CT 200: Principles of

Curriculum
Development and
Teaching

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Curriculum Concepts
Meaning of Curriculum
• The term ‘curriculum’ originated from
the Greek word ‘curere’ meaning to “run
a course”.
• It therefore represents a course of
subjects covered by learners in their
race towards a certain educational goal
or target.
• Curriculum definitions have developed
along a continuum from narrow to
broad ones.
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• The definitions of curriculum are as narrow
as “the subject matter to be learned” and as
broad as “all the experiences students have
in school.”

• Narrow definition (Narrow view)

see curriculum as a plan (blueprint
for instruction), programme, course
of study or a package that can
bring about learning.
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• Broad definitions; In this
perspective curriculum is viewed
as process. The process that
includes the thinking behind
coming up with a ‘package’ and
the continuous effort of making it
serve the needs of society. It
encompases values, attitudes,
and experiences of students
inside and outside the school.
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 More definitions
• Curriculum is a course through which people
have to run in order to get to a set goal.
• Curriculum is the total situation through which
the school makes behavioural changes in those
who pass through it
• Curriculum is what examiners require the
teachers to emphasize in their teaching
• Curriculum is what should be taught in a
particular subject
• Curriculum is the totality of the syllabuses of a
school
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 Elements/components of a curriculum
A curriculum generally is expected to
consist of the following elements:
 Aims, goals and objectives
 Subject content/learning experiences
 Methods/strategies of delivery/
learning activities
 Evaluation/Performance
measurement.
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cf. Figure 1 below

 Purpose
•Goals
•Objectives

Content/
Methods/ Subject
Strategies matter to be
studied
Evaluation/
Performance
measuremen
t
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 Scope of Curriculum Studies
Curriculum studies incorporate a variety of
issues and processes including:
• Curriculum theory
• Curriculum planning
• Curriculum design
• Curriculum development
• Curriculum implementation
• Curriculum evaluation
Each of these terms is hereby explained
briefly:
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 1. Curriculum Theory
• Is a set of inter related educational
concepts assumption and
generalisations that systematicaly
describes, explain an event in an
educational context.
• Most philosophers of science argue
that theory has only three legitimate
purposes: to describe, to explain, and
to predict.
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• According to Urevbu (1990), a
curriculum theory should provide a
practical guidance as to:
• “What to teach”
• “Who is taught”
• Who should control its selection
and distribution, and
• Who gets taught what?

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2. Curriculum Planning
• This can be viewed as the
process of gathering, selecting,
balancing and synthesizing
relevant information from many
sources in order to design those
experiences that will assist the
learner attain the goals of
education.
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• Curriculum planning is
therefore, the thinking or
conception stage of the
curriculum development
process. Thus, it deals with
seeking key answers to
crucial questions such as:
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• What should be taught?
• How should it be taught?
• To what segment of the population
and
• What should be the relationship
between the various components of
the curriculum?

3. Curriculum Design
This refers to the structure or pattern
of organization of the curriculum
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4. Curriculum Development - is
the term under which all
processes and activities of
the school curriculum are
subscribed. It is thus a
continuing process of
evolution and planning of
curriculum.
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5.Curriculum implementation is
putting into effect what has
been planned. It is thus the
process of ensuring that the
new curriculum and curriculum
materials are made available
to all the schools and
institutions targeted by the
curriculum development
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project.
6. Curriculum
Evaluation is the
process of checking
the extent to which
the curriculum
objectives have been
achieved.
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 Dimensions of Curriculum
• Formal curriculum - (sometimes referred to
as the intended or official curriculum)
describes a deliberately planned programme
of activities which educational institutions
provide for learners for a specified period of
time to attain specified objectives. It is the
course of study or syllabus.
• This is the curriculum dimension that is
“planned for” or the predetermined part of
the curriculum.
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 Non-formal curriculum – This
refers to learning taking place
outside the formal learning
system. For example, learning
taking place through students
with similar interests coming
together and exchanging
viewpoints, e.g. in clubs, youth
organizations or workshops.
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 Hidden Curriculum (informal)
•Consists of indirect messages/experiences
received by learners from the physical, social
and intellectual environments of the school. It
includes norms and values of the surrounding
society E.g punctuality, discipline, table
manner etc.
•This is something that is not explicitly taught
but it is part of what molds the school
environment, and consequently the learner.

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• School Curriculum - the
school curriculum which
perhaps is the most
popular form of formal
curriculum refers to all
the subjects offered by
an educational institution.
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• Null curriculum: consists of what is
not taught in the school set-up. This
may give students the impression
that these elements are not
important in their educational
experiences or in the society.
Example: ignoring some of the
ideas due to mandates from the
authority, or due to teacher’s lack of
knowledge or to avoid assumption
and biases that may be brought by
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 Task for Home
Consumption
What is the relationship
between education and
curriculum?
Issue of centralized…………

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 Curriculum Development
 The term curriculum
development is used to
describe the building of a
curriculum. In other
words, it is an activity
which results in plans for
instruction.
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• It can also be considered as “a
systematic process of
determining the content to be
imparted, the pedagogy
suitable for doing so, the
structure through which it may
be carried out most effectively
and determination of how such
a process will be evaluated”
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 Aspects of Curriculum
Development
The following are the typologies of
curriculum development:
Curriculum as content (product) –
This is a classical way of
understanding curriculum. In this
aspect curriculum means a detailed
description of contents of teaching
(syllabi) that should be delivered to
pupils through teaching.
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• This curriculum aspect has been
used in many countries. It is a
solution in less developed
education systems especially when
there is a shortage of adequately
trained teachers in schools
• The reasons for the prevalence of
this approach is that it is
systematic, follows the ideas of
industrial management.
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Curriculum as experience: Is
based on this assumption
that the process through
which the goals of schooling
are achieved is more
important than the content
that is used as an object of
study.
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• The best advocate of this
curriculum was American
educationist John Dewey in early
20th century. He was a major
representative of the progressive
populist philosophies of schooling.
• Schools are given the ultimate
decision making concerning
teaching and learning
arrangements.
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 Home consumption
Analyse John Dewey’s
philosophy of education in
relation to curriculum
development. How relevant are
John Dewey’s philosophical
ideas for curriculum
development in Tanzania?
29
Curriculum as framework –
is normally a comprehensive
document that describes the
overall aims of schooling,
more specific goals of
education, and objectives of
teaching subject or integrated
subject groups.
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• The purpose of framework
curriculum is to leave decision
making and curriculum
planning to local education
authorities, schools and
teachers.
• This aspect requires that the
education system has
qualified and committed
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personnel in place.
Outcomes-based curriculum –
the idea of outcomes-based
curriculum is that it guides the
planning of teaching by more
precise description of intended
learning outcomes.
• It provides teachers with detailed
lists of knowledge and skills that
students should achieve in any
given level of their schooling.
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Standards-based curriculum
- the basic logic of
standards-based curriculum
aspect is that the state, for
example, Ministry of
Education, sets the
standards for teaching and
learning that are the same
for all students, teachers and
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• These standards are
normally subject-specific,
detailed descriptions of
expected learning outcomes
per grade or phase of
schooling, i.e. curriculum is
designed using students’
learning as a point of
departure.
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 Issues in Curriculum
Centralization and
Decentralization
• Any curriculum needs to be
developed in the light of the
organisation or context in which it is
going to be delivered.
• A strategic issue which needs to be
considered is whether the course
design, delivery and management is
centralised or decentralised.
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• Centralized curricula tend to be
more structured and orderly and it
is easier to ensure uniformity and a
standard approach to teaching and
learning.
• A centralized curriculum may allow
better access to a wide pool of
expertise but be less sensitive to
local needs.
• Centralization can be seen at both
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national and organizational levels.

 Advantages of the centralized
pattern of curriculum

• It makes it easy to achieve national goals,

since all schools use the same
documents.
• Learners can transfer from one school to
another without being disadvantaged.
• Entry requirements for universities and
colleges can be centrally determined and
parity can be ensured
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 Adv.cont’
• Communication to schools regarding
academic requirements is easy, since
the Ministry of Education is directly
involved.
• Learning materials can be mass-
produced, making them less
expensive for both producers and
consumers.
• Institutions can be well staffed and
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richly serviced because they draw

 Disadvantages of the Centralized
Pattern of Curriculum Design
• The process takes a long time before the final
document is produced.
• The design is insensitive to the needs of
some groups within the country.
• There are coordination and communication
problems when parastatals are involved in
curriculum design.
• There is limited participation by various
members of the community, resulting in little
commitment during the implementation
stage
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• Decentralized curricula tend to be
more appropriate to students’ local
needs and often ensure better
ownership of the course by
teachers. Decentralization can
allow for a variety of approaches
to design and delivery and enable
comparisons of the strengths and
weaknesses of each.
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 Characteristics of Decentralised curriculum
• Local communities initiate the changes to suit
their local needs
• Teachers work with the parents to determine the
content
• Subjects in schools could be the same, but the
content will vary from school to school, state to
state, or district to district
• Each school, state or district has its own syllabus
that is produced locally
• Generally, the textbooks may not have been
centrally approved
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 Advantages of Decentralised
pattern of Curriculum
• The curriculum addresses local needs.
• The local community is directly involved
and is committed to its implementation.
• The system encourages creativity and
initiative on the part of the teacher.
• It takes less time to produce the
curriculum than it would take when a
centralised pattern is used.
• Students learn what is relevant to the local
community.
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 Disadvantes
• There is no guarantee that national goals
will be achieved.
• Learners cannot easily transfer from one
school to another when their families
move.
• There is generally a problem in developing
or accessing teaching materials which, if
available, are expensive to produce.
• There may not be adequate expertise in
the local community to develop part of the
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curriculum.
Nuts and Bolts of the
Curriculum Development
Process
• The curriculum development is a
comprehensive, ongoing process that
involves a series of stages. Different
scholars propose varied steps for the
process.

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• The curriculum development
process can be categorized
into five basic steps:
• 1) needs assessment, 2) the
planning session, 3) content
development, 4) pilot delivery
and revision, and 5) the
completed curriculum package.
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1. Needs Assessment data
helps the Curriculum Design
and Development Team to fully
understand the intent of, and
expectations for the completed
curriculum. It should answer
the following questions for
those charged with developing
the training program:
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• What is the purpose of the new
training program?
• Who is the audience? How long is
the training program envisioned to
be?
• Is this envisioned to be a program
delivered by experienced
facilitators or by agency personnel
(not necessarily trainers or
facilitators)?
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• What are the outcomes
expected of the curriculum?
To train others to be trainers? (Capacity
building)
To train agencies or organizations on
an emerging trend or issue?
To add to the body of curriculum
around a certain subset of the issue?
Other reasons?

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2. The Planning Session
• Planning Session and Content
Development steps typically occur
in tandem. It is during the planning
session that discussions occur
about the content that is to be
developed and delivered in the
curriculum.

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3. Content Development
• This is the work that is generated
as a result of the Planning
Session, and is the heart of the
curriculum development process.
In this step, performance
objectives are finalized for each
content area, instructional
strategies are developed for each
performance objective.
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• This is the piece of the curriculum
development process that is the
most lengthy.
4. Pilot Delivery and Revision
• In this step, the curriculum is
piloted with a sample of the
target audience to validate the
content, instructional strategies,
and expected outcomes of the
training program.
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 Key focus areas on which to collect data on
during the pilot delivery are:
• Do the instructional strategies piloted help
learners successfully complete the
performance objectives? Do they need to be
modified/revised/changed to be effective?
• Does this meet the learning needs of the
audience around this issue(s)?
• Was the time for each module sufficient?
• Was the sequencing of the learning
appropriate?
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5. The Completed Curriculum
Package
• The validated curriculum package
contains all materials necessary in
order to deliver the curriculum to
its target audience.
• At this point in the development
process, the curriculum is
validated and is ready for further
training program delivery and
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distribution.
 TASK FOR HOME CONSUMPTION

• Home Assignment
• If you were given a chance by Tanzania
Institute of Education (TIE) to involve in
curriculum development of the subject of
your specialisation, who do you think will
be appropriate participants on need
assessment stage and why do you think
they are important.

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 MODELS OF CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT.
• Educationist have come up with different
models in curriculum development which
can be used when developing curriculum
• These models appear in two styles
1.Linear model.
2.Cyclic model.

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 Tyler’s linear model
• Tyler represent the curriculum
process as a continuum involving
several distinct stages. According to
tyler curriculum developer have to go
through four stages in attempt to
answer four questions.
• These questions are:

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 Tyler’s questions
1. What educational purpose should the
school seek to attain?
2. What Educational experiences can be
provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these experiences be effectively
organised?
4. How can we determine if these purposes
are being attained
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 Tyler’s model cont’
• The four questions adressed in tyler’s
model result in four stages of tylers
model of curriculum development.
1.Selection of objectives
2.Selection of learning experiences
3.Selection of teaching and learning
experiences.
4.Selection of evaluation strategies.
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 Graphical representation of
tyler’s model

Learning
Teaching Evaluation
objectives experience
strategies strategies
s

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 Critics to tyler’s model
• The model does not indicate the source
from where the objectives are drawn.
• The model does not indicate the criteria
used for selecting the objectives
• The model is described as simplistic and
mechanistic in the sense that the
curriculum process always begins with
objectives and end up of evaluation.

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 Tyler’s critic cont’
• The model considers each element in
isolation from each other and thus
ignores interrelatedness and linkages
of those elements.

• Lastly, the model does not specify

what happens when after evaluation
it is found that the objectives have
not been achieved.
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 Taba’s linear model to
curriculum development
• The criticism about the sources of
objectives is partly answered in Taba’s
model which consist of seven stages
namely diagnosis of needs, formulation of
objectives, selection of contents,
organisation of content, selection of
learning of learning experiences,
organisation of learning experiences,
determination of what to evaluate.
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 Critics of Taba’s model to
curriculum development
• Taba’s model does indicate the source
from which the objectives are supposed
to be drawn that is from the need
assessment, however it does not address
other critisms.
• Like tyler’s model this model is linear and
therefore simplistic because it ignores
interaction between elements.
• Evaluation is always considered as the
last activity.
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 Diagnosis of needs

Formulation of objectives

Selection of content

Organisation of content

Selection of learning
experience
Organisation of learning
experiences
Determination of what to
evaluate

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 Wheeler’s cyclic model in
graphical representation

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 Wheeler’s cyclic model to
curriculum development.
• Critics of linear model advance the
idea that the curriculum development
process is cyclic i.e it goes round
and round.
• According to this model the process
of curriculum development can start
anywhere. It does not necessarily
have to start with objectives or need
assessment.
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 Wheeler’s cyclic model cont’
• Advocates of the cyclic model include
wheeler, Kerr,Tanner and Tanner.
• Wheeler’s model consist of five phases
and shows the interdependence among
the five elements namely
1.Aims goals and objectives
2.Selection of learning experiences
3.Selection of content
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 Wheeler’s model cont’
4.Organisation and integration of
content and learning experiences.
5.Evaluation.
•However a one to one relationship of
elements is depicted. This ignores the
possibility of each element being
related to and affected by every other
element.
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 Wheeler's model
• In way, it tends to certain the idea of
linearity that is starting with
objectives formulation to evaluation

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 Kerr’s interactive model to
curriculum development
• The point about interlinkages of the
elements is addressed in Kerr's model to
curriculum development. In this model
wheeler’s five elements are condensed
into four. These are
1.Objectives
2.Content
3.Learning experiences
4.Evaluation
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 Graphical representation of
Kerr’s model

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 Kerr’s model cont’
• Each of the element in this model
interacts with the three other
elements. Such interaction is
depicted by the presence of double
arrow.
• The model suggest that the process
can start anywhere and that
evaluation relates not only to
objectives but also to all other
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elements.
 Kerr’s model cont’
• It should be noted that, kerr’s model
shows interrelationship of elements, and
as such is a more realistic representation
of the complex nature of the curriculum
development process.
• It suggest that curriculum development is
dynamic, ongoing, ever changing and
continuous without a beginning or an end.

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 Kerr’s model cont’
• The model also depicts that an event or
phenomenon at one point in the process
has a repercussion on the event
elsewhere in the process.
• However Tanner and Tanner criticized the
model on the ground that it does not show
the base from which decision in each
element are made.

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 Tanner and Tanner’s model of
Curriculum Development
• According to Tanner and Tanner,
philosophy serves as a source of
developing aims and values
• The centrality of this new element is
shown in the following figure

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 Tanner and Tanner’s model in
Graphical presentation

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 Tanner and Tanner’s cont’
• The model do relate to the kerr’s model to
curriculum development except the fact
that philosophy remain to be the source
and make the basis of each element in the
process
• Therefore, the cited models shows that
there have greater improvement over the
years in terms of accuracy with which the
model represent curriculum development
process.
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 Conclusion.
• At first curriculum development was
seen as a simple linear process, but it
is now widely accepted that it is a
complex and continuous, cyclic
process with a number of elements
each of which interact with more
than one of the other elements.

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 END OF MODULE ONE

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 MODULE 4

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 Factors influencing curriculum
development in Tanzania
• A number of factors that influence
curriculum development are discussed
here. These are not all the factors; they
are just those deemed to be most
salient in characterizing the Tanzanian
curriculum context. As a matter of fact
most of these factors overlap and
converge at some point.
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Political forces
• In The Politics of the School
Curriculum, Dennis Lawton observes
that curriculum development is
about selecting “the most important
aspects of culture for transmission
to the next generation. One of the of
the crucial questions to ask is the
political question: “who makes the
selection”?
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• In Tanzania, as elsewhere,
politics occupy a central place in
the daily affairs of the nation.
The political class seeks to
control and manipulate the polity,
either overtly or covertly.
• Education is normally a covert
tool in the stratagem/trick of the
political class (Freire, 1972).
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• The influence of politics in
curriculum development in
Tanzania is best seen through the
formation of various education
commissions, committees, and
working parties.
• Since independence, there have
been several major commissions
on the school curriculum.
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• Due to the centralized, all
powerful nature of the politics in
Tanzania most decisions on
education are top-down.
Task:
Find out ONE Presidential educational
commission formed in Tanzania since
independence, and briefly outline its major
suggestions with regard to education and
curriculum change in Tanzania.
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Socio – economic context
• The current population of Tanzania is
estimated at 42,746,620 (July 2011)
with an annual population growth rate of
2.002% of the total population, 50% are
youth under 15 years. Only 2.1% of GDP
goes to education in Tanzania
• Donor conditionalities
• Liberal economy since 1980s
• Economic inequalities/poverty, etc.
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Cultural context
• Although Tanzania is a unitary
state, it comprises over 120 ethnic
groups. Each of these groups has
its own unique cultural identity.
The centralized nature of the
Tanzanian curriculum may not
always accommodate the diverse
cultural norms of the population.
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• Instead of tailoring single
subjects to ensure cultural
context relevance, the entire
curriculum should be
transformed “to give children,
youth and adults the type of
quality education that promotes
appreciation of diversity,
richness, and dynamism of our
cultures
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ICT context
• The role of ICT in education cannot be
over emphasized.
• The world is going the digital way, and
education is at the forefront of this journey.
Yet Tanzania is still lagging behind.
• Many schools are located in remote rural
villages where there is no power to
facilitate the teaching of ICT.
• There is lack of expertise in this area
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The legal context of curriculum
development
• The legal mandate for Curriculum
development in Tanzanian school system
is vested in the Tanzania Institute of
Education.
• The legal mandate of TIE is limiting in
several aspects. Firstly, since it operates
under the Ministry of Education, its
funding is mainly from the Ministry’s
allocations in the national budget.
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• Such funding caters mainly for
recurrent costs and very little goes to
curriculum research and development,
which is the core function of TIE.
• Secondly, while TIE is mandated to
develop the curriculum, yet another
sister agency, the National
Examinations Council of Tanzania has
the legal mandate to carry out a very
crucial aspect of curriculum evaluation:
examinations.
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 Home Task

From defining goals,

interpreting curricular
materials to approving
examination systems,
politics affects curriculum
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 Next module

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 Module 2
Curriculum Aims,
Goals and
Objectives
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Aim is the general
direction
Goal is an ultimate
destination
Objective is a
recognizable point of
achievement along the
way
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 Hierarchy of Educational Goals
• 1. Worldwide
• 2. National goals eg what is the aim of education
in Tanzania?
• 3. Regional/district level
• 4. University level
• 5. Secondary level. They are addressed in the
syllabus
• 6. Primary level
• 7. Subject level eg chemistry, geography.

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What are goals?
• Goals are broad, generalized statements
about what is learned.
• Educational intention, entire subject area
and expectation of the society. Provides
scope for the course. Answers the
question “What will the students be able to
do as a result of taking a course”

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• Example. By the end of the course
participants will be able to critically
assess the contribution of the existing
system of income tax administration.
Educational goals are an intended or
desired outcome of the educational
process. Often expressed in terms of
instructional objectives that can range
from highly general to very specific.
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• Educational goals tell the teacher what to
teach and also which behaviours need to be
evaluated.
• Instructional Objectives are statements
about the type of performance that can be
expected of students once they have
completed a lesson, unit or a course.
• Because performance implies behaviour,
the phrase behavioural objectives is
sometimes used interchangeably with
instructional objectives.
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• Instructional objectives may also be
called performance objectives,
behavioural objectives, or objectives.
All of these terms are used
interchangeably.
• Objectives are specific, outcome
based, measurable, and describe the
student’s behaviour. So what does
that mean? Let us take a look at
each of these concepts:
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Specific- Objectives are very specific. This
means they should describe precisely
what the learner is expected to do.
Outcome based –this means that the
objective is going to state what the learner
should be able to do after the instruction
is complete.
Measurable –this means that objectives
should describe learning outcomes that
can be measured; objectives should be
seen or heard.
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 Describe student behaviour- this means
that objectives should relate what the
student should be able to do after the
instruction.
Usefulness of instructional
objectives
 IO force the teacher to be precise
about what to accomplish
 IO enable the teacher to
communicate to pupils what they
must achieve
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IO make evaluation procedures
easy;
IO make accountability possible;
and
IO facilitate sequencing
Guidelines to be followed in writing
IO
 All IO should relate to the existing
curriculum goals or objectives
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 The goals in the school syllabus
for every subject should help
you to select and write good
instructional objectives
 The IO should be stated within
the three domains of learning, i.e.
the cognitive, the affective and
psychomotor

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Objectives should specify 4 main
things
Audience – Who? Who is aimed at?
The audience is learner(s) that the
objective is written for.
Behavior - What? What do you
expect them to be able to do?
Behavior is the verb that describes
what the learner (audience) will be
able to do after the instruction.
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Condition - How? Condition are the
circumstances under which the
objectives must be completed.
Degree – How much? The standard
that the learner must meet to reach
acceptable performance.

This is often called the ABCD’s

of objectives, a nice mnemonic!
!??
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 Example
Given a sentence written in the past or
present tense, the student will be able to re-
write the sentence in future tense with no
errors in tense or tense contradiction

A B C D
• The ABCD method of writing objectives is an
excellent way to structure instructional objectives.
In this method, "A" is for audience, "B" is for
behavior, "C" for conditions and "D" is for degree
of mastery needed.
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Typical problems encountered
when writing objectives

next slide…

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Problems Error Types Solutions
Too vast/ The objective is too Simplify/
complex broad in scope or break apart
actually more than one
objective
False/ The objective does not Be specific/
missing list the correct make sure
behaviour, behaviour/condition/ behaviour.. .
condition/ degree or missing are included
degree
False givens Describes instruction, Include only
not condition ABCDs
False No true overt, Describe
performance
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performance listed behaviour you

 Bloom’s taxonomy of
educational objectives
Bloom’s domains
Three domains:
 cognitive (about knowing)
 affective (about attitudes,
feelings)
 psychomotor (about doing)
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 Bloom’s taxonomy is very
important in writing objectives.
 It assists curriculum developers
and teachers in ensuring that all
aspects of developing learners
especially at higher levels of
thinking and operation are
catered for in the learning
process.
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 Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain (Bloom,
1956) involves knowledge and
the development of intellectual
skills.
There are six levels of hierarchy
in this domain.

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 knowledge: the recall of specific
items
 comprehension: can recall, but
can do a little more (e.g.
paraphrase, define, discuss to
some extent)
 application: all of the above, but
can take information of an
abstract nature and use it in
concrete situations
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 analysis: can break down a
communication into its
constituent parts, revealing the
relationships among them.
 synthesis: can pull together many
disorganized elements or parts so
as to form a whole.
 evaluation: makes judgments
about the value of materials or
methods.
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Key words used
Knowledge
Count, Define, Describe, Draw, Find,
Identify, Label, List, Match, Name, Quote,
Recall, Recite, Sequence, Tell, Write
Comprehension
Conclude, Demonstrate, Discuss,
Explain, Generalize, Identify, Illustrate,
Interpret, Paraphrase, Predict, Report,
Restate, Review, Summarize, Tell
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116
 Application
Apply, Change, Choose, Compute,
Dramatize, Interview, Prepare,
Produce, Role-play, Select, Show,
Transfer, Use
Analysis
Analyze, Characterize, Classify,
Compare, Contrast, Debate, Deduce,
Diagram, Differentiate, Discriminate,
Distinguish, Examine, Outline, Relate,
Research, Separate,
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 Synthesis
Compose, Construct, Create, Design,
Develop, Integrate, Invent, Make,
Organize, Perform, Plan, Produce,
Propose, Rewrite
Evaluation
Appraise, Argue, Assess, Choose,
Conclude, Critic, Decide, Evaluate,
Judge, Justify, Predict, Prioritize,
Prove, Rank, Rate, Select,
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 Sometimes the six hierarchies or
levels listed above are grouped into
three categories
Level 1. Recall – Knowledge and
Comprehension
Level 2. Interpretation –
Application and Analysis
Level 3. Problem Solving –
Synthesis and Evaluation
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 Affective Domain
• The affective domain (Krathwohl,
Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the
manner in which we deal with things
emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes. The five
major categories are listed from the
simplest behavior to the most
complex:
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1.Receiving: Awareness, willingness to hear,
selected attention.
Key Words: asks, chooses, describes,
follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates,
names, points to, selects, sits, erects,
replies, uses.

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Responding to Phenomena:
Active participation on the part
of the learners. Attends and
reacts to a particular
phenomenon.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
complies, conforms, discusses,
greets, helps, labels, performs,
practices, presents, reads, recites,
reports, selects, tells, writes.
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Valuing: The worth or value a
person attaches to a particular
object, phenomenon, or
behavior.
Key Words: completes,
demonstrates, differentiates,
explains, follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
reads, reports, selects, shares,
studies, works.
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Organization: Organizes values
into priorities by contrasting
different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and creating an
unique value system.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges,
combines, compares, completes, defends,
explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders, organizes,
prepares, relates, synthesizes.

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Internalizing values
(characterization): Has a value
system that controls their behavior.
The behavior is pervasive,
consistent, predictable.
Key Words: acts, discriminates,
displays, influences, listens, modifies,
performs, practices, proposes,
qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies
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 Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain (Simpson,
1972) includes physical movement,
coordination, and use of the motor-skill
areas.
Development of these skills requires
practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures,
or techniques in execution.
The seven major categories are listed
from the simplest behavior to the most
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Perception: The ability to
use sensory cues to guide
motor activity.
Key Words: chooses, describes,
detects, differentiates,
distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.

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Set: Readiness to act. It
includes mental, physical,
and emotional sets.
Key Words: begins, displays,
explains, moves, proceeds,
reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.
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Guided Response: The early
stages in learning a complex
skill that includes imitation and
trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by
practicing.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows,
react, reproduce, responds
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Mechanism: This is the
intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned responses
have become habitual and the
movements can be performed with
some confidence and proficiency.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
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Complex Overt Response: The
skillful performance of motor acts
that involve complex movement
patterns.
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will
have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the
performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
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Adaptation: Skills are well
developed and the individual
can modify movement patterns
to fit special requirements.
Key Words: adapts, alters,
changes, rearranges,
reorganizes, revises, varies.

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Origination: Creating new
movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific
problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon
highly developed skills.
Key Words: arranges, builds,
combines, composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiate, makes,
originates.
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 Writing Instructional Objectives
Order and Tense
• There is a preferred order when
writing objectives. The condition
is usually placed first, followed by
the behavior or verb, and then the
criteria. Objectives are written in
the future tense.
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Examples
• After attending lecture and reading the
assigned materials, the student will state the
function of a thermometer.
• After attending lecture and studying the
assigned materials, the student will
demonstrate how a thermometer works.
• After attending lecture and studying the
assigned materials (including problem sets),
the student will formulate the degrees in C
given the degrees in F, or vice versa.
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• To avoid redundancy in writing objectives
an educator often lists a single condition
with the objectives underneath.

• After attending lecture and studying the

assigned materials, the student will:
1. _____________________________________
2. _____________________________________
3. _____________________________________

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• able to
• shows interest in
• appreciation for
• knows
• awareness of
• has knowledge of
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• capable of
• learns
• Comprehend
• memorizes
• conscious of
• understands
• familiar with
• will be able to
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Poor and Better objectives
• To increase the student’s
ability to visually identify
white cells on a differential.
• The student will identify
correctly all white cells on a
differential.
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• The student will gain
knowledge of automated
chemistry tests.
• The student will state the
principle for each automated
chemistry test listed.

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• The student will be familiar
with red blood cell
maturation in the bone
marrow.
• The student will diagram the
maturation of red blood
cells.
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• The student will understand the
interpretation of hemoglobin
electrophoresis patterns.
• Given several electrophoretic
scans, the student will correctly
diagnose each normal or
abnormal pattern.

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After attending a lecture on
Essential Functions, the student
will exhibit the following behaviors:
a.Communicate effectively in
written and spoken English.
b.Appropriately assess nonverbal
and verbal communication.
c.Follow written and verbal
directions.
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Upon completion of the laboratory
exercise the student will:
a.Correctly perform the electrophoretic
procedure and obtain a satisfactory
pattern that could be accurately
interpreted by both the student and the
faculty member.
b.Using a densitometer, obtain the
concentration of each protein fraction
within 10% of faculty member’s results.
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Next module

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Module 3
Approaches to
Curriculum Design

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 The concept of curriculum
design and its dimensions
• Curriculum design is largely
concerned with issues such as
what to include in the curriculum
and how to present it in such a way
that the curriculum can be
implemented with understanding
and success
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• It therefore refers to the way in
which the component parts or
elements of the curriculum have
been arranged in order to
facilitate learning. The element
includes; aims, goals and
objectives, content, learning
activities and evaluation.
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• Further, Curriculum Design
is concerned with issues
of making a choice of
what should be the
organizational basis or
structural framework of
the curriculum.
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 Types of Curriculum Designs
Subject-Centred Curriculum
• This curriculum design refers to
the organization of curriculum in
terms of separate subjects e.g.
Geography, Maths, and History etc.
• This has been the oldest school
curriculum design and the
commonest in the world
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• The subject centred design was adapted
by African education systems from Europe.
Advantages
• It is possible and desirable to determine in
advance what all children will learn in
various subjects and grades (classes). For
instance, syllabuses for all schools in
centralized systems of education are
prepared and approved centrally by the
curriculum development body for a given
country.
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• It is feasible and necessary to
determine minimum standards of
performance and achievement for
the knowledge specified in the
subject area.
• Almost all text-books and support
materials present on the
educational market are organized
on subject by subject format.
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• The subject-centred curriculum is
better understood by teachers because
their training was based on this method.
i.e. specialization.
• The advocates of the subject-centred
design have argued that intellectual
powers of individual learners can be
developed through this approach.
• Curriculum planning is easier and
simpler in the subject centred
curriculum design.
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Criticisms of Subject-Centred
Design
• Critics of subject-centred curriculum
design have strongly advocated a shift
from it. These criticisms are based on
the following arguments.
Subject-centred curriculum tends to
bring about a high degree of
fragmentation of knowledge.

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Subject-centred curriculum lacks
integration of content. Learning in
most cases tends to be
compartmentalized. Subject or
knowledge are broken down into
smaller seemingly unrelated bits of
information to be learned.
This design stresses content and
tends to neglect the needs, interests
and experiences of the students.
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Learner – Centred/Child-centred
Curriculum
• The curriculum designs which
come under the name learner-
centred may take various forms
sometimes referred to as
individualized approaches.
• In this design, the curriculum is
organized around needs, interests,
abilities and aspirations of
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students.
• Advocates of the design
emphasize that attention should
be paid to what is known about
human growth, development
and learning.
• This type of design requires a
lot of resources and manpower,
in order to cater for the variety
of needs
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 Advantages of Learner-Centred
design
• The needs and interests of
students are considered in the
selection and organization of
content.
• Since the needs and interests of
students are considered in the
planning of students work, the
resulting curriculum is relevant to
the students world.
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• The design allows
students to be active and
acquire skills and
procedures that will be
applicable to the outside
world.

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 Criticisms of Learner – Centred
approach
• The needs and interest of students
may not be valid or long lasting.
They are often short-lived.
• The interests and needs of students
may not reflect specific areas of
knowledge that could be essential
for successful functioning in the
society in general.
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• As pointed out earlier, the design is
expensive with regard to resources,
both human and fiscal, that are needed
to satisfy the needs and interest of
individual students.
• This design is sometimes accused of
shallowness. It is argued that critical
analysis and in-depth coverage of
subject content is inhibited by the fact
that students needs and interests guide
the planning process.
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 Broad-Fields Curriculum
• In the broad-fields curriculum design two,
three or more subjects are unified into one
broad course of study. This organization is
actually a system of combining and
regrouping subjects that are related in the
curriculum.
Some examples of broad fields include:
• Language Arts – This incorporates Reading,
writing, grammar, literature, speech etc.
Kiswahili and foreign languages.
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• General Science – to include
Natural and Physical Sciences
a.Physics, Chemistry, Geology,
Astronomy, Physical Geography.
b.Zoology, Botany, Biology and
Physiology
• Others include:
a. Environmental Education
b. Family Life Education
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 Advantages of Broad-Field Design
• It is based on separate subjects, so it
provides for an orderly and systematic
exposure to the cultural heritage.
• It integrates separate subjects into a
single course; this enables learners to
see the relationships among various
elements in the curriculum.
• It saves time on the school time-table.

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 Criticisms
Opponents of Broad-Field curriculum
design claim that
It lacks depth and cultivates
shallowness.
It provides only bits and pieces of
information from a variety of subjects.
It does not account for psychological
organization by which learning takes
place.
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 Core-Curriculum Design
• The concept core-curriculum is
used to refer to areas of study in
the school curriculum or any
educational programme that are
required by all students. The core-
curriculum provides students with
“common learning” or general
education – that is considered
necessary for all.
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 Characteristics of Core-Curriculum
Design
 They constitute a section of
the curriculum that all
students are required to take.
 They unify or fuse subject
matter, especially in subjects
such as English, social studies
etc.
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 Their content is planned around
problems that cut across the
disciplines.
 In this approach, the basic methods
of learning is problem solving using
all applicable subject matter.
 They are organized into blocks of
time; e.g. two or three periods under a
core teacher. Other teachers may be
utilized where it is possible.
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 Types of Core-Curriculum
Designs
Type One: Separate subjects
taught separately with little or no
effort to relate them to each other.
E.g. Mathematics, Science,
Languages, and Humanities may
be taught as unrelated core-
subjects in high schools.

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Type Two: The Fused-core
The fused-core is based on the overall
integration of two or more subjects; for
example,
• Physics, Chemistry, Botany and Zoology may
be taught as General Science.
• Environmental Education – this is an area
with interdisciplinary approach in curriculum
planning
• History, Geography, Economics, Sociology
and Anthropology may be combined and
taught as Social Studies.
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 Curriculum Design Models
• There are a variety of curriculum
design models to guide the
process. Most of the designs
are based on Ralph Tyler’s work,
which emphasizes on the role
and place of objectives in
curriculum design. We shall
therefore begin by examining
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the Ralph Tyler’s Model

 Ralph Tyler’s Model
• Tyler’s Model (1949) is based on the
following FOUR basis/fundamental
questions he posed, for guiding the
curriculum design process. These are:-
• What educational purposes should the
school seek to attain?
• What educational Experiences can be
provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
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• How can these educational
experiences be effectively
organized?
• How can we determine whether
these purposes are being
attained?

Schematically, the Tyler’s model can be

presented as shown in the following slide
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 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model in Curriculum Design
• In applying Tyler’s model to
curriculum design, the process
starts with coming up with
objectives for the curriculum.
Because of its emphasis on
importance of objectives, it is
considered to be an objective
based model.
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 Diagram

3/25/2017 175
 Data sources for curriculum
according to Tyler include:
• Contemporary society/life. For this
source, the designer analyses the
issues affecting society that could be
solved through education. Examples of
these are; cultural issues, socio-
economic issues, and health issues
such as HIV/Aids among others
• Learner’s needs and interests.
• Subject specialists/subject matter.
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 The Wheeler’s Model (1967)
• Wheeler came up with a cyclic
model (see figure below) in reaction
to criticism levelled at the Ralph
Tyler’s model. The latter was seen
as being too simplistic and vertical.
By being vertical it did not
recognize the relationship between
various curriculum elements.
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• His cyclic proposal was therefore
aimed at highlighting the
interrelatedness of the various
curriculum elements. It also
emphasizes the need to use
feedback from evaluation in
redefining the goals and objectives
of the curriculum.
• Following now is a visual
presentation of the Wheeler model.
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 Diagram

3/25/2017 179
• Notice that Kerr’s model is in many
ways similar to that of Ralph Tyler and
Wheeler. The additional credit to his
work is the emphasis on
interrelatedness of the various
components.
• Hilda Taba on her part was also
influenced by Ralph Tyler. Her
conceptual model follows.
• The interrelatedness of the curriculum
elements from both models suggest
the process is continuous.
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 John Kerr’s and Hilda Taba’s
Model
• Other scholars who were also
convinced of the ‘objectives’ approach
to curriculum design were John Kerr
and Hilda Taba. Their work is
summarized in the simplified models
presented in the figures that follow.
Both of them emphasize on the
interrelatedness of the various
curriculum elements.
3/25/2017 181
 Diagram

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 Factors that Influence
Curriculum Design

• There are several factors

that need to be taken into
account when designing
curriculum.
3/25/2017 183
 How Political Factors Influence
Curriculum Design
• Politics determine and define the
goals, content, learning experiences
and evaluation strategies in
education.
• Curricular materials and their
interpretation are usually heavily
influenced by political considerations.
• Political considerations may play a
part in the hiring of personnel.
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 How Social Factors Influence
Curriculum Design
• Society has its own expectations about
the aims and objectives that should be
considered when designing the
curriculum. It also has a perception of
what the product of the school system
should look like.
• It is therefore necessary for curriculum
designers to take into account these
societal considerations. If this does not
happen, the curriculum becomes
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irrelevant.
• The design of curricular materials and
their presentation should accommodate
the culture of the society that the
curriculum is seeking to serve.
• You should, however, be sensitive to the
fact that the curriculum can be used to
perpetuate inequities.
• You may have a curriculum that is
gender biased against female children
because it includes instructional
materials that portray negative attitudes
towards women and girls.
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 How Economic Factors
Influence Curriculum Design
• The children you teach will need to
be employed. The skills needed by
industry should be translated into
the content and learning
experiences of these children. The
skills, knowledge base and
attitudes required by industry
should be developed in the
classroom.
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• As a teacher, you require classroom
supplies such as: textbooks, charts,
equipment, and chemicals for science
experiments.
These materials are products of
industry. Without these materials,
learning is compromised. It is
therefore crucial that serious
consideration be given to economic
demands when designing the
curriculum.
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How Technological Factors
Influence CurriculumDesign
• The computer is the latest
technological innovation that
will have a significant impact
on education and society. If
you are not computer literate,
you may feel that you are not
up-to-date.
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• In your area, you may have noticed that
a number of schools have introduced
computing as one of the subjects. The
intention is to equip the learners with
the requisite computer skills and
knowledge.
• In addition to computers, other forms
of electronic media are being used in
teaching.
• Curriculum designers cannot afford to
ignore technology and its influence on
the curriculum.
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 How Environmental Factors
Influence Curriculum Design
• Over time, people have become
insensitive to their surroundings
and natural resources. This has
affected the sky, the land and the
sea. The end result is that
humanity is being adversely
affected by these in-
considerations.
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• Industrial wastes have polluted the
world. For example, the ozone layer in
the atmosphere, which protects us
from harmful radiation from the sun, is
being depleted. People want this
redressed.
• It is through education that
remediation can be effected.
Consideration for the environment
must of necessity influence curriculum
design to ensure the survival of future
generations.
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 The Influence of Child
Psychology
• curriculum design is also influenced by
child psychology. Theories of learning
and child development have to be
considered when designing the content
of the curriculum and how it is delivered.
• Learning can be maximized by ensuring
that activities and experiences are
introduced at the most ‘teachable’
moment.
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 End of Module 1,2 & 3
Thank you for the
Service
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