laser-induced annealing

of AISI 316 (EN 1.4401) stainless steel
K M Łęcka1, A J Antończak1, P Kowalewski2 and M Trzcinski3
1
Faculty of Electronics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27,
50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
3
Institute of Mathematics and Physics, University of Science and Technology, Kaliskiego 7,
85-789 Bydgoszcz, Poland

E-mail: katarzyna.lecka@pwr.edu.pl

Received 6 April 2018, revised 4 May 2018

Accepted for publication 14 May 2018
Published 17 July 2018

Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the impact of the laser annealing process on the wear
resistance and corrosion properties of one of the most commonly used AISI 316 (EN 1.4401)
stainless steels. The samples were irradiated using a common available fiber laser (Yb:glass)
system in an ambient environment. Considering that laser radiation changes the morphology
and physicochemical structure of the surface layer, as well as the mechanical properties,
extensive research has been conducted. Electrochemical tests, accelerated corrosion tests
in neutral salt spray, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy chemical analysis, microscopic
examination, roughness, as well as friction and wear, were carried out. This study has shown
that by properly controlling the energy density of laser radiation, the corrosion resistance of
the material can be significantly improved. It has also shown that layers coated with laser-
induced oxides are more resistant to wear than the reference samples.
Keywords: laser-induced oxidation, laser annealing, stainless steel, AISI 316 (EN 1.4401),
abrasion resistance, corrosion, fiber laser

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction [1–6]. In many cases (biomedical, engineering, aerospace),

The intensive development and numerous advantages of laser
material processing technologies; in particular, high-accuracy
and repeatability, the non-contact nature of the process (no
pressure, no deformation), as well as the lack of a necessity
to use chemical reagents, matrices, forms (high-flexibility)
and low material waste, imply the widespread use of these
techniques for the processing of, among others, metals and
their alloys. Nevertheless, the use of laser radiation for the
modification of metals and their alloys (including those with
increased corrosion resistance) by annealing the surface
layer (creating oxide coatings below the ablation threshold),
as well as erosion treatments (structuring above the ablation
threshold), exert a significant impact on the initial mechanical
parameters of the surface layer, as well as a resistance of these
materials to corrosion, especially in aggressive environmental
conditions (e.g. with increased chloride ions concentration)
1555-6611/18/096005+8$33.00
due to the unpredictable and, in most cases, negative impact
on friction, elasticity or on the corrosion resistance; this sig-
nificantly limits the ability to use laser techniques.
Nevertheless, numerous scientific studies have shown that
laser modification of the steel surface (by thermal oxidation)
can contribute to the improvement of the surface layer param­
eters. Aniołek et al have shown that the process of thermal
oxidation enabled the obtaining of oxide layers featuring a
five-times-higher hardness as compared with non-oxidised
titanium [1]. As mentioned earlier, laser modification allows
us to change the microstructure as well as the composition of
the top layer, which may improve the integrity of the alloy
surface, increasing the functionality of the material in order
to adapt to the requirements of the industry [2, 7, 8]. Svantner
et al have shown that laser process parameters (especially a
pulse repetition rate and a pulse length) exert a significant
impact on the surface properties and thus on the corrosion
1 © 2018 Astro Ltd Printed in the UK
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005
Table 1. Set of process parameters selected for the experiment.
No. FA [J cm−2] V [mm s−1] No. FA [J cm−2]
1 10 1981 9 90
2 20 990 10 100
3 30 660 11 150
4 40 495 12 200
5 50 396 13 250
6 60 330 14 300
7 70 283 15 350
8 80 248 16 400
resistance. Moreover, they show a correlation between fer-
rite, oxide and their corrosion properties [9]. The study has
also shown that the laser process enables the active dissolu-
tion of the stainless steel, and decreases the pitting potential
by around 200 mV and the repassivation potential by 250 mV
[10]. Lawrence et al have indicated that the oxide cracking
can be gradually reduced by reducing the oxide thickness by
up to  <100 nm [3].
Despite the fact that extensive past research has concerned
itself with various aspects of laser processing, including,
among others, the morphology [9, 10], chemical and phase
composition [11–13], hardness [3, 14], tribological and cor-
rosion properties [3, 4, 9, 13, 15–17], there is still a lack of
complete information on wear behavior and corrosion resist­
ance of the laser modified surface of AISI 316 stainless steel.
AISI 316 (EN 1.4401, X5CrNiMo17-12-2) stainless steel
and its alloys—due to its superior corrosion and oxidation
resistance, good mechanical properties and fabricability—has
applications in many sectors of industry. It is commonly used
in biomedical, engineering, pharmaceutical, and chemical
applications, for example. The molybdenum makes the steel
more resistant to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-con-
taminated media, sea water, and acetic acid vapors. The lower
rate of general corrosion in mildly corrosive environments
gives the steel good atmospheric corrosion resistance in pol-
luted marine atmospheres. Due to the fact that stainless steel
contains elements such as Cu or Cr, which are dissolved dur-
ing corrosion and can be incorporated into the corrosion layer,
significant changes in corrosion behavior can be expected
[18]. The chemical composition of AISI 304 and AISI 316 is
slightly different, however their uses are completely different.
For this reason, the authors decided to conduct extended stud-
ies in reference to AISI 304 stainless steel [19].
The main objective of this work is to shed light on the unu-
sual wear and corrosion behavior of AISI 316 stainless steel
after laser-induced annealing at a certain laser energy density,
which may exert a significant impact on various applications
such as biomedical, air, maritime and decoration industries.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Substrates
This research was performed on a commonly used stainless
steel AISI 316 (2B cold rolled sheets with chemical com-
position: Cr  =  17%, Ni  =  12%, Mo  =  2.5%, Mn  =  2%max,
2
K M Łęcka et al
V [mm s−1] P [W] PRR [kHz] h [µm]
220 4.4 80 10
198
132
99
79
66
57
50
Si  =  1%max, C  =  0.008%max) with a dimension of 20  ×  20 mm
and a thicknesses of 1 mm. Samples were irradiated over a
15  ×  15 mm surface. The plates were pre-coated with an anti-
scratch, polymer foil, which was removed before the experi-
ment. Before the laser treatment process, samples had also
been washed in an ultrasonic cleaner filled with isopropyl
alcohol and were compressed helium-dried.
2.2. Laser setup
Experiments were conducted using an Ytterbium (Yb3+:glass)
fiber laser (1062 nm) with an maximum average output power
of about 25 W, a beam quality factor M2  ⩽  1.2, a constant
pulse duration of about τ  =  230 ns and a pulse repetition rate
PRR within the range of 20–80 kHz (IPG, YLP series). The
laser system was equipped with a galvanometer-based optical
scanner. The laser beam was focused on the target through
a 160 mm focal length F-Theta lens (LIONS type 4401-305-
000-21). The beam diameter 2ω0 at the focal point was approx-
imately 40 µm. In order to stabilize the initial temperature of
the substrate at 20  ±  0.1 °C, a thermoelectric cooler and a
temperature controller (ILX Lightwave type LDT-5525) were
used. The samples were marked in an ambient environment.
In this research, during the annealing process, the laser
energy density (the accumulated fluence) was changed. For all
the investigated cases, the same pulse repetition rate (80 kHz),
and a constant value of optical power (4.4 W), as well as the
constant value of the hatching distance (10 µm) was used.
Selected values of the accumulated fluence FA for this experi-
ment are shown in table 1.
The maximum accumulated laser fluence (in the central
point of one process line) was defined as [20]:
√  
2 2P J
(1) FA = ,
πω0 V cm2
where P is the average laser power, ω0 is the radius of the
laser beam at the focal point, and V is the scanning speed of
the sample.
The study was also carried out for a reference plate that was
not irradiated (this sample was labeled as ‘Ref’ or ‘0 J cm−2’).
2.3. Electrochemical corrosion tests
The measurement was conducted using an electrochemical
glass cell (Atlas SollichNDS-50/10/60) consisting of three
electrodes: a working electrode—a test specimen of steel
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005
(its circular part of the surface, with a diameter of 10 mm),
a counter­ electrode—a platinum electrode, and a saturated
calomel electrode (SCE)—the reference electrode. Tests
were conducted using the potentio-dynamic method in accor-
dance with ISO 17475. Seals made of rubber Viton® (FKM,
Vinylidienefluoridehexafluropropylene), which distinguished
enhanced chemical and thermal resistance, derived from the
DuPont company, were used. The open circuit potential of the
steel was recorded for 2 h. A controlled change of the potential
within the range from  ±0.5 V versus the SCE (scan rate V  =  1
mV s−1) was generated using an ATLAS 1131 electrochemical
unit and an impedance analyzer. A 3% sodium chloride solu-
tion was used. The results were recorded in the AtlasCorr11
program, and then processed in the AtlasLab program (dedi-
cated for electrochemical research), which, according to the
Tafel law and linear interpolation rule, defines a linear rela-
tionship between the logarithm of the absolute values of the
current density and the predetermined potential. The corro-
sion resistance was evaluated using the polarization resistance
parameter (Rp). Polarization resistance is a measure of the
specimen resistance toward corrosion while it is connected to
an external potential source. The main function of Rp is to cal-
culate the corrosion current icorr, which is determined prior to
calculating the corrosion rate. The following expression elu-
cidates the relationship between Rp, Tafel constants and icorr:
∆E βa · βc
Rp =
(2) = [kΩ · cm2 ],
∆I 2.3 · icorr · (βa · βc)
where: Rp—polarization curve slope, βa—polarization
Tafel constant, βc—cathodic Tafel constant, icorr—corrosion
current.
2.4. Accelerated corrosion test in neutral salt spray
The corrosion tests were performed according to the ISO
9227:2012 standard for exposure in an atmosphere of neu-
trals salt spray, inside the brine chamber 600 MAWRO. In
those tests, a 3% aqueous solution of NaCl was sprayed in the
chamber. The conditions inside the chamber were as follows:
the temperature set at 35  ±  2 °C, the average rate of collec-
tion for the horizontal collection surface of 80 cm2 equal to
1.5  ±  0.5 ml h−1 and the pH value in the range of 6.9  ±  3. The
examination time was determined in accordance with the rec-
ommendations provided by the ISO standard and accordingly
set to: 6, 12, 24, 48, and 96 h. The angle of inclination of the
samples during the tests was 75°.
2.5. Chemical analysis of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS)
The chemical composition of samples was analysed using
x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy x-ray photoelectron spectr­
oscopy (XPS). Spectra were obtained in an ultra-high vac-
uum condition under the base pressure of ~2 · 105 mPa. The
measurements were performed using a roentgen lamp as the
source of monochromatic radiation: Al Kα (ħω  =  1486.6 eV).
The x-ray source was placed at 55° to the normal position
3
K M Łęcka et al
Figure 1. Block diagram of the system used for friction and wear
of the coatings in the plate-ball system.
of investigated samples. The analysis of photoelectrons was
carried out using a hemispherical spectro­meter (VG Scienta
R3000) positioned perpendicular to the analyzed surface. The
position of the adventitious carbon peak (285 eV) was used as
a reference for calibration. The area of the deconvoluted spec-
tra with respect to the relative sensitivity factor of each comp­
onent was taken as a measure of atomic concentration. The
experimental data was fitted to Gauss-Lorentz shapes using
CasaXPS® software from Casa Software Ltd.
2.6. The morphology of the samples
The morphology of the samples was accessed using both a
Keyence VHX-5000 digital microscope and an SEM Zeiss
MA25 scanning electron microscope. The SEM measure-
ments were conducted under the pressure of ~2 mPa and with
an accelerating voltage of 20 kV.
2.7. The surface roughness
The roughness measurement (Ra, Rt, Rz) was obtained using
a MarSurf PS 10 roughness meter. The length examined
was 12.5 mm. The obtained results are the average of five
measurements.
2.8. Friction and wear of the coating using reciprocating
motion
The wear follow-up was achieved using a device that allows us
to measure the sliding friction force in an alternating motion
[21]. The SiC ball with a diameter of 3.969 mm and a hardness
HV  =  2800 mm was pressed by weights (with Fn force) to the
sample surface. The system that moves the plate consisted
of two bearing bogies moving in the same direction, which
allows for the separation of the friction force. The drive was
an electric actuator consisting of a stepper motor and a helical
gear. The strength of the movement was transferred from the
bigger to the smaller trolley by a strain gauge load cell. The
system allowed a setting of the fixed movement of the steel
plate with respect to the ball with a determined speed Vs and
displacement s. The force causing the motion FT was recorded
at a frequency of 10 Hz. The kinematic scheme of the friction
pair used during the tests is presented in figure 1.
During each stage of the three-measurement series, the
steel plate (on the moving trolley) made a series of 200 move-
ment cycles. The movement cycle consisted of two movements
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005 K M Łęcka et al

a) 4.5 b) 0.30
NaCl
NaCl
4.0
0.25
3.5
3.0 0.20

J [µA/cm2]
R [MΩ·cm2]

2.5
0.15
2.0
1.5 0.10
1.0
0.05
0.5
0.0 0.00
Ref 100 200 300 400 Ref 100 200 300 400
FA [J/cm2] FA [J/cm2]

Figure 2. Electrochemical measurements: (a) the polarization resistance Rp and (b) corrosion current density J as a function of laser energy
density (accumulated fluence) FA, taken in the neutral (3% NaCl, pH  =  7) environment.

Figure 3. Microscope photos of samples after treatment in a brine chamber for different accumulated laser fluence values and for five
periods of exposure.

(Vsmax  =  5 mm s−1) in both directions. Running time in each
direction was 0.4 s, and the friction node load was FN  =  2 N.
The tests were carried out under conditions of technically dry
friction. The friction coefficient μ was calculated based on the
average friction force FT. The value of wear was the average
width of the wear track on the steel sample measured using the
microscope after the test.
3. Results and discussion
One of the most relevant parameters that determines the use-
fulness of laser marking in specific applications is the mat­
erial’s corrosion resistance. Electrochemical measurements
were performed in a 3% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.
A significant increase in the polarization resistance Rp—the
parameter that illustrates the corrosivity of the material in the
best way—in the low accumulated fluence range (20–70 J
cm−2) can be observed (figure 2(a)). Moreover, in this range
of accumulated laser fluence, a simultaneous decrease in cor-
rosion current density, which indicates the intensity of the pro-
cess, was recorded (figure 2(b)). It indicates that the sample
is more resistant to corrosion. For the higher density of laser
energy (>70 J cm−2), the corrosive properties deteriorated
with a tendency to oscillate the value of both polarization
resistance and corrosion current density (figure 2). Similar to
our previous work [19], a significant increase in corrosion cur­
rent density, for the higher accumulated laser fluence  >  250
J cm−2 is observed (figure 2(b)). An accelerated corrosion
resistance test performed for exposure in saline mist with a
3% NaCl solution visually confirms the trends observed in

4
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005 K M Łęcka et al

a) b) c)
Cr 2p Mn 2p Fe 2p Fe metal (2p3/2) 707 eV
MnO2 (2p3/2) 642 eV
Cr2O3 Fe2O3 (2p3/2) 711 eV
(2p3/2)
577 eV MnO2 (2p1/2) 653 eV
Cr2O3 (2p1/2) 30 J/cm2
587 eV
50 J/cm2
30 J/cm2
30 J/cm2
Intensity / [arb. units]

Intensity / [arb. units]

Intensity / [arb. units]

70 J/cm2
50 J/cm2
50 J/cm2
100 J/cm2
70 J/cm2
70 J/cm2
200 J/cm2
100 J/cm2 100 J/cm2

300 J/cm2
200 J/cm2 200 J/cm2

REF
300 J/cm2 300 J/cm2

REF
REF.
Fe3+ (2p3/2) Sat. 719 eV
Cr2O3 (2p3/2) 579 eV Fe3O4 (2p3/2) 709 eV

605 595 585 575 565 675 665 655 645 635 625 755 735 715 695
Binding energy [eV] Binding energy [eV] Binding energy [eV]

Figure 4. The change in the XPS photoemission spectra lines of the: (a) Cr 2p, (b) Mn 2p, (c) Fe 2p as a function of the accumulated laser
fluence.

a) b)
12 5
Fe Cr Mn

10
4

8
C. norm. [at.%]

3
6
Cr/Fe

2
4

1
2

0 0
Ref 30 50 70 90 100 200 300 Ref 30 50 70 90 100 200 300
FA [J/cm2] FA [J/cm2]

Figure 5. Atomic concentration of: (a) Fe, Cr, and Mn, (b) the Cr/Fe ratio as a function of the accumulated laser fluence.

electrochemical studies. For each of the examined exposure surface of AISI 316 stainless steel. This is due to the stronger
times (6–96 h), the first signs of corrosion were observed for affinity of chromium to oxygen (thermodynamic preference—
the accumulated laser fluence of 150 J cm−2 (figure 3). the highest negative free energy ΔG0 among the agents occur-
Furthermore, the corrosion intensity increases with the ring in the substrate) or the MnCr2O3 spinel [5, 6, 25]. The
laser fluence. A similar correlation between a reduction in the chromium oxide α-Cr2O3 formed on the surface of stainless
pitting corrosion and surface roughness and microcracks and steel is an effective passivation layer in normal conditions of
thus an increase in the current density, has also been observed usage (low humidity, temperature and concentration of chlo-
by Krawczyk et al [22]. ral ions). The concentration of Cr2O3 (intensity of bands 2p1/2
As is commonly known, the corrosion resistance of a 587 eV and 2p3/2 577 eV) decreases with the increasing density
material is a function of the chemical composition and rough- of laser energy. For higher values of accumulated laser fluence
ness (geometry) of a sample’s surface. In order to assess the (F  >  200 J cm−2), the appearance of an additional maximum
elemental composition of the tested samples, XPS was used. in the chromium spectrum is visible—it seems that it could
Selected photoemission spectra for three main elements in the probably come from CrO3 (2p3/2 579 eV). An increase in laser
form of Fe 2p, Cr 2p and Mn 2p lines, versus the density of fluence leads to the diffusion of iron through a thin layer of
laser energy, are presented in figure 4. The observed changes Cr2O3. As a result, this contributes to the formation of mainly
are similar to those obtained with AISI 304 stainless steel [19]. the iron oxide Fe2O3 on the surface, whereas the original layer
Low densities of laser energy allow the creation of a thin pas- of Cr2O3, which lies deeper (figure 4(c)).
sive layer, composed mainly of chromium oxide Cr2O3 (figure In the process of laser annealing steel surfaces, the con-
4(a)). In addition, small amounts of manganese oxide MnO2 centration of elements is clearly dependent on the applied
(2p3/2 642 eV) [23, 24] can also be noticed (figure 4(b)) on the accumulated laser fluence (figure 5(a)). As in previous work

5
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005 K M Łęcka et al

Figure 6. Microscopic images of oxide layers (Keyence VHX-5000) created on the surface of AISI 316 stainless steel with laser radiation:
(a) 30, (b) 50, (c) 70, (d) 100, (e) 150, (f) 200, (g) 250, (h) 300, (i) 350 and (j) 400 J cm−2.

Figure 7. Microscopic images of oxide layers (Zeiss EVO MA 24) created on the surface of AISI 316 stainless steel with laser radiation:
(a) 30, (b) 50, (c) 70, (d) 100, (e) 150, (f) 200, (g) 250, (h) 300, (i) 350, (j) 400 J cm−2.

[19], for low accumulated laser fluence (F  <  100 J cm−2),
the ratio of the Cr/Fe is much higher (Cr:Fe ratio  1) than
for the reference sample (figure 5(b)). It is very important to
note that one can see the main trend line of the polarization
resistance—shown in figure 2(a)—reflects the Cr/Fe ratio.
Thus, the Cr/Fe ratio seems to be one of the main factors (and
simultaneously major in the low accumulated fluence range)
affecting the corrosion properties of stainless steel in the laser
annealing process.
It is known that the corrosion is not determined only by
chemistry but also by the surface morphology. The morph­
ology of the oxide layers prepared with the use of the laser
annealing process in the wide range of accumulated fluence
(30–400 J cm−2) was evaluated using both the Keyence digital
microscope (figure 6) and the Zeiss EVO MA 24 SEM micro-
scope (figure 7). Due to the high-temperature gradients and
the lack of isothermicity within the substrate, the laser pro-
cess in the beam scanning mode does not allow the produc-
tion of homogeneous coatings, which is in line with the study
by Švantner et al. They also noticed that high-temperature
gradients can initiate e.g. crack occurrence, ferrite formation
or residual stresses [9]. In this process, we can distinguish two
sources of heterogeneity; point-by-point irradiation and a line-
by-line irradiation scheme. Both of these effects are visible in
the pictures as the boundaries between the individual exposed
areas. For low accumulated laser fluence, the point-to-point
boundaries, as well as the line-to-line, look similar. For larger
fluencies (⩾50 J cm−2—figure 6(b); for SEM analysis 70 J
cm−2—figure 7(c)), the boundaries corresponding to the over-
lap of individual lines begin to dominate.
Despite these low values of laser energy density, the
oxide layer is relatively homogeneous (figures 7(a) and (b)).
Above the accumulated fluence of 100 J cm−2, microcracks
appear. Lawrence et al have shown that the surface cracking is
observed on oxides with thicknesses greater than 100 nm [14].
The oxide layers formed in the laser process crack while cool-
ing down, forming irregular agglomerates averaging 2 ÷ 5 µm
in size. The cause for this is the high speed of cooling down
by the oxide layer being formed and the residual stress result-
ing from the raster method of scanning of sample as well as a

6
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005 K M Łęcka et al

a) b)
0.30 3.0
Rt_max Rz

2.5
0.25
2.0

0.20 1.5
Ra [µm]

R [µm]
1.0
0.15
0.5

0.10 0.0
Ref 30 50 70 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Ref 30 50 70 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
FA [J/cm2] FA [J/cm2]

Figure 8. The roughness (a) Ra, (b) Rtmax and Rz, as a function of accumulated laser fluence.

a) b)
0.25 250
230
210
0.20
190
170
Zl [um]

0.15 150
µ [-]

130
110
0.10
90
70
0.05 50
Ref 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Ref 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
FA [J/cm2] FA [J/cm2]

Figure 9. (a) The coefficient of friction and (b) the track width versus laser energy density.

different thermal linear expandability of the substrate and the
oxide layer formed. Surface cracks seem to be an ideal place
to start pitting corrosion.
The very interesting effect of the above changes are
reflected in the profilometric analysis (roughness meas-
urements). In the range of low accumulated laser fluences
(F  <  100 J cm−2), both Ra and Rz slightly decrease in relation
to the reference sample. For higher laser fluence, the values of
roughness parameters increase rapidly (with some tendency to
fluctuations that is directly related to the changes observed in
electrochemical studies; figure 2(a), figure 8). The roughness
decrease after the formation of these oxide layers by means of
a fiber laser was also observed in the ST20 steel [26].
The effect of surface smoothing for low values of accu-
mulated laser fluence results directly from the fact that the
formation of the oxide layer averages the micro inhomoge-
neities. The significant pitch of the roughness value corre-
sponds to the case in which the layer begins to crack—150
J cm−2. Further fluctuations in roughness are the effect of
competition between the layer’s micro-crack formation and
its re-melting. Each of these processes dominates locally at a
different moment. What is particularly important, for higher
accumulated fluences (>100 J cm−2), polarization resistance
decreases when the roughness increases and vice versa (com-
pare figures 2(a) and 8(a)).
The last set of tests were the measurement of the coeffi-
cient of friction and the wear of the coating using a recipro-
cating motion. As can be seen in figure 9(a), for each case
being exposed by a laser, the coefficient of friction is about
twice as low as for the reference sample. In addition, for each
exposed sample, the track width decreases (relatively to the
reference sample), which means the susceptibility for abrasive
wear significantly decreases (figure 9(b)). For the laser accu-
mulated fluence F  =  100 and F  =  300 J cm−2, the track width
ZI is  <  40% lower compared to the reference sample.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a results analysis of the impact of laser
thermal treatment of the surface of stainless steel in the
atmospheric environment on its corrosion resistance, sur-
face morph­ology and wear resistance. Similarly to our pre-
vious work on AISI 304 steel [19], we have confirmed that
by properly controlling the energy density of laser radiation,
the corrosion resistance of the material can be significantly
improved. Analysis of the chemical composition indicates that
this favorable trend corresponds to an increase in the ratio of
chromium to iron in the surface layer. The main trend line
of polarization resistance is almost identical to the Cr/Fe

7
Laser Phys. 28 (2018) 096005
ratio curve. Significantly, the visible differences between the
considered curves directly indicate the corrosion processes
caused by the surface morphology. It has also been shown that
layers coated with laser-induced oxides are more resistant to
wear than the reference sample. The main disadvantages of
the laser process under consideration are the heterogeneity of
the produced coatings resulting from the quasi-point interac-
tion of the laser beam and, for higher accumulated fluence val-
ues, microcracks responsible for crevice or pitting corrosion.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by the statutory funds No.
0401/0134/17.
References
[1] Aniołek K, Kupka M and Barylski A 2016 Sliding wear resist­
ance of oxide layers formed on a titanium surface during
thermal oxidation Wear 356 23–29
[2] Chan C-W, Lee S, Smith G, Sarri G, Ng C H, Sharba A
and Man H C 2016 Enhancement of wear and corrosion
resistance of beta titanium alloy by laser gas alloying with
nitrogen Appl. Surf. Sci. 367 80–90
[3] Lawrence S K, Adams D P, Bahr D F and Moody N R 2013
Mechanical and electromechanical behavior of oxide coat-
ings grown on stainless steel 304L by nanosecond pulsed
laser irradiation Surf. Coat. Technol. 235 860–6
[4] Steyer P, Valette S, Forest B, Millet J P, Donnet C and Aud-
ouard E 2006 Surface modification of martensitic stainless
steels by laser marking and its consequences regarding
corrosion resistance Surf. Eng. 22 167–72
[5] Allen G C, Dyke J M, Harris S J and Morris A 1988 A surface
study of the oxidation of type 304L stainless steel at 600 K
in air Oxid. Met 29 391–408
[6] Adams D P, Hodges V C, Hirschfeld D A, Rodriguez M A,
McDonald J P and Kotula P G 2013 Nanosecond pulsed
laser irradiation of stainless steel 304L: oxide growth
and effects on underlying metal Surf. Coat. Technol.
222 1–8
[7] Mohammed M T, Khan Z A and Siddiquee A N 2014 Surface
modification of titanium materials for developing corrosion
behavior in human body environment: a review Proc. Mater.
Sci. 6 1610–8
[8] James A S, Thomas K, Mann P and Wall R 2005 The role and
impacts of surface engineering in environmental design
Mater. Des. 26 594–601
[9] Švantner M, Kučera M, Smazalová E, Houdková Š and
Čerstvý R 2016 Thermal effects of laser marking on micro-
structure and corrosion properties of stainless steel Appl.
Opti. 55 D35–45
[10] György E, Mihailescu I N, Serra P, Del Pino A P and
Morenza J L 2002 Single pulse Nd: YAG laser irradiation of
titanium: influence of laser intensity on surface morphology
Surf. Coat. Technol. 154 63–7
[11] Ageev E I, Andreeva Y M, Karlagina Y Y, Kolobov Y R,
Manokhin S S, Odintsova G V, Slobodov A A and Veiko V P
K M Łęcka et al
2017 Composition analysis of oxide films formed on tita-
nium surface under pulsed laser action by method of chemi-
cal thermodynamics Laser Phys. 27 046001
[12] Veiko V P, Slobodov A A and Odintsova G V 2013 Availabil-
ity of methods of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics for
the analysis of chemical transformations on metal surfaces
under pulsed laser action Laser Phys. 23 66001
[13] Westin E M, Laakso P, Olivier J and Penttila R 2009 Effect of
laser color marking on the corrosion performance of stain-
less steel 28th Int. Congress on Applications of Lasers and
Electro-Optics (ICALEO) vol 102 1245–50
[14] Martinez J M V, Pedemonte F J B, Galvin M B, Gomez J S
and Barcena M M 2017 Sliding wear behavior of UNS
R56400 titanium alloy samples thermally oxidized by laser
Materials 10 830
[15] O’Hana S, Pinkerton A J, Shoba K, Gale A W and Li L 2008
Laser surface colouring of titanium for contemporary jewel-
lery Surf. Eng. 24 147–53
[16] Vazquez-Martinez J M, Salguero J, Botana F J, Gomez-
Parra A, Fernandez-Vidal S R and Marcos M 2014 Tribo-
logical wear analysis of laser surface treated Ti6Al4V based
on volume lost evaluation Key Eng. Mater. 615 82–7
[17] Valette S, Steyer P, Richard L, Forest B, Donnet C and Aud-
ouard E 2006 Influence of femtosecond laser marking on
the corrosion resistance of stainless steels Appl. Surf. Sci.
252 4696–701
[18] Schneider M and Stratmann M 1992 Influence of incorporated
copper on the formation, solid state structure and electro-
chemical properties of γ-FeOOH Ber. Bunsenges. Phys.
Chem 96 1731–6
[19] Łęcka K M, Antończak A J, Szubzda B, Wójcik M R,
Stępak B D, Szymczyk P, Trzciński M, Ozimek M and
Abramski K M 2016 Effects of laser-induced oxidation on
the corrosion resistance of AISI 304 stainless steel J. Laser
Appl. 28 032009
[20] Antończak A J, Stępak B, Kozioł P and Abramski K 2014 The
influence of process parameters on the laser-induced color-
ing of titanium Appl. Phys. A 115 1003–13
[21] Kowalewski P, Wieleba W and Leśniewski T 2007 Stanowisko
do badań tribologicznych w złożonym ruchu cyklicznym
toczno-ślizgowym Tribologia 2 303–11
[22] Krawczyk B, Heine B and Engelberg D L 2016 Performance
optimization of cold rolled Type 316L stainless steel by
sand blasting and surface linishing treatment J. Mater. Eng.
Perform. 25 884–93
[23] Nesbitt H W and Banerjee D 1998 Interpretation of XPS
Mn (2p) spectra of Mn oxyhydroxides and constraints
on the mechanism of MnO2 precipitation Am. Mineral.
83 305–15
[24] Biesinger M C, Payne B P, Grosvenor A P, Lau L W, Ger-
son A R and Smart R S C 2011 Resolving surface chemical
states in XPS analysis of first row transition metals, oxides
and hydroxides: Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni Appl. Surf. Sci.
257 2717–30
[25] Li Z L, Zheng H Y, Teh K M, Liu Y C, Lim G C, Seng H L
and Yakovlev N L 2009 Analysis of oxide formation
induced by UV laser coloration of stainless steel Appl. Surf.
Sci. 256 1582–8
[26] Ruzankina J S and Vasiliev O S 2016 Study on possibility for
the improvement of corrosion resistance of metals using
laser-formed oxide surface structure J. Phys.: Conf. Ser.
735 012050