Regeneration

Classifications of economy

TYPE EXAMPLES REGIONS

PRIMARY Producing Farming, mining, forestry East Midlands
SECONDARY Manufacturing Textiles, baker, butcher Wales
TERTIARY Providing services Retail, tourism, health care, South-East
education
QUATERNARY Providing specialised Finance, law, biotechnology London
services
Top 3 largest economic sectors in the UK
1) Retail and wholesale (Private sector tertiary)
2) Health and social care (Public sector tertiary)
3) Professional and technical (Quaternary)

These are not good measures without taking into account full-time/part-time,
temporary/permanent, employed/self-employed and zero-hour contracts.

The UK gig economy

Zero-hour contracts are becoming more prevalent – 1 million people are employed in this sector.
 This means that employment stats increase which gives the illusion of stable economic
growth and rising employment rates.
EXAMPLE – Uber, Deliveroo, Amazon drivers
Flexible hours = can gain experience, can fit in other commitments, can sometimes pay
more, work more varied, thus may be more interesting.
Don’t have the same rights (paid £40 for full day work), have little influence over the job as
it’s only temporary, very unstable and easy to lose the job as contracts are temporary
o Therefore exploitation is easier as people are normally desperate for jobs and
workers have few powers.
  EXAMPLE – Amazon has censorship. Workers are not allowed to discuss the
negatives of working for Amazon. This increases isolation and provides less
opportunity to strike.
Impacts of the gig economy on local communities
 People often had strong links to main employers but gig economies are removed from the
community and don’t have any attachment to place so fewer links are created.
o Isolation and lack of cultural solidarity – can break up communities as there’s less
socialising and more stress.
 Could lead to worse community mental health = more drugs/alcohol, which
could lead to increase in crime.

Differences in economic activity and impact on social factors and inequalities in pay levels across
economies
Different employment sectors – not spread evenly across the UK. More financial services in the
South (particularly around London which has senior positions because it is the capital) so the South
has a higher economic output.
Economies across pay sectors exist and economies vary from place to place
Some places and whole regions experience decline, triggering a spiral of decline, often linked to
deindustrialisation or inaccessibility.
 Spiral of decline = outward migration to places with more opportunity
 This includes increasing levels of social deprivation (education, health, crime, access to
services, living environment).
o HOWEVER, successful places usually have high rates of employment and inward
migration and low levels of multiple deprivations.

Different employment sectors pay more than others

EXAMPLE – Quaternary sectors (associate professionals) make £610 a week whereas tertiary sectors
(unskilled labour e.g. cleaner) make £241 a week.
 Skilled labour demands higher qualifications which means that higher wages are expected
because they have specialist skills for the job.

The difference in employment opportunities

Wages are higher in some urban areas due to competition for skilled, qualified labour.
 This means businesses have to pay more to compete with other companies to attract and
keep the best talent
o High wages attract migrants so the pressure on housing increases so housing costs
and other services are higher.
 Therefore employers have to keep paying more to keep their workers there
Wages may be lower where there is a lack of competition of labour.

 Businesses have shut down and moved abroad to outsource cheap labour
o Global shift of manufacturing – fewer low-skilled jobs in the UK
 Therefore unemployment increases and people lack the skills to branch out
into new sectors.
Reasons for change
Physical factors such as infrastructure, connectedness, accessibility which could be due to
deindustrialisation.
 Margate has
Political factors such as national and local government legislations and planning
Economic factors such as global shift causing deindustrialisation leading to spiral of decline, job loss,
degradation to the built environment etc.

General changes in economic activity

o Industrial revolution – Primary and secondary jobs based in the North, required few skills
(unemployment falls)
o Global shift – cheap labour outsourced leaving ex-industrial towns without jobs and lack of
skills to branch out into other sectors. Local economy is less resilient as the economic sectors
tended to be less diverse (dominated by mining etc) so less to fall back on (unemployment
rises)
o New labour – education. Qualifications obtained through school are increased as can no
longer drop out of school after GCSEs. New businesses are created due to new skills and
demand for jobs in the area. (Unemployment falls)
o 2008 Financial crash – National and localised unemployment as the recession led to
businesses closing down. More competition for jobs = unemployment rises
o Increased migration – Higher competition for lower-skilled jobs so local people struggle to
gain employment. May lack other skills to branch into other sectors.
Examples of change

Tower Hamlets → Canary Wharf

 Tower Hamlets was poor had low employment levels, high crime, low educational
attainment. Its function was industrial so didn’t need high levels of education. Living
conditions constantly flooded because no Thames barrier and it was below the water line.
 Investment was brought in from shipping and rich merchants that passed through the hotels
and pubs.
 Canary Wharf is built up and attracts high levels of wealth as part of London’s central
business district with an average salary of £100,000. Its function is now consumerism and
services. Old Tower Hamlets community and demographic pushed out due to gentrification,
example: poor doors.

Margate

 Started off with the fishing industry as the main function

 1800s – Tourism due to the associated health benefits of the sea and its closeness to
London. Many people in London wanted to get away from the pollution and had the money
to do so. Thames linked Margate and London
o Becomes more built up, improved infrastructure and built environment to cater to
tourists
 Dreamland
 Royal Hotel
 Royal Theatre
 All examples of things to do that are less reliant on the weather to
get people to stay in Margate for longer
o Chatham and Dover railway opens connecting London and Margate more directly
 Less than 3 hours journey time to Margate from London
 More reliable transport unlike steamboats
 1970s – Lost its tourism function due to cheap package holidays and commercialisation of
flight. Modern, larger theme parks like Thorpe Park and Chessington opened which reduced
Dreamlands footfall.
 2003 – Main attractions such as Dreamland closes. Spiral of decline: no jobs = no income =
unstable local economy = poverty = degradation of built environment = crime
o 2/3 of shops empty in Margate
o 2008 arson attack on scenic railway = puts off investors and visitors
 2009 – Save Dreamland campaign
o Many people still view Margate as a tourist town = identity not lost
  2010 – Cheap for the government to relocate probationers and immigrants. Hotels are
converted to bedsits. Less infrastructure catering to tourists i.e no hotels so tourists won’t
stay for very long = less money spent in Margate.
 2011 – Turner Contemporary gallery opens
o Margate caters to a creative and artistic community whilst still maintaining
connections with its heritage to create a retro seaside niche.
 48% visitors went to see the gallery
 Gallery also offers local educational programs to help improve the skills of
locals so that they can get jobs.

Demographic changes in Margate

Age: middle aged → younger professionals

 Median age is 33
o Younger people have more opportunity to start businesses and make connections
within the art community to help start their careers.
HOWEVER … uneven across the wards – Cliftonville has very few art galleries
compared to Margate Central so the age demographic has stayed the same. Many
older people who lived in Margate Central have been pushed out by higher rent
prices so have moved to Cliftonville.

Income: Largest proportion still work in care and leisure

 14.4% of pop working in tourism industries

o Migrants from London are moving to Margate and pushing up house prices as they
have larger incomes due to their jobs in London. Many people moving to Margate
permanently because it is quieter than London.
 House prices have risen 55% in 10 years

Immigration: Immigration has increased because it is a cheap area

 65% of people in Margate identify as English

o Government relocated migrants to Margate because it’s cheap and has a lot of
empty buildings that have been converted into bedsits. However there are no jobs
so migrants have low incomes and have to stay in Margate.

Connectivity changes in Margate

Chatham and Dover railway – less than 3 hours

Modern trains (javelin train) – 1 hour 30 mins
 Cheaper so more accessible to tourists
 HOWEVER … less likely to stay long because it can be made into a day trip. Not enough
infrastructure or activities to keep tourists in Margate for a long period of time.
Margate’s regional, national, international and global influences

Similar things seen in Canary Wharf e.g. DLR connections, proximity to London.

What Type Details Effect However

Probationers Regional Prisoners are Illusion of danger. More
relocated relocated in low skilled and low
Margate because it educated puts pressure on
is cheap services and increases
competition for low skilled
work.
Turner Regional Turner gallery built - Put £70 million
Contemporary in 2011. Led arts back into
regeneration and Margate’s
attracted young economy
professionals to - 48% of visitors in
Margate. Improved Margate came to
built environment see the gallery
- 71% increase in
local artists’
studios
- Offers educational
programs to
diversify locals
skills
These all improved the
built environment and
Margate’s identity.
EU regional International
development
fund – get
into work
intiative
Commercial Global Margate couldn’t Increased crime and Covid -19
air travel compete with unemployment. showed that
cheap package Dreamland shut down. people
holidays so lost its wanted to
industry. move out of
cities to
quieter
regions.
National rail National Improves Cheap and fast so more Visitors don’t
services connectivity, more visitors. need to stay
people can access for long
Margate from because
London which journey time
brings inward is short.
investment to the
area
New Labours National Gave funding for Increased confidence going Fewer low
creative Turner into arts sectors so skilled jobs
industry Contemporary and Margate would’ve looked available for
strategy helped rebrand the more appealing. existing
arts sector as a Margate received more population.
new industry. funding an business Less
support for its arts infrastructure
contribution. supporting
them
Government National Received £22 Will provide money for
funding for million in local council to allocate =
regeneration government more targeted local
(2021) funding to further approach
develop creative Margate is still supported
spaces by government funding
which will help the
economy recover after
Covid
Business rates National Lower taxes for Helped towards 32% Doesn’t apply
relief new businesses to growth in small businesses to businesses
allow them to since 2011. that are
compete against - More shops = already
larger companies fewer derelict existing a
buildings which struggling
improves built e.g.
environment. Dreamland
- Helps Margate
stand out from
other clone towns.
Location and Regional Attractive because
accessibility it has a coastline
and beaches.
Very close to
London so has
connections to high
income tourists.
Why might regeneration be needed?

Successful places and unsuccessful places

Rust belt vs Sun belt

Detroit and the spiral of decline

 Heavy manufacturing industries located in the north of the USA attracted lots of investment
and jobs. Many people from the south, including African Americans migrated to the north of
the country looking for job opportunities.
o This brought racial tensions which have always been an issue.
 Automation, outsourcing, economic recession and the global shift resulted in loss of
employment, industry collapsed, incomes collapsed, lack of investment and opportunity
leading to the spiral of decline. Detroit lost municipal sustainability.
o House prices fell, some sold for £1
o Many people could not afford to pay tax so the city authorities lost out on $131
million
o 36% population below the poverty line
o 27.8% homes vacant
o Has one of the highest unemployment rates in America
 Not attractive to investors or home buyers because it is not pedestrian friendly, streetlights
don’t work so not a 24hour city which encourages crime (very high murder rates), lacks trees
or landscaping. High numbers of derelict buildings make the city soulless.
o Continues the spiral of decline which makes the urban decay worse
 Some improvements include reduction in pollution however the contamination of water
problem has not been solved and asthma levels are still high.
 San Francisco – technological regeneration
 Introduced large TNCs which bring income and wealth. This created a ‘gold rush’ due to
increased tax which allowed the government to invest in the built environment to create
high quality infrastructure.
o High quality infrastructure attracted wealthier people which brought further
investment due to large disposable income invested into the local economy. In the
cycle of growth.
o House prices rose to over $1 million for a semi detached
o GDP of San Francisco Bay area equal to Czech Republic ($180 billion)
o Population and inward migration rose
o Ethnically diverse
 HOWEVER this pushed up the cost of living as the influx of wealth gentrified the area due to
market forces (increase demand so prices pushed up). Poorer people who could once afford
the area and may have been living there for years are slowly pushed out and made to feel
excluded. For example, house prices inflated.
o Many properties are above what the national average wage could afford which has
created a housing crisis.
o Increased homelessness has created huge wealth inequality
 35,000 homeless people
 Local authorities hope to reverse this by taxing the rich
o This often happens in successful places as showing signs of poverty and inequality
may change a perception of an area. Social segregation (poor doors) make the place
seem clean and rich.
 Seen in the Tenderloin region of San Francisco which is described as the
‘contaminant zone’.
 Can create skill shortages elsewhere for rural areas where migrants have moved from.
 Traffic congestion and increased pollution affects everyone but mostly people who can’t
afford health care.

Rural areas becoming successful

‘Race for space’ – people attracted to rural areas because they perceive them as cleaner, more
relaxed less dangerous so ideal for younger people wanting to start a family and older people to
retire to. Wealth moves away from cities. This has been accelerated by
 Covid (work from home – don’t need cities and offices anymore)
 Fibre broadband which made work from home possible.
Pressures on rural areas include
 Second homes – pushes up house prices and fewer homes available to locals which can
create inequalities and tension. Lack of community and engagement because they are only
temporary. E.g. Cornwall has 22,900 second home residents.
 Rural areas don’t have economies as strong as urban areas so fewer services as many have
been cut. Fewer supermarkets which can lead to food deserts for the poorer populations
 Retirement homes and aging population.

Social consequences of inequality can influence identity and lived experience

Social inequality can lead to intergenerational poverty
 Reduction in trust and disconnected as their views are not heard or represented.
o 46% less likely to vote because of disillusioned political representation
  Fragmented community because they don’t have the time or the money to be involved with
community events. Many feel bitter or angry towards newer residents which causes conflict.
o This could lead to increased segregation between socio-economic groups e.g. in
Detroit white people with money move out leaving poorer black communities
behind with fewer opportunities – white flight.
 Increased crime because community services shut down as some people who are richer may
not need them and may want the money to be spent on something else. Have different
priorities. This could increase crime as the streets become youth centres.
 Increased health issues. Denser rural population may increase air pollution, fewer
supermarkets that are affordable creating food deserts and reliance on fast food which
changes diet. Fewer healthy jobs.
Signs of inequality
Social segregation such as gated communities and sink estates. E.g. South Africa
 Gated communities are built up to create a perceived illusion of safety for the people who
lives there such as 24/7 surveillance with security guards and gates and walls. Designed to
deter access and reduce crime and shut out threats. However they are very divisive and
segregate the people who are wanted from the people who are unwanted. May create
polarised views, misunderstanding and different priorities.
 Sink estates are made from declining social housing characterised by high levels of social and
economic deprivation and crime. E.g. the Gorbals before regeneration in Glasgow has high
levels of crime and lacked economic opportunity and social cohesion so led to decay and
decline.

Engagement within places

Grampound, Cornwall – lots of engagement
Homogenous age group – 25% of Grampound’s population is over 65 and 1/3 of people lived alone
- More likely to have common beliefs and interests thus reducing conflict. Due to many
people living alone/retired they have more time to organise projects and may be more
willing to form connections to reduce loneliness. Older people also have the time and money
to organise campaigns, form clubs and join politics/ local councils.
 More local projects such as a community shop will benefit more people in the
community.
  Because of this connection, there is a stronger sense of belonging to the place so
people are more likely to invest and engage with more parts of the village as they
feel supported.
o For example, 257 out of 280 households have a share in the community
shop which helped raise £20,500 for the village.
 There are also a range of clubs and activities that bring the community together and
reduce loneliness.
o For example, the carnival and the monthly village produce market.
 This has increased political engagement as people have a stronger connection to
Grampound so will want it to do well. Especially if residents time and money has
been invested into the village.
o Because of this political engagement is 63%

Bolton, Greater Manchester – low community engagement

High levels of poverty and poor social infrastructure – unlike Grampound, Bolton lacks social
infrastructure and clubs to create connections within the community.
 Lacks parks, some areas have no local shops, others have no sport facilities. Therefore few
places for people to meet an engage with community life
o Few places for people to access knowledge, skills and funding to improve their local
areas.
o Lack of services for key voices to be heard to organise local events
 Poverty makes people feel excluded and disconnected from political processes. Politicians
don’t often understand poverty because they haven’t directly experienced it, therefore
there is mistrust between the two groups.
o Deprivation in Bolton centre is 445 on IMD 2019.

Factors affecting engagement

Age – 75% of people over 65 will vote compared to 42% of people 18-24 will vote in general
elections. Politicians, therefore, focus on gaining the older vote as they are the majority so make
cuts in areas that will impact people aged 18-24 such as bringing back tuition fees. This can create a
positive feedback loop where young people don’t feel represented so continue not voting.
 Older people have more time and money, they often have differing values from younger
people due to different life experiences.
o For example, younger people need to buy a house, get an education and a job
whereas older people have already done that and may therefore think that it’s easy
and shouldn’t be a priority whereas pensions need to be a priority.
Poverty – Election turnout is higher in wealthier areas. 75% of professional and managerial services
chose to vote compared to 57% of manual workers.
 Suspicions and mistrust about unfair access to resources e.g. receiving benefits. Therefore
have different priorities
 Poorer people have less time and money to organise community events and to go out and
vote.
Ethnicity – 55% of ethnic minorities chose to vote in 2015
People who don’t speak English may not be able to get voter IDs so won’t be able to vote.
 Ethnic minorities may have different concerns that aren’t widely acknowledged/aren’t an
issue for the rest of the population e.g. racial discrimination.
 May have cultural differences
  Forging their own communities within a community e.g. Brick Lane is an important
Bangladeshi community
o HOWEVER, within these groups can be high community engagement e.g. Nijjor
Manush, a Bengali pressure group preventing Brick Lane from being developed.

Conflicts due to contrasting priorities

Save Capel – lack of representation
The local council – wants to build 2,100 homes on greenbelt land
The local community – want to stop the development because Capel won’t be able to provide for
500% increase in new residents. Many people want Tudley to continue to look like a medieval village
and maintain its heritage.
They are not NIMBY because they don’t oppose housing developments, they just think that it needs
to be well planned and supported by services. The locals have suggested building on brownfield sites
in order to keep some of the countryside.
 1,800 residents are backing Save Capel
 £20,000 raised to stop housing development
Transport will be an issue as there are no main roads and flooding frequently shuts the country
lanes.
Tonbridge – will put pressure on Tonbridge’s services and affect the Tonbridge population.
Therefore MP Tom Tugendhat strongly opposes it.
Environmentalists – Will destroy 600 acres of greenbelt land including ancient woodland

Brick Lane – ethnic tensions

The local council – wants regenerate Brick Lane by building more tower blocks for offices and turn
the old Truman Brewery into a commercialised shopping mall. The site for redevelopment is
currently occupied by small independent shops.
 The council planning committee is made up of 3 people which the community argues is not
representative of the diverse nature of the issue.
o The committee has not taken into account the communities ideas or what they
would like, therefore the plan does not benefit them.
The developers – have promised to include space for independent shops in the shopping centre.
The local community – want to preserve the cultural heritage of the area. See the redevelopment as
an attack on the locals and threat of gentrification.
 Have submitted 7,000 letters of objection to local council.
 Banglatown was established by the nineties, acknowledging Brick Lane’s significance as the
heartland of the British Bangladeshi community. At its peak in 2008, there were around 60
outlets selling Indian, Bangladeshi or Punjabi food.
 The resident community argue that the developments should be for affordable housing that
will benefit the locals, not wealthy elite with already high paying jobs.
 The community has actively come together to form many preservation groups to propose
new ideas in hope to compromise or reverse original plans.

Brixton
How is regeneration managed?
National governments role in regeneration

Infrastructure investments – National government

Aim to maintain growth and improve accessibility in remote regions.
 HS2 to connect London to the Northern Powerhouse. Links major cities such as Birmingham
to London in hope that it will increase connectivity and widen markets and labour force of
companies to spread the wealth more evenly across the UK.
o Needs national government investment because it is very costly – estimated to be
over originally planned £50 billion budget. This would be too much for private
companies to afford
o Operates over many county borders that require the purchasing of land and
organisation on a coordinated national level.
o Government will benefit from an economic multiplier. Government will also benefit
(especially Conservatives) because it was their manifesto promise to bring more jobs
to the North and create the Northern powerhouse.
 More runways to expand Heathrow airport

Affordable housing goals

UK housing crisis has meant that there was a shortage of over 500,000 homes however only 100,000
new homes are built each year.
Building new houses can increase the capacity for economic growth by allowing new people to move
into the area. This can help maintain a successful regeneration program.
Planning laws such as allowing houses to be built on greenbelt land in order to achieve housing goals
has created conflicts.
 Save Capel – local people value the countryside and don’t want housing developments to
spoil views, leisure activities such as walks, fishing, canoeing.
 Save Barton Farm – wealthier people didn’t want the housing development and less affluent
people wanted the development.
 o Younger people and poorer people don’t have the time and money to organise a
pressure group so wealthier people generally win because they are the ones who
can make their voices heard.
 However some people need housing

International migration and enabling foreign investment (through open or closed door policies)
 More international immigration can help strengthen an economy and provide more
economic growth as migrants fill more job vacancies. Immigrants are normally younger
families that stabilise the age structure of a place which can prevent them going into decline.
 Areas with high levels of migration can attract negative media representation making the
perceived place feel unattractive. It can also cause conflicts and tensions within a place –
Margate.
 Furthermore migrants can’t choose where they live and are often placed in areas already
suffering from socio-economic degradation such as Glasgow and Margate. This can
negatively affect opportunities for migrants and the locals.
 However migrants can bring cultural capital and create places that are rich in cultural
heritage e.g. Brixton

Deregulation of markets
Deregulation of capital markets allowed Texan property developer to invest and buy large parts of
Brixton with a backing of a New York hedge fund.
 Deregulation is the removal of laws and restraints on economic growth put in place by the
government. Can stimulate economic growth by attracting more economic activity.
 Encouraging innovation as competition increases so businesses have to adapt faster.
Small businesses and the culture of Brixton was put at risk of being put out of business due to
competition. Increased gentrification and businesses have been hit by sharp increase in rent.
7,000 strong petition against the scheme.
Deregulation threatens to reconfigure the culture into bland clusters of luxury apartments and shops
whilst displacing community and heritage that came before it.
Furthermore deregulation allows offshore investment from rich oligarch such as Russian oligarchs
inflating London house prices and Qatari investments buying the Shard.
 Guardian estimated 40,000 London properties were owned by offshore tax havens. These
properties may not be lived in or rented and tax does not go to local authorities.
HOWEVER… Canary Wharf regeneration benefitted from market deregulation as it allowed
companies to share their stocks without the influence of London Stock Exchange so individuals could
invest which attracted offshore investments.
 Allowed big banks like HSBC to invest.
Local governments role in regeneration
Science parks are owned by universities
Enterprise zones set up on the Isle of Dogs to attract investment
Local enterprise partnerships – builds connections between public, private and educational
stakeholders
Local preservation groups
Save Dreamland Campaign, Margate
Save Capel Campaign, Tunbridge Wells
Rebranding urban areas – Glasgow
Why – Needed rebranding because it had high crime rates which had created stigmas about the
place
 Glasgow was named the Murder capital of Europe by WHO
o This was due to high unemployment rates due to shipping closures meaning that
people were left with low skilled jobs or pushed into crime.
Aim – Rebranding aimed to attract investors who will create more jobs which will help reverse the
spiral of decline.
 The better the rebranding, the more skilled people it will attract which in turn will help
improve Glasgow’s image.
Rebranding for Glasgow – People Make Glasgow
Glasgow life charity was funded by the council (£500k)
 Focused on historical heritage similar to Edinburgh and St Andrews to help give it value and
importance.
 Film and TV culture which is common across Scotland – Batman, Harry Potter

Rebranding rural areas

Rebranding is needed for regeneration Rebranding is not needed for regeneration

Canary Wharf and London
 Complete regentrification scheme
Can be useful short term to attract investors
and tourists.
 Investors may think it too risky if the
place has a negative reputation and will
be put off therefore it is needed to start
a successful regeneration project
Rebranding may help build community as
everyone has something to be proud of and in
common with which will help maintain similar
values. Building community can help with
engagement and improve regeneration.
Gentrification and push people out. Increase
exclusion and marginalise certain people.
Rebranding may be exaggerated and false
therefore it may be superficial and what
matters is the substance rather than the
marketing to whether it is successful.
 More likely to be successful long term if
it is true to what it promises.
Rebranding might not represent everyone in a
community and some people may feel left out
or not represented. This could reduce
engagement and increase conflict.
Measures of regeneration success
IMD and Census Data
 Income
 Employment
 Education attainment
 Health
 Crime
 Living environment
 Barriers to housing and services
Lowest levels of deprivation found in commuter towns and rural areas as cities always tend to have
some degree of inequality and deprivation due to higher population and diversity.
Population growth or decline can indicate success or failure.
 Population grew in San Francisco but declined in Detroit.

Regenerating urban areas

Retail regeneration – Westfield in Stratford
Sport and Leisure – 2012 Olympic games
 226 hectare park that attracts 6 million visitors a year
Arts and Culture – landmark cultural buildings like the three graces in Liverpool and the Beetle’s
Museum.
Arts and Culture – Margate
Regenerating sink estates – Gorbals, Glasgow and Packington Estate, Islington
Packington Estate, Islington

Canary Wharf
State - led Economically Gentrification
successful
Converted London Docklands into financial hub.
Economically successful as it benefitted from market deregulation by central government.
 Companies could share their stocks without the influence of London Stock Exchange so
individuals could invest. This attracts foreign investors like HSBC.
 50,000 new homes and £20 million spent on community projects.
Gentrification - flats cost £500,000 on average.

Liverpool
State-led Economically Heritage and Regionally Gentrification
successful culture successful
regeneration
Abandoned docklands turned into high end business and retail outlets creating a contemporary hub
of culture and business.
 Regenerated landmark cultural buildings e.g. Three Graces and made the Beatle’s Museum.
o Regular festivals and celebrations e.g. Chinese New Year due to Chinatown
 Rebranding helped win it the European Capital of Culture 2008
o Boosted local economy by £800 million
 Community integrated plan by local council to regenerate Albert Docks
o The plan emphasised the need to attract new jobs that matched residents skills
National government wanted a state-led approach that focused on the economy and increasing
inward migration of wealthy professionals rather than catering to community needs.
 National government reduced civic input so housing was instead aimed at double-income
professional couples so did not solve the housing crisis.
o Because of this Liverpool still has 5 of the most deprived suburbs in the UK
 Amplified social inequality and led to social segregation.
 Only regionally economically successful as many residents did not benefit
from the regeneration programme.

Margate
Arts and Culture Gentrification Regionally successful
Improved living environment – derelict land used to open local artist galleries, the seafront was
regenerated and new, modern buildings were constructed such as the Turner Contemporary.
 Improved built environment and perception of place
Turner Contemporary has improved Margate’s local economy
 Estimated to have put £70million back into the economy
 Attracts 3.5 million visitors a year and 48% of all visitors went to see the gallery
o The gallery also offers educational programmes to locals to help diversify their skills
in order to help them find jobs.
HOWEVER has increased house prices by 55% over 10 years which has led to gentrification as
original residents can’t afford rising rent prices
 People forced to move to poorer areas such as Cliftonville which has not been affected by
much regeneration.
 May not be long-term successful as economy is still reliant on tourism
o 14.4% of people in Margate are employed in tourism and leisure sector.
o Covid-19 reduced footfall and impacted Margate’s economy.

HS2
State-led Environmentally damaging Infrastructure regeneration
Aims to link North West to South East to bring businesses closer to promote increased economic
productivity. – Northern Powerhouse idea (George Osborne).
 Businesses could access specialised services located in other cities which would widen
market and labour forces
 Aims to create economic benefits however estimates of how much the profit would be vary
from £15billion every year to £13.3 billion over 60 years.
Economic costs
 Overbudget by £50 billion, could cost over £100bn
 Train fares are too high for most people to afford as the trains are privatised and
companies will want to make a profit. Many people won’t use it so flows of people may
be reduced.
 Many people argue that existing but neglected train lines that connect the North to the
South could’ve been regenerated.
Social costs
 Won’t benefit communities along the line as there are only major stops such as Birmingham
to maximise the speed of the train.
o Similar effect as French TGV trains
  Communities disrupted by construction. Noise pollution disturbing people until 11:00pm.
 Fenced off public footpaths so residents can’t walk through public land.
Environmental costs
 108 ancient woodlands will be affected
 600 wildlife sites damaged which will threaten species like barn owls, voles and hedgehogs.
 Over 150,000 signatures to stops HS2 due to cost and environmental damage.
 Won’t be carbon neutral transport until the carbon released by construction materials like
concrete is offset.
HOWEVER.. HS2 has promised to plant more trees but won’t replace biodiversity lost from
ancient woodlands that take centuries to develop.
Brick Lane
Ethnic conflict Culture and heritage State-led

The local council – wants regenerate Brick Lane by building more tower blocks for offices and turn
the old Truman Brewery into a commercialised shopping mall. The site for redevelopment is
currently occupied by small independent shops.
 The council planning committee is made up of 3 people which the community argues is not
representative of the diverse nature of the issue.
o The committee has not taken into account the communities ideas or what they
would like, therefore the plan does not benefit them.
The developers – have promised to include space for independent shops in the shopping centre.
The local community – want to preserve the cultural heritage of the area. See the redevelopment as
an attack on the locals and threat of gentrification.
 Have submitted 7,000 letters of objection to local council.
 Banglatown was established by the nineties, acknowledging Brick Lane’s significance as the
heartland of the British Bangladeshi community. At its peak in 2008, there were around sixty
outlets selling Indian, Bangladeshi or Punjabi food.
 The resident community argue that the developments should be for affordable housing that
will benefit the locals, not wealthy elite with already high paying jobs.
 The community has actively come together to form many preservation groups to propose
new ideas in hope to compromise or reverse original plans.

The Gorbals
Community led Sink estate Urban planning
First regeneration (sink estate)
 Converted slums to high rise buildings to improve living conditions of slums. It also moved
poorer people out of London and made them take up less land room. Built in the 1950s.
o This is an example of social segregation as people were moved out of their
communities.
 Social segregation put investors off so there were fewer opportunities.
o WHAT LED TO FAILURE – the community needs were not listened to. Many people
relied on their community support networks that had been created due to local
amenities, ground level front doors, clubs, meeting places e.g. churches. These
things were absent in the first regeneration.
o REASONS FOR FAILURE – no community support network, no local amenities, no
jobs to match their skill set, lack of maintenance of built environment lead to damp
 and faulty lifts and plumbing, this made it harder to maintain and manage which led
to increased levels of crime.
o RESULT OF FAILURE – Didn’t improve the built environment or increase economic
opportunities.
Second regeneration
 Regenerated existing building in 1990s to improve the built environment and reduce crime
levels.
o WHAT LED TO SUCCESS – the community was involved in decision making and their
needs were incorporated into the building plan. Lessons were learnt from the last
regeneration project e.g. lack of amenities.
o REASONS FOR SUCCESS – Amenities like libraries, shops and parks were included.
Buildings were high quality so longer lasting and easier to maintain. The built
environment made the area look sophisticated and desirable, this encouraged a
healthy lifestyle and made people want to look after their area. Strong community
cohesion as more interaction was encouraged and facilitated. Less overcrowding and
good transport connectivity. This means more jobs available for a smaller number of
people. The better transport makes the area less isolated which attracts investment
and reduces social isolation.

Packington Estate, Islington

Amsterdam - Buiksloterham
Community led Regeneration of Alternative to
docklands Liverpool
Regenerated derelict Buiksloterham docks.
 Funding for land acquisition came from central government but community had decision
making power
o SUCCESS – High levels of social housing which reduced social inequalities
Environmentally sustainable - bio based economy with sustainable energy
Emphasis on public and community spaces
Still includes economic focus.
o Jobs increased from 3,000 to 10000

Lisbon – participatory budgeting

Other examples of community regeneration
 A democratic process that gives citizens the power to allocate funding to local projects.
Decided by vote and can help improve communities by investing in small projects.
o A small garden in Lisbon was regenerated. The community saved it from becoming a
parking lot which was the councils plan. They used participatory budgeting to
allocate funding to keep and regenerate the garden.
 Increased community cohesion and participation in larger votes. Encouraged
discussions within the community.
Regenerating rural areas
Tourism: Outdoor activities – Cornwall surfing, sailing, walking, hiking trails and areas of natural
beauty including the famous lands’ end.

Tourism: Arts and culture – hay on wye ‘the town of books’. Reading and literary festivals.

Farm diversification – Cornwall makes speciality produce that can’t be outcompeted because they
are authentic and tied to that place. E.g. Cornish cheese, ice-cream, pasties, beer and wine.
 Glastonbury diversified farming to camping and festivals which attracts thousands of people
to Glastonbury each year.

Race for space (sped up by Covid 19)

Super fast broadband

Cornwall regeneration
Before the regeneration – Cornwall had the lowest full- time average earnings = £25,155 per year
20% of Cornwalls working age population earns less than the living wage of £7.45 per hour
1/3 of new businesses fail in their first year
Aims of the regeneration – reduce risks of new businesses to help promote economic growth and
create jobs in the knowledge sector.

Players What they did

Central government Grants were given to support
local businesses
Local government Offers rebates on business tax
as part of its enterprise zone at
Newquay
Local enterprise partnership Supports business growth
International influences Objective One is the highest
 Funding from form of EU aid.
Objective One (EU) £600 million in funding for
local regeneration projects
such as low carbon initiatives,
infrastructure and
National lottery Funded the Eden Project
Residents

Eden Project – Exhibits the worlds major plant types as well as an educational centre about
sustainable living.
 Regeneration project of a China clay quarry
BENEFITS – generated £1.1 million for the local economy in 8 years
Attracts 13 million visitors
Increased employment in Cornwalls tourist related industries and raised Cornwalls
profile.
Each visitor spends £150 average
CONS – traffic congestion and roads not designed for this many people (13.4% increase in traffic)
 Not carbon neutral and has large carbon footprint due to equipment
Didn’t change economy to something more stable – tourism seasonal, affected by Covid 19
 Created conflict between tourists and locals

Super-fast broadband – Cornwall was the first county to achieve over 95% super fast broadband
connection.
BENEFITS – encourages business growth, particularly in the knowledge economy and those who
work from home.
 Around 2000 jobs have been created creating an economic impact of £200 million per year
 Economy not reliant on physical transport connections and tourism unlike Margate which
makes it stronger.
Universities – Increases availability of courses and develops the knowledge economy in Cornwall.
 Two main universities = Falmouth and Exeter
BENEFITS – offers degree courses and helps graduates set up businesses in the knowledge economy.
Newquay aero hub – Enterprise Zone and developed more jobs in the area sector
BENEFITS – 450 jobs (didn’t lower employment in the area just relocated people)

Conflicts in regeneration
Brick Lane – ethnic tensions
The local council – wants regenerate Brick Lane by building more tower blocks for offices and turn
the old Truman Brewery into a commercialised shopping mall. The site for redevelopment is
currently occupied by small independent shops.
 The council planning committee is made up of 3 people which the community argues is not
representative of the diverse nature of the issue.
o The committee has not taken into account the communities ideas or what they
would like, therefore the plan does not benefit them.
The developers – have promised to include space for independent shops in the shopping centre.
The local community – want to preserve the cultural heritage of the area. See the redevelopment as
an attack on the locals and threat of gentrification.
 Have submitted 7,000 letters of objection to local council.
 Banglatown was established by the nineties, acknowledging Brick Lane’s significance as the
heartland of the British Bangladeshi community. At its peak in 2008, there were around sixty
outlets selling Indian, Bangladeshi or Punjabi food.
 The resident community argue that the developments should be for affordable housing that
will benefit the locals, not wealthy elite with already high paying jobs.
 The community has actively come together to form many preservation groups to propose
new ideas in hope to compromise or reverse original plans.