Lpugtks ik Cjlsk

Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz

Kj Cecjd ik Mrlytdg cdg rkcupkrlceóg
rkc upkrlceóg (rkokgkrlceóg)
Cdhd yl sk hkgcedgd lgtkredrhkgtk, ks pdsemjk hkbdrlr jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd Mrlytdg sehpjk prkcljkg-
tlgid kj lerk quk sljk ikj cdhprksdr lgtks ik quk egorksk l jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg cdg jds olsks
cljekgtks quk sljkg ik jl turmegl (ols ik ksclpk), jd quk pkrhetk ug hkgdr cdgsuhd ik cdhmustemjk.
Kg jl seouekgtk `eourl sk hukstrl ug cecjd ik Mrlytdg cdg rkcupkrlceóg pkr`kctl, ks ikcer quk eikljhkgtk
kj cljdr lmsdrmeid pdr kj lerk quk sljk ikj cdhprksdr ks eoulj lj cljdr quk ckikg jds olsks ik ksclpk ik
jl turmegl.

Cecjd ik Mrlytdg cdg rkcupkrlceóg pkr`kctl

Y ]kcupkrlidr
0
3
;

; Cìhlrl ik
9 Cdhmusteóg
9
= = 3
0 C Y

< s

Vlrl kstk cecjd kj trlmlbd kstl ilid pdr2

wgktd  c p (Y3  Y9 )  c p (Y=  Y< )

y \kgt 8 \;3 8cp(Y3-Y;)

Vkrd likhìs plrl kj clsd ik rkcupkrlceóg pkr`kctl (eiklj), 2 Y ; 8 Y9 y pdr tlgtd2

\kgt 8 \;3 8cp(Y3-Y9)

Kg cdgskcukgcel jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd kstì ilil pdr2

c p (Y3  Y9 )  c p (Y=  Y< ) (Y3  Y9 )  (Y=  Y< )

t  
c p (Y3  Y9 ) (Y3  Y9 )

]kdrikglgid likculilhkgtk tkgkhds

Y
Y<( =  <)
(Y  Y< ) Y<
t  <  = <
(Y3  Y9 ) Y9
Y3(<  )
Y3

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =<

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
 a <

  p  a

Y<  
 p<   <
=

 
t  < 
 a <

  p9  a 
Y3 <   
  p3  
 

Likhìs p=8p3 y p<8p9, pdr jd quk jl kculceóg lgtkredr rksujtl2

 a <
  a <

  p=  a
   p=  a 
Y<   Y<  
 p<   <  p<   <
   
t  <   < 
 a <
 
a <
 a <

  p    p   
   <
a a p a
Y3 <   <
 Y3  =
 =
  p=    p<   p<   
   

@egljhkgtk2
a <

Y<  p=  a
Y< a <

t  <  Y3  p<  p a
 <  Y3 r 

Kbkhpjd ?2 [g cecjd ik lerk kstìgilr ik Mrlytdg cdg rkokgkrlceóg pkr`kctl, dpkrl kgtrk jds jèhetks ik
d
tkhpkrlturl ik <066 y >6 @. Cljcòjksk jk k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd plrl jls seouekgtks rlzdgks ik prk-
seóg2 =, 9, 0, >, <6, y <=. Orl`èquksk jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl cdgtrl jl rlzóg ik prksedgks2
]KSDJ[CEÓG
Cdg jl kculceóg ikiuceil lgtkredrhkgtk
a <
Y<
t  < r 
p
a
Y3

Cljcujlhdsy orì`ecd
guhårecds kj rkgiehekgtd tårhecd
sk rksuhkg plrl clil rkjlceóg ik prkseóg y cuyds rksujtlids
l cdgtegulceóg.

rp ]kgiehekgtd tkrhecd vs. rkjlceóg ik prkseóg

= 0>.69;=?3<
9 0<.690?;<0
>6
0 ;0.=0=39?? d
c
e ?6
> ;=.;<;9;>9
h
r 06
<6 95.3>59?? å
t
<= 90.0>3=690 d
t
g ;6 Skrek<
k
e
h 96
e
i
g 36
k
r
=6
6 ; <6 <;

rkjlceóg ik prks
prkseóg
eóg

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | ==

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
Kg jl prìctecl gd ks pdsemjk dmtkgkr ugl rkcupkrlceóg pkr`kctl, jd culj sk trliuck kg quk jl tkhpkrlturl
ikj lerk quk kgtrl l jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg ks hkgdr quk jl tkhpkrlturl ik jds olsks ik ksclpk ik jl
turmegl.

Y ]kcupkrlidr
>
3
?

? ; Cìhlrl ik
9 Cdhmusteóg
9
= = 3
>
0 C Y

< s

Sk ik`egk cdhd k`kcteveili ik ug rkcupkrlidr l jl rkjlceóg2

n?  n=
 rkc 
n9  n=

Ik idgik plrl cljdrks kspkcè`ecds cdgstlgtks, sk tekgk2

Y?  Y=
 rkc 
Y9  Y=
Kbkhpjd >
[g cecjd Mrlytdg eiklj cdg rkokgkrlceóg tekgk ugl rkjlceóg ik prksedgks ik <6. Kj lerk kgtrl lj cdhprksdr
l 366 A hekgtrls quk l jl turmegl jd nlck l <<;6 A. Se jl k`eclcel ik rkokgkrlidr ks ik <66%, iktkrhegk
jl sljeil gktl ik trlmlbd y jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd. Cdgseikrk cljdrks kspkcè`ecds cdgstlgtks l tkh-
pkrlturl lhmekgtk.

Cdhd Ɨrkc 8 <, kgtdgcks, egiuilmjkhkgtk, sk trltl ik ug cecjd eiklj Mrlytdg cdg rkokgkrlceóg

Y ]kcupkrlidr
0
3
;

;
9 Cìhlrl ik
Cdhmusteóg
= < 9
0 = 3

C Y
< s

ILYDS2 Y<8366 A1 Y38<=66 A1 cp 8<.66; aB/ao

kj trlmlbd gktd sk cljcujl l plrter ik1

wgktd  wturm  wcdhp

cp ctk
wgktd  (n3  n9 )  (n=  n< )  cp(Y3  Y9 )  (Y=  Y< )

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =3

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
jls tkhpkrlturls Y= y Y9, sk cljcujlg l plrter ik jds prdcksds eskgtrópecds ik cdhprkseóg <-= y
kxplgseóg 3-9 (yl quk sk trltl ik ug cecjd eiklj).

prdcksd <-=2 ( a <) / a

Y=  Y<rp  366rp  ;?5.=
6.9 / <.9

 ( a <) / a 6.9 / <.9

prdcksd 3-92 Y9  Y3rp  <=66<6  0=<.;

jukod, wgktd  <.66;(<=66  0=<.;)  (;?5.=  366)

wgktd  366.>aB / ao

`egljhkgtk, jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd sk cljcujl l plrter ik jl ik`egeceóg,

wgktd wgktd
 cecjd  
qL c p (Y3  Y; )
rkokgkrlidr eiklj  Y;  Y9
366.>
 cecjd   6.;<?;
<.66;(<=66  0=<.;5)
 cecjd  ;<.?;%

Kbkhpjd 5
[g cecjd Mrlytdg eiklj cdg rkokgkrlceóg quk khpjkl lerk cdhd `jueid ik trlmlbd tekgk ugl rkjlceóg ik
prksedgks ik ?. Jls tkhpkrlturls hègehl y hìxehl ikj cecjd sdg 3<6 y <=66 A. Supdgol ugl k`ecekgcel
eskgtrópecl ik ?;% plrl kj cdhprksdr y >=% plrl jl turmegl, lsè cdhd ugl k`eclcel ik 0;% plrl kj rkok-
gkrlidr, iktkrhegk l) jl tkhpkrlturl ikj lerk l jl sljeil ik jl turmegl m) jl sljeil gktl ik trlmlbd c) jl
k`ecekgcel tårhecl.

Y ]kcuu kr
]kc krli
lidr
dr
3 >
?
r
; 9
?
r
9 Cìhlrl ik
= > Cdhmusteóg
< 9
= 0 3
=
C Y
< s

ILYDS2 Y<83<6 A1 Y38<<;6 A1 rp 8?1 Ɨturm86.>=1 Ɨcdhp86.?;1 Ɨrko86.0;

Vlrl Y<83<6 A n<83<6.=9 aB/ao1 Vr<8<.;;90

l) cdg Vr<8<.;;90 y rp cljcujlhds Vr=1  p= 

Vr =  Vr<    <.;;90  ?  <6.>>
p
 <
Cdg Vr=8<6.>>  n=83<6.=9 aB/ao (kgtljpel eskgtrópecl)

L plrter ikj rkgiehekgtd

rkgiehekgtd ikj cdhprksdr
cdhprksdr pdikhds cljcujlr jl kgtljpel rklj n=r 1

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =9

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
n=  n< n n ;9<.=0  3<6.=9
cdhp   n= r  n<  = <  3<6.=9   0<>.=0aB / ao
n= r  n< C 6.?;

cdg Y38<<;6 A n38<=<5.=; aB/ao1 Vr38=66.<;

cdg Vr38=66.<; y rp cljcujlhds Vr91

 p9 
Vr 9  Vr 3    =66.<; / ?  =>.;5
p 
3

plrl Vr98=>.;5  n98?<<.>6 aB/ao (kgtljpel eskgtrópecl)

L plrter ikj rkgiehekgtd

rkgiehekgtd ik jl turmegl pdikhds
pdikhds cljcujlr jl kgtljpel rklj
rklj n9r 1

n3  n9 r
turm   n9  n3  turm n3  n9   <=<5.=;  6.>=(<=<5.=;  ?<<.>)  >63.<9aB / ao
r
n3  n9
kg-
tdgcks Y9r 8?>=.> A

m) wgktd  wturm  wcdhp

wgktd  (n3  n9 )  (n=  n< )  (<=<5.=;  >63.<9)  (0<>.=0  3<6.=9)
r r

wgktd  <6>.<aB / ao

c)
wgktd wgktd
 cecjd  
qL n3  n?

n?  n= r
 rko   n?  n=  rko n9  n=   0<>.=0  6.0;(>63.<9  0<>.=0)  ?3>.93aB / ao
r r
n9  n= r

jukod, wgktd <6>.<

 cecjd    6.==;
n3  n? <=<5.=;  ?3>.93
 cecjd  ==.;%

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =;

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
K`kctd ik jl clèil ik prkseóg kg kj prdcksd ik egtkrclhmed ik cljdr.
Ul sk ved lgtkredrhkgtk kj k`kctd gdcevd ik jls errkvkrsemejeiliks kg jl k`ecekgcel tlgtd ikj cdhprksdr
cdhd ik jl turmegl jd quk rkpkrcutk skgsemjkhkgtk kg jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd. Dtrd `lctdr quk tlhmeåg l`kc-
tl jl k`ecekgcel ik jds sestkhls ik cecjd ckrrlid, ks jl clèil ik prkseóg kg jds egtkrclhmelidrks ik cljdr
<
(cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg) . Kg kstk kpèorl`k kstuielrì kj k`kctd ik jl clèil ik prkseóg kg jl k`ecekgcel ik
jds sestkhls ik okgkrlceóg ik cecjd ckrrlid cdg turmegl y cdhprksdr rkljks.
Kg kj ielorlhl Y-s, sk rkprkskgtl kstls cdgiecedgks kg kj cecjd, iesheguykgid kg cdgskcukgcel jl k`e-

cekgcel ikj cecjd.

qL 3
r

r
9
r
=
= 9

q]
<
S

Kj trlmlbd ik cdhprkseóg kstl ilid (ols

( ols eiklj y Cp8ctk.)
Cp8ctk .) pdr jl kculceóg2

c pY<
wC  
C
r
p
( a <) / a

<

r r
Jl rkjlceóg ik prksedgks kg jl turmegl, p 3 /p9 , ikgdheglil tlhmeåg cdhd rlzóg ik kxplgseóg sk pukik
kxprkslr kg tårhegds ik jl rlzóg ik cdhprkseóg r p. y ik jls clèils ik prkseóg quk dcurrkg kg clil ugd
ik jds prdcksds ik egtkrclhmed ik cljdr. Jls prksedgks ik kgtrlil y sljeil ik clil egtkrclhmelidr sk
pukikg rkjlcedglr l trlvås ikj jjlhlid `lctdr ik clèil ik prkseóg (quk gd ks hìs quk jl rlzóg kgtrk
lhmls prksedgks), lsè cdg rk`krkgcel l jl `eourl sk tekgk2
Vlrl kj egtkrclhmelidr kg kj sk lülik cljdr lj ols, prdcksd =-3.

p3r8=3p=r
y plrl kj egtkrclhmelidr ik cljdr kg kj quk sk rkljezl kj rkcnlzd ik cljdr.

p<r89<p9r
Cdhmeglgid kstls kculcedgks sk tekgk quk jl rkjlceóg ik kxplgseóg, kstl ilil
ilil pdr2

<
Kj prdcksd ik cdhprkseóg plrl kjkvlr jl prkseóg kg kj cecjd Mrlytdg rkquekrk ug hlydr cdgsuhd ik kgkroèl y orlg plrtk ikj trlmlbd prdiuceid
pdr jl turmegl ks cdgsuheid pdr kj cdhprksdr, kg ug pdrckgtlbk quk pukik kstlr kgtrk 96% y >6%. Kstl iksvkgtlbl nlck gkckslred prkstlr ugl
hlydr ltkgceóg kg kj iesküd ik turmegls ik ols yl quk culjquekr pårieil ik prkseóg kg jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg y ikhìs cdhpdgkgtks kgtrk
kj cdhprksdr y jl turmegl ikmk cdhpkgslrsk cdg hlydr trlmlbd kg kj cdhprksdr. Liecedgljhkgtk, jl k`ecekgcel ikj cdhprksdr y jl turmegl bukolg
ug plpkj huy ehpdrtlgtk, ikmeid l quk k`ecekgcels ckrclgls lj 06% kg kstds cdhpdgkgtks dclsedglrèlg quk tdid kj trlmlbd prdiuceid pdr jl
turmegl skl cdgsuheid pdr kj cdhprksdr y pdr tlgtd jl k`ecekgcel ojdmlj skrèl ckrd

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =0

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
p 3r p 
  =3  9<  =    =3  9< rp 
r

p 9r  p< 
Kgtdgcks kj trlmlbd ik jl turmegl kstlrì ilid pdr2

_Y  c p (Y3r  Y9 r )
U rkcdrilgid quk kj rkgiehekgtd ik jl turmegl ks2
Y3r  Y9r
Y 
Y3r  Y9
Sk tekgk
 Y9 
_Y  c p Y (Y3r  Y9 )  c p Y Y3r <  
 Y3 
 r

r
Cdhd kj prdcksd 3 -9 ks eskgtrópecd2
a /(a <)
Y3r p 
  3 
r

Y9  p9 
Likhìs p98p9r, kgtdgcks2
a /(a <)
Y3r p 
 3    =3  9<rp 
r a /( a <

Y9  p 9  r

@egljhkgtk

 < 
wY   Y c pY3 <  
  =3  9<rp 
r
(a <)/ a

Kj trlmlbd gktd sk pukik cljcujlr kgtdgcks cdg jl seouekgtk rkjlceóg2

 <  c pY< (a <)/ a

w   c Y3 <   =3  9<rp  (a <)/ a
   C r  < 
gktd Y p r p
 
Jl pdtkgcel kspkce`ecl ikslrrdjjlil pdr kj cecjd kstl ilil pdr

wgktd Y3r  <  < (a <)/ a

 Y <   rp <  
  =3  9<rp 
(a <)/ a
c pY< Y<    C

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =?

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
]lzóg ik prksedgks dptehl plrl hlxehezlr jl pdtkgcel kspkcè`ecl ikj cecjd.
Vlrl ug cdgbugtd ilid ik vljdrks ik jls tkhpkrlturls hìxehl y hègehl ikj cecjd lsè cdhd ik jds rkgie-
hekgtds ik jl turmegl y ikj cdhprksdr likhìs ik jls prdpekiliks ikj ols, kxestk ug vljdr dptehd plrl jl
rlzóg ik prksedgks rp quk pkrhetk hlxehezlr jl pdtkgcel kspkce`ecl ikj cecjd, kstk vljdr sk dmtekgk l plrter
ik jl kculceóg lgtkredr y kstl ilid pdr2
a

< Y3 r  =(a <)

rp dpt.   =3  9<  Y<  Y C 

Cljdr lorkolid
Kj cljdr lorkolid lj ols iurlgtk kj cecjd vekgk ilid pdr jl kculceóg2

qkgt8q=r3r 8cp(Y3r-Y=r)

l plrter ik jl quk sk dmtekgk jl seouekgtk kxprkseóg2

  rp ( a <) / a  < 

qkgt  c p Y3  Y< <  
   C  

K`ecekgcel tårhecl
Cdhd sk slmk jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd, kstl ilil pdr2

_gktd
t 
\kgt
kg jl quk sustetuykgid jls kxprksedgks plrl kj trlmlbd gktd, _g y cljdr kgtrkolid, \kgt, sk dmtekgk2


Y3r <  < (a <)/ a
Y <    rp  <
Y< 
  =3  9<rp    C
(a <) / a

t  (a <)/ a
Y3  <  rp  <

r

Y<  C 

]lzóg ik prksedgks dptehl plrl hlxehezlr jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd.

Cdhd kg kj clsd lgtkredr, plrl ug cdgbugtd ik vljdrks ik jds rkgiehekgtds ik jl turmegl y ikj cdhprksdr,
likhìs ik jls prdpekiliks ikj ols y ugl rkjlceóg ik tkhpkrlturls hìxehl-hègehl, Y3/Y<, kxesterì ug
vljdr dptehd plrl jl rlzóg ik prksedgks r p quk pkrhetk hlxehezlr jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd, kstk
vljdr sk dmtekgk ikrevlgid jdl kculceóg lgtkredr rkspkctd ik r p k eouljlgid kstl ikrevlil l ckrd. Kj rksuj-
tlid ks kj seouekgtk2

=
l(rp) - mrp + c 8 6 a
 m  m =  9lc  (a <)
rp dp t.   =l 
 

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =>

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
idgik

Y3 Y Y3 / Y<  <
l 
Y< C C

a <

=Y Y3  <  a
m
 C Y<   =3  9< 

Y Y3  Y3r < 
c a <
  <  
 =3  9<  a Y<  Y< C 

Ylgtd kj trlmlbd gktd ik jl turmegl lsè cdhd jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd, ljclgzlg ug vljdr hìxehd plrl ugl
iktkrheglil rkjlceóg ik prkseóg r p,dpt, Lndrl jl rkjlceóg ik prksedgks dptehl ie`ekrk ik kg clil clsd.
Kg kj ielorlhl sk hukstrl jl kvdjuceóg tlgtd ikj trlmlbd gktd cdhd ik jl k`ecekgcel ikj cecjd lj luhkgtlr
jl rkjlceóg ik prkseóg. Kg kstk clsd kj trlmlbd gktd ljclgzl ug vljdr hìxehd plrl rp dpt. ik ? hekgtrls quk
plrl hlxehezlr jl k`ecekgcel sk rkquekrk ugl rpdpt. ik <;.
Dtrd lspkctd l rksljtlr kg kstk ielorlhl ks quk jl vlrelceóg ikj trlmlbd gktd ks hìs skgsemjk l ugl vl-
relceóg ik jl rkjlceóg ik prkseóg.

Yheg 363 A
Yhlx <<=3 A
rp <;.;
rkgi. Yurm 56% 6.5
rkgi. cdhp 56% 6.5
cleil prkseóg 3% 6.63
ν<= 6.5?
ν9< 6.5?
cp <.69;6 aB/ao-A
a <.9

rpdpt Yrlmlbd Cdhprksdr Yrlmlbd Yurmegl Yrlmlbd gktd Cljdr kgtrlil Ɨ Cecjd _c/_t
<;.;6 96?.=> ;;>.=3 <;6.50 995.0= 33.;?% 6.?3

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | =5

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
K`kctd ik jl clèil ik prkseóg kg kj prdcksd ik egtkrclhmed ik cljdr kg sestkhls
cdg rkcupkrlceóg.
Y
r
3
qL
9r

9
?
=r
= >

q]

<
S

Kg kstl skcceóg sk kstuiel jl setulceóg kg jl quk prkskgtlg sehujtìgklhkgtk jls ids k`kctds kstuielids
kg jls cjlsks lgtkredrks, ks ikcer ks ikcer kj k`kctd ik ug rkokgkrlidr, jls errkvkrsemejeiliks kg kj cdh-
prksdr, turmegl y rkokgkrlidr, lsè cdhd jl clèil ik prkseóg kg jds egtkrclhmelidrks ik cljdr, sdmrk jl
k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd. Kj ielorlhl Ys ik kstk sestkhl sk hukstrl kg jl `eourl.
[g lgìjeses sehejlr lj rkljezlid kg jl skcceóg lgtkredr gds pkrhetk rksuher jls seouekgtks kculcedgks plrl
kj cljcujd ik jds trlmlbds ikj cdhprksdr y jl turmegl, kj trlmlbd gktd y kj cljdr lülieid kg jl cìhlrl ik
cdhmusteóg, kg mlsk l cuyds vljdrks sk pukik kstehlr jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd.
Yrlmlbd ikj cdhprksdr2
c pY<
wC  
C
r
p
( a <) / a
< 
Yrlmlbd ik jl turmegl2

 < 
wY   Y c pY3 <  (a <)/ a

 
r

    r
=? ?3 9> p 
Idgik2
=?1 ks kj `lctdr ik clèil ik prkseóg kg kj jlid `reó ikj rkokgkrlidr,

?31 ks kj `lctdr ik clèil ik prkseóg kg kj cljkgtlidr ik lerk.

9>1 ks kj `lctdr ik clèil ik prkseóg kg kj jlid cljekgtk ikj rkokgkrlidr.

rkokgkrlidr.

Yrlmlbd Gktd
 <  c pY< (a <)/ a
wgktd  Y c pY3 <   rp <  
  =?  ?3  9> rp 
r
(a <)/ a
  C
Yrlmlbd kspkcè`ecd2

Yr   
wgktd   Y 3 <  < (a <)/ a   < r ( a <)/ a
<
c pY< Y< 
  =? ?3 9> rp
    C 
p

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 36
 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz

]lzóg ik prksedgks dptehl plrl hlxehezlr jl pdtkgcel kspkce`ecl ikj cecjd.

a

<  Y3
r  =( a <)
rp dp t.    Y C

 =?  ?3  9>  Y< 

Cljdr lorkolid
  rp ( a <) / a  < 
qkgt  c p Y3  Y< <  
   C  
     rp ( a <) / a  < 
 <
  rkc c pY3 <  Y <   c pY< <   
   =?  ?3  9> rp ( a <) / a     
     C

]lzóg ik prksedgks dptehl plrl hlxehezlr jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd.

Vlrl vljdrks ilids ik tkhpkrlturls hègehl y hìxehl y rkgiehekgtds ik jl turmegl y ikj cdhprksdr y
`lctdrks ik clèil ik prkseóg, kxesterì ug vljdr óptehd plrl jl rlzóg ik prksedgks, quk pkrhetl dmtkgkr ugl
hìxehl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd. Kxprkseóg quk sk pukik dmtkgkr l plrter ik jl kculceóg ik rkgiehekg-
td, ik jl quk sk dmtekgk pdr ikrevlceóg jl seouekgtk kxprkseóg2

a
 m  m  9lc  = ( a <)
rp dp t.  
 = l 
Idgik2

  Y3'    Y3'  
 <   rkc    <   Y = rkc  < 
l
  Y<   Y
 < 

   r ( a <) / a
 C C 
=? ?3 9> p

 

 Y3' 
=  Y <  = rkc 
Y
 <
m
C

 Y3' 
  Y = rkc  <
 Y 3'   Y 3'   Y< 
c   Y  <  = rkc <   
Y
 <   Y<  C

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 3<

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
Kj ielorlhl hukstrl kj k`kctd ikj rkokgkrlidr kg jl kvdjuceóg ikj trlmlbd y jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl kg `ug-
ceóg ik jl rkjlceóg ik prkseóg.
Kg kstk clsd kj trlmlbd gktd ljclgzl ug vljdr hìxehd plrl rp dpt. ik lprdxehlilhkgtk =.?, hekgtrls quk
plrl hlxehezlr jl k`ecekgcel sk rkquekrk ugl rpdpt. ik >.?.
Dtrd lspkctd l rksljtlr kg kstk ielorlhl ks quk jl vlrelceóg ikj trlmlbd gktd ks hìs skgsemjk l ugl vl-
relceóg ik jl rkjlceóg ik prkseóg (Sk suoekrk lj kstuielgtk, cdhplrlr kstk ielorlhl cdg kj ik jl ploegl
=3).

Yheg 366 A
Yhlx <<36 A
Ɨ rko 56% 6.5
ƗYurm 56% 6.5
Ɨ cdhp 56% 6.5
cleil prkseóg 3% 6.63
cp <.69; aB/ao-A
a <.35

Kbkhpjd <6.
Sk ikskl ieskülr ugl ckgtrlj tkrhdkjåctrecl ik turmegl ik ols cdg rkcupkrlceóg, ik lcukrid l jls se-
d d
ouekgtks kspkce`eclcedgks2 Y hlx8>;? C, Yheg8=? C, k`ecekgcel lielmìtecl ikj cdhprksdr 56%, k`ecekgcel
lielmìtecl ik jl turmegl 56%, k`ecekgcel ikj rkcupkrlidr 56%, clèil ik prkseóg kg clil cercuetd ik trlgs-
`krkgcel ik cljdr 3%. Supdgekgid quk kj lerk ks ug ols eiklj cdg cljdrks kspkcè`ecds cdgstlgtks ik
<.69;6 aB/ao A y a8<.35, cljcòjksk jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd plrl rlzdgks ik prkseóg =, 9, 0, > y <6
´Cuìj ks jl rlzóg ik prksedgks plrl hìxehl k`ecekgcel tårhecl4
Y

3r
qL ]kcu
]kcu krl
krlidr
idr
>
9
?
9
? C. C.
=r
>
=
< 9r
q] r 3
=
C Y

S
Jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd, kstì ilil pdr2
wgktd wturm  wcdhp
 cecjd   (<)
y kj trlmlbd ikj cdhprksdr
cd hprksdr q L
q L

cp  ctk.
wcdhp  n= r  n<  wcdhp  c p (Y= r  Y< ) (=)

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 3=

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz

jl tkhpkrlturl rklj
rklj l jl sljeil ikj cdhprksdr, sk pukik iktkrheglr l plrter ik rkgiehekgtd ikj cdhprksdr,

n=  n< cp  ctk. Y Y Y Y Y  366

cdhp   cdhp  = <  Y= r  Y<  = <  366  = (3)
n= r  n< Y= r  Y< C 6.5
Jl tkhpkrlturl eskgtrópecl Y=, sk cljcujl l plrter ik,
( a <) / a 6.35 / <.35

 366r Y Yr
= (9)
< p p

Vrdckikhds ik hlgkrl sehejlr plrl cljcujlr kj trlmlbd ikslrrdjjlid

ikslrrdjjlid pdr jl turmegl
cp  ctk.
wturm  n3  n9 r  wturm  c p (Y3  Y9 r ) (;)

n3  n9 r cp  ctk. Y3  Y9 r
turm   turm   Y9  Y3  turm Y3  Y9   Y9  <<36  6.5(<<36 Y 9)
n3  n9 Y3  Y9
r r

(0)

Y3
Jl tkhpkrlturl eskgtrópecl Y9 Y9  ( a <) / a
 p3 
 
 p9 
Cljcujlhds lndrl, jl rkjlceóg ik prksedgks p3/p9, kg `ugceóg ik p=/p<,
p3  p?  6.63 p?  6.5? p?  6.5?( p=  6.63 p= )  6.5?= p= 1
y
p<  p9  6.63 p9  6.5? p9
`egljhkgtk, p3 p=
 6.5?3
p9 p< <<36
Y9  6.35 / <.35
 p 
 6.5?3 =  (?)
 p< 
cp  ctk.
q L  n3  n?  q L  c p (Y3  Y? )
Kj cljdr lülieid, sk cljcujl (>)
Jl tkhpkrlturl Y?, l plrter ik jl k`ecekgcel ikj rkokgkrlidr,
n?  n= r cp  ctk. Y?  Y= r
rko   rko   Y?  Y=  rko Y9  Y=
r r r  (5)
n9 r  n= r Y9 r  Y= r
Lpjeclgid kstls gukvk kculcedgks, sucksevlhkgtk, plrl jls 0 rkjlcedgks ik prkseóg p=/p< ilils, sk dmtek-
gkg jds seouekgtks rksujtlids2
rp _t _c _gktd qK Ȧcecjd _c/_t
= <0;.<< ?9.?> 56.33 ==?.>; 35.09% 6.9;
9 3=3.?0 <0;.0< <;>.<9 30<.;0 93.?9% 6.;<
0 963.== ==?.;9 <?;.05 9=0.>> 9<.<0% 6.;0
> 9;9.3? =?;.5; <?>.9= 90>.6? 3>.<=% 6.0<
<6 95<.=5 3<0.=> <?;.6< 95?.=? 3;.<5% 6.09

<= ;<5.?5 3;<.<? <0>.0= ;<5.93 3=.90% 6.0>

Ik kstl tlmjl sk vk quk plrl rp89 sk dmtekgk jl hìxehl k`ecekgcel.

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 33

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
Kbkhpjd <<.
Sljk lerk ikj cdhprksdr ik ugl turmegl ik ols y pkgktrl kg kj cdhmustdr l 9>=.09 aVl lms.,
=69.9DC y 9; h/s1 jds olsks sljkg ik kstk òjtehd l 90>.>; aVl lms., >53.3 dC y <;= h/s. Kgtrl
cdhmustemjk jèqueid l <;.06C cdg pdikr cljdrè`ecd ik 9=5=6 aB/ao1 jl k`eclcel ikj cdhmustdr ks
59%. Cljcujk kj `jubd ik cdhmustemjk pdr aejdorlhd ik lerk kgtrlgtk. Vlrl jds prdiuctds,
Hp8=>.5, a8<.30.
]KSDJ[CEÓG
L cdgtegulceóg sk kxpdgkg jds plsds l skouer plrl jl sdjuceóg ikj prdmjkhl seg tdhlr kg
cukgtl ids `lctdrks2 Kj egcrkhkgtd ik kgkroèl cegåtecl y jl clèil ik prkseóg kg kj cdhmus-
tdr. Kj kstuielgtk sk kgclrolrì ik nlckr jls cdrrkccedgks cdrrkspdgiekgtks kxpjeclgid kg
mlsk l jds rksujtlids guhårecds jl egceikgcel ik kstds `lctdrks kg jds rksujtlids
rk sujtlids `egljks.

Y
hcdhm

\kgt 3 = 3
c-cdhm859%
hlerk hprdi.

= h pr di  hlerk  hcdhm

Kj cljdr lülieid kg kj cdhmustdr sk pukik kvljulr ik jl seouekgtk hlgkrl

qe hcdhm ccdhm  h prd ic p =Y=  hlerkc p<Y<

hcdhm h prd i hlerk hlerk  h prd i

qe  ccdhm  c p 3Y3  c p =Y=  c p 3Y3  c p =Y=
hlerk hlerk hlerk hlerk

  
qe ccdhm rc / l (< rc / l )c p 3Y3 c p =Y=
Ik idgik sk tekgk ugl rkjlceóg hltkhìtecl quk pkrhetk cljcujlr jl rkjlceóg ik `jubd ik cdhmustemjk
– lerk2
c p 3Y3  c p =Y=
rl / c 
qe ccdhm  c p 3Y3 =

kj cljdr kspkcè`ecd ikj lerk sk dmtekgk ik tlmjls y plrl cljcujlr kj cljdr kspkcè`ecd ik jds olsks prdiuctd
ik jl cdhmusteóg sk pukik uslr jl seouekgtk rkjlceóg tkrhdiegìhecl2
a]
cp  1 idgik ]8][/Hp
a <

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 39

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
Kbkhpjd <=
Ik ugl turmegl ik ols egiustrelj ik ;<;6 a_ sk cdgdckg jds iltds seouekgtks2 Ks ik cecjd rkokgkrltevd1
tkhpkrlturl ik liheseóg <;²C 1 prkseóg ik liheseóg < lth1 tkhpkrlturl ik kgtrlil l jl turmegl 5;;²C1
rkjlceóg ik cdhprkseóg ikj cdhprksdr >/<1 rkgiehekgtd ikj cdhprksdr 6,>;1 rkgiehekgtd turmegl2 6,>>1
rkgiehekgtd cìhlrl cdhmusteóg2 6,501 rkgiehekgtd hkcìgecd ik jl egstljlceóg2 6,5>1 pårieil ik prkseóg lj
ltrlvkslr kj `jueid kj rkokgkrlidr2 =,;%2 pårieil ik prkseóg kg jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg2 3%1 pårieil ik
prkseóg kg kj ksclpk2 =,;%. Vdtkgcel cljdrè`ecl eg`kredr ikj cdhmustemjk2 9=666 aB/ao.
Iktkrheglr kj cecjd, kstehlgid jds plrìhktrds gd cdgdceids, y cljcujlr kj rkgiehekgtd, y kj olstd ik lerk.
Lsuher quk cp 8 < aB/ao²C y a 8 <,9.
]KSDJ[CEÓG

ILYDS2 ( Hltncli )
c  > ;%
V  ; <; 6 Aw pro  =. ;% =?  <  pro = ?  6 .5
.5? ;
t  >>%
Y
<
 < ;  = ?3 A pcc  3% ?3  <  pcc ? 3  6. 5?
5?
cc  5 0%
Y
3
 5;;
5;; =?
=?3
3 A pksc  =. ;% 9>  <  pksc 9 >  6 .5
.5? ;
hkc
hkc  5>
5>%
%
rp  > aB aB
q e  9 =6
=6 6 6 a  < . 9 cp  <
ao aoC

Kculcedg ks plrl kj cì jcujd ik jds tr

trlmlb
lmlb ds
ikj cdhp rksdr
rksdr y jl turmegl
Ielorlhl Y -s
c pY<
wC 
C
r p
( a <)/ a
 <

 < 
wY   Y c pY3 <  
 
r
(a <)/ a
    r
=? ?3 9> p 

- Cljcuj
Cljcuj lhd s prehkrd jl i dse`eclceóg cdh mus
mustemj
temj k le rk, l plr
plrter
ter ikj clj dr lüliei d kg kj cdhm us
ustdr,
tdr,
uetjezlgid jl kculceóg
kculceóg plr
plrl
l kj ccls
lsd
d ik ugl ttur
urmegl
megl cdg u ug
g cec
cecjd
jd cdg rkokgkr
kokgkrlceóg
lceóg y cleils ik pr
prk
k
jds egtkrclhm elid rks (gd sk
sk tdhl rì kg ccukgtl
ukgtl kj k `kct
`kctdd iej uykgtk ik j cdh mus
mustemj
temj k)22
(a <)/ a (a <)/ a

qkgt  c p 
Y r  Y< <  < 
  c pY <Y <   c pY< < < 
rp < rp
r
 (a <)/ a 
 =??39>rp 
rko
3
  C
 
3
   C  
supdgekgid ug rkgiehe kgtd tårhecd ikj rkokgkrlidr
rkokgkrlidr ik 2

rko  <66
<66% , sk tekgk2
aB
qk  9?
9?6.6
6.65
5;
ao
likhls, kj cljdr lülieid
likhls, lülieid s
sk
k pukik cljcujlr l plr
plrter
ter ikj pdikr c
cljdr
ljdre`ec
e`ecd
d ikj cdhmus
cdhmustemjk
temjk y ikj ol
cdhmustemjk2
q kgt h lerk cdhm  qe hcdhm cc

q kgt (<  rc / l )  q e rc / l cc

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 3;

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
ik idgik sk pukik cljcujlr jl idse`eclceóg cdhmustemjk lerk2
q kgt
rc / l  rcl  6.6<=
6.6<=
q e cc  qkgt

Cìjcujd i kj trlmlbd iksl

iksl rr
rrdjj
djj lid pd r kj cdhprksdr2
cdhprksdr2

a <
cp  Y
<  a 
_c    rp  <
c
_c  =?
=?9.
9.53
53?
?
Cìjcujd ikj trlmlbd ikslrrdjjlid pdr jl turmegl2

 t cp  Y3  <  

<
_t
a <
 
  =? ?3 9> rp a 

_t  9?
9?6.
6.65
65;
;

Y]lmlbd gktd (utej) _ g kt d

 _ t  _ c
AB
_gktd  <5;.<;
_gktd <5;.<;??
ao
Olstd ik lerk2

V  _gktd hkc  wgktd  hlerk  hkc

V
h lerk 
w gktd  hkc

V ao lerk
hlerk   =0.5=>
_gktd  hkc s

=0.5=>6.6<=
  6.3=3
hcdhm 

V V  V
 sest khl    sest khl
hm qe
hcdhm
hcd
 6.3>0 ( 3>.0%)
\lülieid hcdhm qe

´Se
´Se sk tdhl kg c
cukgtl
ukgtl kj k`kc
k`kctd
td ik iejuceóg ikj cdhmustemjk,
cdhmustemjk, cdhd y kg quk h loegtui l`kc
l`kctlr
tlrì
ìl
rkgiehekgtd ikj sestkhl4

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 30

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz

Y[]MDV]DV[JSD]KS
Y[]MDV]DV[JSD]KS (Y[]MEGLS) PS. Y[]MD]]KL
Y[]MD]]KLCYD]KS
CYD]KS (HDYD]KS L ]KLCCEDG)

Ielorlhls V-P y Y-S ikj cecjd eikljezlid2

Gd kxestk hlydr ie`krkgcel kgtrk jds ids clsds, kg kj cecjd tkrhdiegìhecd, pdr jd quk kg lhmds clsds jds ielorlhls
V-v y Y-s, sdg eiågtecds.
Ielorlhl ik Mjdquks2

(l) Yurmdprdpujsdr (m) 2 Yurmdrrklctdr (Hdtdr l rklcceóg)

Sk hukstrlg jds cdhpdgkgtks pregcepljks ik jl hìquegl ik Mrlytdg, kg sus ids ljtkrgltevls2 Yurmdprdpujsdr y Yurmd-
rrklctdr. Lhmds clsds sdg sehejlrks nlstl kj pugtd 3'. Jl ie`krkgcel kstreml kg quk ik ljjè kg likjlgtk, jl skougil
turmegl ks rkkhpjlzlil pdr ugl tdmkrl.

Ikscrepceóg ik jds cdhpdgkgtks

 <-= Kj turmdcdhprksdr quk tdhl kj lerk lhmekgtk (l p< y Y <) y jd cdhprehk nlstl p=. Kstk prdcksd
sk pukik supdgkr lielmìtecd. Eikljhkgtk ks seg rdck, pkrd kg okgkrlj ks pdjetrópecl cdg rdck.
 =-3 Jukod kj lerk cdhpreheid l p= plsl l jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg. Ljjè sk jk lorkol ugl cekrtl clgte-
ili ik cdhmustemjk kj quk sk qukhl. Lj qukhlrsk jl hkzcjl, jl tkhpkrlturl ik jds olsks sumk nlstl
Y 3. Jl cdhmusteóg ks prìcteclhkgtk esdmìrecl. (d clse esdmìrecl, puks sk pekrik ug pdcd ik prkseóg
pdr rdck). Cdhd l jl cìhlrl ik cdhmusteóg kgtrl tlgtd `jueid cdhd kj quk sljk, jl prkseóg clse gd
vlrèl. Jl tkhpkrlturl Y3 ks ugl tkhpkrlturl crètecl, puks cdrrkspdgik l jl hlydr tkhpkrlturl kg kj
cecjd. Likhìs tlhmeåg ks jl hlydr prkseóg. Vdr jd tlgtd jds kjkhkgtds sdhkteids l Y3 skrìg jds hìs
sdjecetlids.

 3-9 Jl kxplgseóg ik jds olsks cljekgtks sk ikmk ieveier kg ids ktlpls2

 3-3― Jds olsks cljekgtks y l ljtl prkseóg sk kxplgikg kg jl turmegl Y <. Kstl turmegl rkcupkrl kj
trlmlbd ik kxplgseóg plrl lccedglr kj turmdcdhprksdr. Jl kxplgseóg kg jl turmegl ks nlstl jls

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 3?

 Lpugtks ik Cjlsk
Idckgtk2 Khejed ]evkrl Cnìvkz
cdgiecedgks 3' . Eikljhkgtk ks kxplgseóg lielmìtecl seg rdck, pkrd kg okgkrlj ks pdjetrópecl cdg
rdck.
 Kg jl `lsk 3¹-9 kxestkg ids ljtkrgltevls2
(l) 3―-9 Jds olsks ik ksclpk sk seoukg kxplgiekgid l trlvås ik ugl skougil turmegl ik pd-
tkgcel nlstl ljclgzlr jl prkseóg lhmekgtk ( p9, kvdjuceóg 3' - 9). Kstl turmegl ik pdtkgcel
kgtrkol trlmlbd hkcìgecd lj kxtkredr. Yèpeclhkgtk kj trlmlbd sk usl plrl lccedglr ug ok-
gkrlidr d mekg dtrd hkclgeshd (nåjeck kg kj clsd ik lvedgks cdg turmdprdpujsdr d lspls
kg ug nkjecóptkrd). Sk trltl ik ug turmdprdpujsdr d jd quk cdhòghkgtk sk jjlhl turme-
gl l ols.
(m) Kgtrk 3' y 9 sk seouk cdg jl kxplgseóg ik jds olsks kg ugl tdmkrl, kj trlmlbd ik kxplg-
seóg sk cdgvekrtk kg kgkroèl cegåtecl kg jds olsks. Kstl kgkroèl cegåtecl servk plrl eh-
pujslr kj hdtdr (jds olsks sljkg ikj hdtdr l orlg vkjdceili, prdiucekgid khpubk pdr
k`kctd ikj pregceped ik lcceóg y rklcceóg) . Sk trltl ik ug turmdrrklctdr d jd quk cdhòg-
hkgtk sk jjlhl ug hdtdr l rklcceóg.
 @egljhkgtk jds olsks ik cdhmusteóg sk kvlculg l jl lthós`krl kg 9. Jl kvdjuceóg 9-< ks vertulj (kg
jds sestkhls ik cecjd lmekrtd) y cdrrkspdgik lj kg`relhekgtd ik jds olsks nlstl jl tkhpkrlturl lh-
mekgtk.

SÈGYKSES
Kj cecjd Mrlytdg ks ug cecjd ik pdtkgcel ik ols y ks jl mlsk ik jls turmegls ik ols. Yekgk cdhd `ugceóg
trlgs`drhlr kgkroèl quèhecl ik ug cdhmustemjk kg kgkroèl hkcìgecl, tekgk vlrels lpjeclcedgks, pregceplj-
hkgtk kg prdpujseóg ik lvedgks, y jl okgkrlceóg ik kgkroèl kjåctrecl, lugquk sk nl utejezlid tlhmeåg kg
dtrls lpjeclcedgks.
Kstk pukik skr dpkrlid ik vlrels hlgkrls, yl skl kg cecjd lmekrtd d cecjd ckrrlid, kxestkg `drhls ik
dptehezlr su rkgiehekgtd, pkrd nly quk tkgkr hucnd cueilid kg kxlheglr se vljk jl pkgl nlckr clhmeds
(iksik kj pugtd ik vestl kcdgóhecd pdr kbkhpjd). [gl hlgkrl ik hkbdrlr ug cecjd ckrrlid ks jl rkokgk-
rlceóg khpjklgid plrtk ik jl kgkroèl ikskcnlil plrl cljkgtlr jds olsks quk ikblg kj cdhprksdr y, pdr
kgik, rkiucer jl trlgs`krkgcel ik cljdr rkqukreil pdr kj cecjd.
Jl k`ecekgcel tårhecl ikj cecjd Mrlytdg tlhmeåg sk egcrkhkgtl lj utejezlr cdhprkseóg ik ktlpls hòjtepjks
cdg egtkrkg`relhekgtd,
egtkrkg`relhekgtd, y kxplgseóg ikik ktlpls hòjtepjks cdg rkcljkgtlhekgtd.
Vlrl kj hkbdr kstuied ik jds cecjds ik pdtkgcel sk utejezl ugl hlgkrl eikljezlil ik jds heshds kg jl quk
sk kjeheglg cekrtds pugtds plrl gd cdhpjeclr su rlzdglhekgtd, kg kstls `drhls ik lgìjeses tdids jds prd-
cksds, sdg rkvkrsemjks.
Lugquk kxestkg `drhujls plrl kj cìjcujd ik jds ie`krkgtks plrìhktrds tkrhdiegìhecds ikj cecjd, ks mukgl
eikl rksdjvkr jds prdmjkhls plrtekgid ik cdgckptds mlslids kg jds pregcepeds tkrhdiegìhecds y jls kcul-
cedgks ik kstlid.
Jls ids pregcepljks ìrkls ik lpjeclceóg ik jls turmegls ik ols sdg jl prdpujseóg ik lvedgks y jl okgkrlceóg
ik kgkroèl kjåctrecl. Culgid sk khpjkl kg prdpujseóg ik lvedgks, jl turmegl ik ols prdiuck jl pdtkgcel
su`ecekgtk plrl lccedglr tlgtd kj cdhprksdr cdhd l ug pkquküd okgkrlidr. Jds olsks ik ksclpk ik ljtl
vkjdceili sdg jds rkspdgslmjks ik prdiucer kj khpubk plrl ehpujslr jl lkrdglvk.

Mejedorl`èl
Egokgekrèl tkrhdieglhecl, @rlgces @. Nulgo, CKCSL, =663
Ykrhdieglhecl, Uugus L. Ckgokj, Hecnlkj l. Mdjks, HcOrlw-Nejj, P kieceóg.

www.mrlytdgkgkroy.gkt/lmdut/

Cecjds ik Yurmegls l Ols Vìoegl | 3>