Age 313

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
AGE 313: GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM
BY
DAVID ABEL MAGIYA OSEBE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
P.O. BOX 43844, 00100- NAIROBI
KENYA
©June 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE
1.0 LESSON ONE: TOURISM AND LEISURE CONCEPTS AND
COMPONENTS 03
2.0 LESSON TWO: CATEGORIES OF TOURISTS AND DESTINATION
EXPERIENCES 11
3.0 LESSON THREE: MAJOR INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL AND TOURISM
ORGANIZATIONS 17
4.0 LESSON FOUR: THE KEY PLAYERS IN TOURISM PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT 25
5.0 LESSON THREE: GEOGRAPHY IN TRAVEL PLANNING 35
6.0 LESSON SIX: TRAVEL FORMALITIES 40
7.0 LESSON SEVEN: PLANNING TRAVEL ITINERARIES 53
8.0 LESSON EIGHT: TAXES, CUSTOMS AND CURRENCIES 61
9.0 LESSON NINE: THE FIVE A’S ESSENTIALS TO A SUCCESSFUL
DESTINATION, BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS AND
COMMERCIAL SKILLS 68
10.0 LESSON TEN: CHARACTERISTICS, ATTRIBUTES AND SKILLS 76
11. 0 LESSON ELEVEN: THE ROLE OF THE TRAVEL AGENT IN THE
TRAVEL AND TOURISM BUSINESS 82
12.0 LESSON TWELVE: TOURISM SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS 90
13.0 LESSON THIRTEEN: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM 103
14.0 LESSON FOURTEEN: MANAGING DESTINATIONS FOR
SUSTAINABILITY 112
15.0 LESSON FIFTEEN: TOURISM GROWTH AND SUSTAINABILITY 126
16.0 LESSON SIXTEEN: ECOTOURISM 133
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1.0 LESSON ONE:
TOURISM AND LEISURE CONCEPTS AND
COMPONENTS
1.1 Introduction
This lesson is about tourism and leisure. It looks at their definitions and types. The lesson
is concluded with the description of the three major components of tourism which include
the natural environment, built environment and the operating sectors of the tourism
industry.
1.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:
(a) Explain the tourism and leisure concepts

(b) Describe the major components of tourism
1.3 Concepts
1.3.1 Tourism
Medlik (1991) defines tourism as the phenomenon arising from temporary visits or
staying away from home, outside the normal place of residence for any reason other than
following an occupation remunerated from within the place visited. According to
McIntosh et al (1990) the definition and scope of tourism can only be understood fully by
considering various groups that participate in and are affected by the tourism industry.
They identified four different perspectives that are vital to the development of a
comprehensive definition of tourism. These are:
(a) The tourist. The term is derived from the word ‘tour’ – meaning:
 A journey at which one returns to the starting point, or

 A circular trip for business, pleasure, or education during which various places are
visited and for which an itinerary is usually planned. The main concern of a
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tourist is to seek various psychic and physical experiences and satisfaction. The
nature of this largely determines the destinations selected and the activities
enjoyed. Thus, a tourist is a person who travels from place to place for non-work
reasons. By UN definition, a tourist is someone who stays for more than one night
and less than a year. A related term to tourist is excursionist who is a traveler
who spends less than 24 hours at a destination.
(b) The businesses of providing goods and services. Businessmen usually see tourism
as an opportunity to make profit by supplying goods and services that the tourist market
demands.
(c) The government of host community or area. Politicians view tourism as a wealth
sector in the economy of their jurisdictions. Their perspective is related to the incomes
their citizenry can earn from this business. Politicians also consider the foreign exchange
receipts from international tourism as well as the tax receipts collected from tourist
expenditures, either directly or indirectly.
(d) The host community. Local people usually see tourism as a cultural and employment
factor. Of great significance to this group is the effect of interaction between large
numbers of international visitors and residents. This effect may be beneficial or harmful
or both.
Tourism Defined
Tourism is thus defined as the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the
interaction of tourism, business suppliers, host governments, and host communities in the
process of attracting and hosting tourists and other visitors. However, it is imperative to
note that modern tourism is a discipline that has recently attracted the attention of
scholars from many fields. Consequently, many studies have used narrow operational
definitions to suit particular needs and thus failing to encompass a system approach.
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The following review of related definitions illustrates the problem of arriving at an
operational universal definition:
 Persons traveling for pleasure, family reasons, health or the like are considered to be
tourists.
 Persons traveling for meetings or a representative capacity of any kind such as
scientific, administrative, diplomatic, religious, athletic, etc. are also considered to be
tourists.
 Persons traveling for business reasons.
 Persons arriving in the course of sea cruising are also tourists.
However the following are not considered to be tourists:
 People arriving with or without a contract of work to take up an occupation or engage

in any business activity in the country.
 People coming to establish a permanent residence in the country.
 Students and young persons in boarding establishments or schools.
 Residents in a frontiers zone and persons domiciled in another country.
 Travelers passing through a country without stopping even if the journey takes more
than 24 hours.
1.3.2 Leisure
Leisure is generally considered to be the time remaining after work, travel to and from
work, sleep, and all household chores. Leisure time is that time when one can choose to
do what you want. People are always looking for new ways to spend their leisure time.
Leisure activities are many and varied such as reading, sport (taking part or spectating),
going to a cinema or a disco, eating out, going to a pub, listening to music, visiting a
tourist attraction, watching television or playing computer games.
There are two types of Leisure: active and passive. Active leisure include activities such
as gardening, playing, sport, do-it-yourself (DIY), sightseeing, and any other interests
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which require active responses from the participants. On the other hand, passive leisure
activities are those which require little effort or response from the person taking part in
that activity. Examples include watching the television, reading, and listening to music.
Both active and passive leisure activities take place in a wide range of facilities such as
leisure centers, clubs, cinemas, libraries, restaurants or even involve natural features like
mountains and lakes where one can take part in outdoor pursuits such as climbing and
sailing. In other words, facilities are the places where people can carry out their leisure
activities.
1.4 COMPONENTS
The most fundamental dimensions of a destination/locale, which form the basis of much
of tourism, are:
 The natural resources and environment component,

 The built environment, and
 Operating sectors of the tourism industry.
1.4.1 Natural Resources and Environment

Any given destination is primarily and unchangeably characterized by its physiography
(the nature and appearance of its landscape) and its climate (the kind of weather it has
over a period of years; i.e. the condition of heat and cold, moisture and dryness, and
wind). The third element of the natural environment is people. In the case of people, two
important categories of individuals are distinguished:
(i) Those that belong to the destination (its residents) and

(ii) Those who are current or potential visitors to the destination (the tourism market).
1.4.2 The Built Environment

Another dimension of tourism phenomenon is the built environment that has been created
by human beings. This built environment first includes the culture of the residents of the
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host region. This culture of people reflects many elements of its past development and its
current way of life. Culture is relatively a very permanent characteristic of a destination
and one that cannot be changed simply to enhance tourism development.
The infrastructure of a tourism destination is another element. Such basic things as
roads, sewerage systems, communication networks, and many commercial facilities
(supermarkets and retail stores) have been put in place to meet the needs of local
residents. While these elements of the infrastructure can also be important to visitors,
their primary functions are related to the ongoing daily needs of residents. In contrast, a
destination’s tourism superstructure includes those facilities that have been developed
especially to respond to the demands of visitors. The most obvious examples include
hotels, restaurants, conference centers, car rentals, and major attractions. Because of their
special tourism orientation, the characteristics of the elements of superstructure are
especially determined by visitor wishes rather than resident desires even though residents
often desire many benefits from certain elements of the tourism superstructure.
Technology is one of the most recent and still increasingly influential elements of the
built environment that is shaping the nature of both tourism products/services and travel
experiences. In many ways technology can be viewed as one of the most distinctive and
most powerful characteristics of the built environment since the dawn of modern tourism
following World War II. The advent of jet aircraft and the massive invasion of the
telecommunications technology linked closely with computer technology have had a
dramatic impact on the very essence of the tourism phenomenon.
Increasingly, the success of a destination is determined by its ability to assemble,

interpret, and utilize information in an effective manner. Information is of several types:
 information concerning the potential tourism market, which is essential for

destination and development;
 information on the level of satisfaction of current visitors regarding the quality or
enjoyment of their visitation experience;
 information regarding competitors and their activities,
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 information concerning their functioning or performance of the destination in its
efforts to profitably provide attractive experiences to visitors; and
 Information concerning the extent to which residents of the host region
understand and support tourism as a long-term component of the socioeconomic
system.
Another element of tourism in the built environment is governance within which the
tourism system functions. The system of governance surrounding tourism (the legal,
political, and fiscal systems regulating its functions) has a profound impact on the ability
of a destination to compete in the international marketplace and subsequently plays a
major role in determining the profitability of individual firms.
1.4.3 Operating Sectors of the Tourism Industry

The operating sectors of the tourism industry represents what many of the general public
perceive as ‘tourism.’ First and foremost, the transportation sector comprised of
airlines, bus companies and so on tends to typify the movement of people and travel. The
accommodation sector, which includes many well-known ‘brands’ such as Hilton,
Marriot, Howard Johnson, Best Western, and so on is highly visible to the public.
Similarly, the food services sector also contains a broad spectrum of brands and logos
that have become part of everyday life in many communities. Examples include the world
famous chains of fast foods such as McDonald’s Pizza Hut, Burger King) and
internationally known gourmet restaurants such as Maxim’s in Paris and Alfredo in
Rome.
The attractions sector also contains well-known icons in the tourism industry. The
undisputed leader of the attraction world is Disneyland/Walt Disney World. Closely
related to attractions is the events sector. Its icons include the Oktoberfest in Munich
(Germany), the Calgary Stampede (Canada), the Boston Marathon, and the Super Bowl
(US) as well as such as transient events as the World Cup of Soccer and the International
Summer and Winter Olympic Games.
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The adventure and outdoor recreation sector is one of the most rapidly growing
elements of modern tourism. Changes in demographics, values, and lifestyles are creating
increasing demand for activities such as golfing, skiing, snowboarding, white-water
rafting, parasailing, hang gliding, mountain biking, and mountaineering. Most of these
activities are characterized by both an element of thrill seeking and an element of being
outdoors.
At the other end of the ‘nature-manufactured’ spectrum is the equally fast growing
element of entertainment. Certain destinations have grown up on a heavy diet of world-
famous entertainers. More traditionally, Los Angeles/Hollywood has used various aspects
of the entertainment industry to consolidate its worldwide reputation as a must see
destination.
Less glamorous, but still essential to the success and well-being of the tourism industry
are the travel trade sector and tourism services. The travel trade is composed of the
retail travel agent and the wholesale tour operator. Both of these entities are critical to
linking ‘experience suppliers’ and the tourist. The multifaceted travel industry services
sector provides yet another type of critical support for successful tourism. Computer
support services, retail services, financial services, specialized consulting services, and
tourism educators all make an important and usually unique contribution to the effective
and efficient functioning of the complex tourism system.
Whereas the operating sectors of tourism are responsible for delivering high-quality
memorable experiences, care must be taken, however, to wrap these experiences in a
warm spirit of hospitality. Quite simply, it is not enough to deliver all the attributes of an
experience in a cold or detached manner. Each individual visitor must feel that that he is
more than a source of cold cash revenue for the business or destination. Rather, visitors
have a natural human desire for warm acceptance as they seek to enjoy the range of
experience s the destination has to offer. As such, the challenge facing destinations is to
deliver their experiences in a way that enables the visitors to believe they are welcome,
that they truly are guests.
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While tourists naturally recognize that they are transient visitors, destinations must first
train industry personnel to treat the tourists with fairness, respect, and a level of
politeness. Second, the destination must encourage its permanent residents to behave as
friendly hosts to visitors who are in unfamiliar surroundings. They should convey a
friendly attitude and when required offer basic information and a helpful hand. These
small but important gestures will do much to foster a destination spirit of hospitality that
in turn greatly enhances the perceived value of all the other aspects of visitation
experience.
1.5 SUMMARY
 A tourist is a person who travels from place to place for non-work reasons and
usually staying for more than one night and less than a year.
 An excursionist is a traveler who spends less than 24 hours at a destination.
 Leisure is free time from work, i.e. the time remaining after work, travel to and from
work, sleep and all household tasks.
 Active and passive are two types of leisure, with the former involving activities that
require active responses from the participants, whereas the latter involve little effort
or response from the person taking part in that activity.
 The most fundamental components, which form the basis of tourism are the natural
resources and environment, built environment, and operating sectors of the tourism
industry.
1.6REVIEW QUESTIONS
(a) Define the following:
 Tourism
 Excursion
 Leisure
(b) Distinguish between Active and Passive Leisure
(c) Describe the three major components of tourism.
1.7Further Reading
Foley, M., J. Lennon, and G. Maxwell eds. (1997): Hospitality, Tourism and
Leisure Management: Issues in Strategy and Culture. London: Cassell.
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John Lea (1995): Tourism and Development in the Third world. Routledge:
London.
Mathieson, A. and G. Wall (1995): Tourism economic, Physical, and Social
Impacts. Longman Group Limited: Singapore.
Ritchie, J.R. and Goeldner, C.R. (2003): Tourism Principles, Practices and
Philosophies; Ninth Edition: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Robinson, H.A. (1976): Geography of Tourism. London: Macdonald and Evans.
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2.0 LESSON TWO:
CATEGORIES OF TOURISTS AND
DESTINATION EXPERIENCES
2.1 Introduction
Categories of tourists are built on the understanding that different motivations
differentiate among many types. This has led to a number of profiles of tourist categories
that have been identified.
The lesson is on categories of tourists based on a classification by Cohen (1972) and Plog
(1972). It also describes the characteristic diversity among destinations, which is
important in the classification of tourism experiences. It is built on Valence L. Smith’s
identification of several types of tourism experiences provided at various destinations.

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
Describe the different categories of tourists.
Explain the types of destination experiences.
2.3 Categories of Tourists

Categories are built on the understanding that different motivations differentiate among
types of tourists and thus leading to a number of profiles of tourist categories that have
been identified. In other words, there are as many types of tourists as there are motives
for travel, with each type making different demands of a destination and having its own
particular impacts.
Tourists can be grouped into two general categories: Interactional and Cognitive-
Normative types.
2.3.1 Interactional Types

This type of category emphasizes the manner of interaction between visitors and
destination areas. Among the interaction models are those of Cohen (1972) and Smith
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(1977b). Cohen classified tourists according to the degree they seek familiar or strange
settings and whether or not they are willing to be institutionalized or organized in their
travel. These tourists can be grouped as follows:
(a) Drifters, who search for exotic and strange environment and have little impact in the
destination areas because of their small numbers,
(b) Explorers arrange their own trips and try to get off-the-beaten-tracks. They usually
utilize the facilities of destination areas and have high contact with the residents.
(c) Organized mass tourists, who are least adventurous. On purchasing their holiday
package, they remain in an ‘environmental bubble’ divorced from the host
community as they remain hotel complexes. They adhere to an itinerary fixed by the
tour operators and even their trips out of the complexes are organized tours. They
make few decisions about their holidays.
(d) Individual mass tourists are similar to the organized mass tourists in that they utilize
the facilities made available by the tour operators, but they have some control over
their own itinerary. They normally use hotel complexes as their bases and hire cars
for their trips.
Smith like Cohen views explorers and elite travelers as having little impact on indigenous
cultures. Their small number requires little in the way of special accommodation, and
their desire to gain insight into local customs is aided by a sympathetic attitude to the
local way of life. In contrast, there are charter tourists who travel in their own
environmental bubble, viewing everything from the security of their pre-paid and price-
guaranteed package tour. To accommodate the large numbers and organizational
structures of charters, a community must become commercial in its dealings with tourists,
and often needs to import foreign capital and expertise.
2.3.2 Cognitive-Normative Types

These types of models attempt to reveal the causes of travel. They also deal with the
motivations behind travel. According to Plog (1972) destinations are attractive to
different types of visitors as they evolve from untouched discoveries to popular resorts.
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He points out that a community can enter the tourism business with the arrival of small
number of adventurous, independent and individual explorers called allocentrics. The
impact of these allocentrics is small because no special facilities are desired or required
for them.
As the area becomes more accessible, better serviced and more widely known an
increasing number of mid-centrics would visit. They in turn, give way to large numbers
of psychocentrics as the destination becomes popular resort dependent upon foreign
investment and labour. The new visitors are made to feel at home with a full range of
facilities and attractions that may be divorced from the natural geographical and social
attractions, which first attracted the allocentrics.
Cohen (1979b) makes references to people’s spiritual centers, which for the individual
symbolizes ultimate meanings. Those traveling on vacation believe that there is some
experience which cannot be found at home, and which makes the travel worthwhile. The
spiritual center of this quest may be purely search for pleasure such as the case of:
 Diversionary that is, escapes from boredom and routine of everyday existence, and
 Recreational travel that is, going for entertainment and relaxation to restore physical
and mental powers.
Or traveling may be a new type of pilgrimage with travelers seeking answers through:
 Experiential, looking for meaning in life of others.

 Experimental, which is a quest for alternative lifestyles.
 Existential, leaving the world of everyday life and escape to destination centers for
spiritual sustenance.
2.4 TRAVEL EXPERIENCES

Smith (1977) has identified several types of travel experiences provided at the various
destinations. These are:
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2.4.1 Ethnic Tourism
This is traveling for the purpose of observing the cultural expressions and lifestyles of
truly exotic peoples. Typical destination activities at the destination would include visits
to native homes, attending dances and ceremonies, and possibly participating in religious
rituals.
2.4.2 Cultural Tourism

This is traveling in order to experience and in some cases participate in a vanishing
lifestyle that lies within human memory. Typical destination activities would include
meals, folk dance performances, and arts and crafts demonstrations in ‘old-style’
fashions.
2.4.3 Historical Tourism

This include guided tours of monuments, visits to churches and cathedrals, sound and
light performances that comprise the lifestyle of important events of bygone years as
favored destination activities. Such tourism is facilitated because the attractions are either
in or readily accessible from large cities. Typically, such attractions seem particularly
adaptable to organized mass tourism.
2.4.4 Environmental Tourism

This type of destination experience is similar to ethnic tourism, drawing tourists to
remote areas. But the emphasis here is on the natural and environmental attractions,
rather than ethnic ones. Travel for the purposes of ‘getting back to nature’ and to
appreciate people-land relationships belong in this category. Environmental tourism is
primarily geographic and includes such destinations as national parks and game reserves,
photography, mountain climbing, camping, etc.
2.4.5 Recreational Tourism

This type of experience centers on participation in sports, curative spas, sun-bathing and
social contacts in a relaxed environment. Such areas often promote sand, surf, sea and sex
through beautiful color photography that makes the participants to be on the ski slopes,
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on palm fringed beaches, on championship golf courses, or on tennis courts. Such
promotion is designed to attract tourists whose essential purpose is to relax.
2.4.6 Business Tourism

This is another form of travel experience as characterized by conventions, meetings or
seminars. Business travel is usually combined with at least one of the other types of
tourism experiences already described above.
2.5 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt that:
 Categories of tourists are built on the concept that different motivations distinguish
among various types of tourists.
 Tourists can be grouped into two main categories of models such as interactional and
cognitive-normative models.
 The following fall under the interactional models: drifters, explorers, organized mass
tourists, and individual mass tourists.
 Whilst in cognitive-normative models there are allocentrics, mid-centrics and psycho-
centrics.
 Several types of tourism experiences have been identified at various destinations. These
are ethnic, cultural, historical, environmental, recreational, and business.
2.6 Review Questions
Describe the significance of the following categories of tourists:

 Explorers
 Drifters
 Organized mass tourists
 Individual mass tourists
Distinguish among the following types of destination travel experiences:
 Environmental tourism and Ethnic Tourism
 Cultural and Historical Tourism
 Recreation and Business Tourism
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2.7 Further Reading
London.
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3.0 LESSON THREE:
MAJOR INTERNATIONAL TRAVEL AND
TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS
3.1 Introduction
The travel and tourism industry is composed of many sectors, each of which has different
interest. Grouping such sectors into organizations and associations allows them to focus
on common issues and undertake a range of activities to develop industry professionalism
and defend their interests against external interests.

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
(a) Describe the functions of international Travel and tourism organizations
(b) Identify the purpose and goals of various individual international travel and
tourism organizations.
3.3 Introduction to Travel and Tourism Organizations

International travel and tourism organizations play a major role in advancing the interests
of the industry. They provide the forums:
 For discussion of common issues

 Lobby for industry causes, especially those which promote the industry’s
interests
 Allow members from different parts of the world to network and learn from one
another.
 Doing research, providing marketing services and training schemes that are most
cost effectively done jointly under an umbrella organization.
Such organizations come together by shared interests such as airlines or travel agents or
geographically by region. Some such as the International Federation of Women’s Travel
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Organizations are even more finely segmented by gender or age. Others also include
societies specializing in incentive travel, sales and marketing efforts, education and
ecotourism, or exhibition and convention centers.
In addition to large number of global associations and organizations, many others reflect
regional, national or even local interests and issues. Associations have the common goal
of identifying the needs of the members and working to meet them. They provide a
common forum for people in similar lines of work to come together to discuss common
issues. Well organized and clearly-focused international travel and tourism organizations
play a major role in upgrading industry standards and are taken seriously by governments
and public.
According to IATA (2001) many of these organizations are currently under pressure not
only to justify their existence but also ensure that they are not extended bureaucracies.
Many have been restructured in recent years in line with changes in the industry at large
to make them more productive and efficient.
The following are some of the major global travel and tourism organizations. Many of
these are either travel agencies, or tour operators, or airlines. They all have websites and
provide channels of information on a large number of issues affecting travel and tourism,
from automation to taxation, and from research to legal issues.
3.4 Universal Federation of Travel Agents’ Association (UFTAA)

WWW.UFTAA.COM)
UFTAA represents national travel agents’ associations of more than 100 countries. It is
the only global body representing interests of travel agents worldwide and enjoys
consultative status with the United Nations and privileged access to IATA.
The UFTAA secretariat consists of its Secretary General and a small team based in
Monaco, which is directed by an elected Board of Directors composed of a cross-section
of travel agents from around the world. Its membership also includes a large group of
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travel partners including major airlines, hotels, tourism boards, shipping companies, car
rental companies and many other operators allied to the tourism industry. UFTAA also
lobbies to oppose legislation directly harmful to tourism and free circulation for citizens
of any country. It works to reduce bureaucratic obstacles to travel and to seek greater
transportation safety. Its primary goal is to develop, promote and assist in the
professional training of travel agents.
In recent years it has played a leading role in providing the travel industry with up-to-date
information on automation through seminars, training courses and conferences. An
experienced UFTAA Automation group monitors developments of Computer Reservation
Systems (CRS) and other travel technology to see that travel agents interests are well
served with efficient and cost effective systems.
In 1990, in conjunction with National Associations and IATA, UFTAA launched the
IATA/ UFTAA Travel Agent ID Card programme, which is available to all staff of
established travel agents. The card is the universally accepted identity card for discounted
travel, accommodation, and other benefits for travel agents.
Through its education committee, UFTAA works to assist travel agents become better
qualified. It is also an active partner in the IATA/UFTAA Training Programme and is
committed to enhancing the travel agents’ worldwide image of competence and
professionalism.
Further it has a liability insurance product designed specifically for its member travel
agents, inbound and outbound tour operators, known as UFTAassure. It includes cover
for public liability, professional liability, legal defense costs and liability arising from the
failure of suppliers. Other schemes help protect agents against payment defaults and with
settlement of disputes.
3.5 International Air Transport Association (IATA) WWW.IATA.ORG
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Founded in 1945, IATA is the global representative of the international scheduled air
transport industry. With over 260 members from about 140 nations, IATA is the prime
vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air
services.
IATA was involved in establishing a sound technical and legal framework for the
operation of world’s airlines. It organized the first worldwide Traffic Conference in 1947,
which worked out agreements related to fare construction rules for multi-sector trips,
revenue allocation-prorating rules, baggage allowances, ticket and airway design and
agency appointment procedures. IATA is also the coordinator of the Multilateral Interline
traffic Agreements that allow nearly 300 airlines around the world to accept each other’s
tickets and air waybills, and thus their passenger and cargo traffic on a reciprocal basis.
In 1952, the pattern for airline travel agent relations was set with the introduction of the
Standard Passenger Sales Agency Agreement. There are now nearly 81,000 IATA agents
worldwide and more than 150 000 students enrolled for IATA sponsored agency training
course since they were introduced (IATA, 2008). One of the IATA’s major issues today
is taxation and user charges (payment for using airports and air navigation services).
IATA makes specific challenges to the legality of certain taxes and points out to the
governments the counter-productive effect of excessive aviation taxation. High user
charges mushroomed during the 1960s and 1970s. IATA’s task is to minimize their
impact by ensuring that the charges are for facilities actually required, and that charges
are cost-related and that productivity improvements are built into cost projections.
3.6 World Tourism Organization (WTO)

WTO serves as a global forum for tourism policy issues and is a practical source of
tourism know-how. Its membership includes 138 countries and territories, and more than
350 Affiliate Members representing local governments, tourism associations, and private
sector companies including airlines, hotel groups, and tour operators.
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Based in Madrid, WTO is entrusted by the United Nations to help countries maximize the
positive impacts of tourism such as job creation, infrastructure development and foreign
exchange earnings, while at the same time minimizing negative environmental and social
impacts. Representatives covering Africa, the Americas, East Asia and the Pacific,
Europe, the Middle East and South Asia are responsible for overseeing specific projects
and working with tourism officials in various countries to analyze problems and seek
solutions. It also organizes conferences and seminars on issues such as aviation,
infrastructure, development planning and marketing.
WTO is the only inter-governmental organization that offers membership to the operating
sector and this way becomes unique contact points for discussion between government
officials and industry leaders. Affiliate members include retail travel agents, tour
operators, airlines and other transport companies, education and research institutes;
accommodation companies; banks, media groups; consultancies, local and regional
tourism boards; and travel industry associations.
The transfer of tourism know-how to developing countries is one of its fundamental

tasks. As an executive agency of the UN Development Programme, WTO contributes to
the sustainable development goals of nations. Acting on requests from member
governments, WTO secures financing, locates experts, and carries out all types of tourism
development projects.
3.7 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) WWW.WTTC.ORG

Founded in1990 with help from American Express, WTTC is a high level private sector
only lobbying group whose membership comprises chief executives of multinational
accommodation, catering, cruises, entertainment, recreation, transportation and other
related companies. It pushes for open markets, relaxation of border controls,
development of infrastructure and sustainable tourism. Through the 1990s, WTTC
published a series of studies that helped focus more attention on the economic impact
and job creation potential of travel and tourism. WTTC policies are set and implemented
by a 15-member executive committee; the president and small staff are based in London,
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while representative offices are located in Bangkok, Brussels, Budapest, New York,
Sydney and Washington DC.
3.8 International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH&RA) WWW.IH-RA.COM

IH&RA represents the interests of the world’s hotels and restaurants. Members include
hotel and restaurant operators, corporate hotel executives, national hospitality
associations, hotel schools and suppliers to the hospitality industry. Its members represent
700000 establishments in more than 150 countries. The association is responsible for
lobbying international policy making bodies to resist regulations that could damage their
businesses. Its global events provide members with opportunities for networking and
sharing of information. One of its signature events is a series of visioning workshops held
around the world to anticipate rather than react to future industry trends. It also funds
study and training scholarships and recognizes success through award programme. The
Paris-based IH&RA is run by a staff of 20 led by a chief executive. It has regional offices
in Hong Kong (for Asia Pacific) and Mexico (for Latin America).
3.9 American Society of Travel Agents, INC. (ASTA) WWW.ASTA.COM

Based in Alexandria, Virginia, ASTA describes itself as the world’s largest association
of travel professionals. It has 26500 members in 170 countries with the majority of them
coming from USA. The majority of ASTA’s members are travel agencies. However,
travel suppliers such as airlines, hotels, car rental firms, cruise lines and tour operators
are also members. The society has separate membership categories for students, travel
schools, retired travel professionals, retail travel sellers, and others. ASTA members
uphold a strict code of ethics, the pledge on which members stake their reputation. It
pledges that if consumers ever have a problem with an ASTA member, they can contact
the Society’s Consumer Affairs Department to file a complaint and the Department will
help the complaint get it resolved. ASTA publishes a directory to help consumers find
their nearest ASTA travel professional.
Members are provided with education and information resources to help them boost
their professional services to clients. One of its major activities is constantly monitoring
23
the travel industry to identify “swindle” operators and others whose practices cheat
consumers and negatively impact the travel industry.
3.10 International Airline Passenger Association (IAPA) WWW.IAPA.COM

IAPA’s main goal is to represent the views of passengers in aviation issues. It also offers
members discounts on hotels worldwide, savings on rental cars, comprehensive travel
insurance, discounted membership of the world’s largest independent airport VIP lounge
access programme, a luggage retrieval service and other benefits. In addition to three
membership offices in Dallas, London and Hong Kong, IAPA has an on-line hotel
booking service. It offers members up to US$2000 Travel Accident Protection Insurance.
Pursuant to its main objective, the attainment of a zero flight accident level, IAPA
actively promotes the continued study and assessment of all factors that may affect
accident rates including pilot training programmes and systems, aircraft engineering and
configuration improvements, more efficient and practical cabin safety and evacuation
concepts, and effective air controls. An Internal office of Government and Industry
Affairs formulates the organization’s policies in areas such as safety, health, cabin
environment and quality of passenger services. In regular contact with aircraft
manufacturers, airlines, airports, government aviation bodies and international aviation
authorities, IAPA continues to exert pressure for an active and capable aviation
regulatory system to bridge national regulatory boundaries.
3.11 International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA) WWW.ICCA.NL

ICCA member now numbering 500, represent the world’s leading specialists in
managing, accommodating, and transporting international conferences and events. The
group focuses on business matters such as marketing, market research and education. One
of its major efforts has been to enhance cooperation for the concerted promotion of
regions as an attractive destination for international meetings.
ICCA has various categories of members who work together under the banner of
chapters, national, and local ICCA committees. Information from members is all-
24
important to ICCA data, the central research department of ICCA. Data on thousands of
international meetings is gathered, collated and analyzed and updated bulletins are mailed
to members every month. The information can also be passed on to other members who
may be interested in bidding for or servicing the event another time.
Education has moved high up the ICCA agenda over recent years. In1996, ICCA’s
International Meetings Academy (IMA) was founded, which is an independent training
organization offering worldwide educational programmes for meeting professionals at
every level, which can be tailored to meet the strategic needs of any city, country, region
or discipline.
3.12 Summary
 In this lesson, we have studied the role of international travel and tourism
associations and organizations.
 It has been demonstrated that they are good sources of global trends, statistics,
research, and other forms of information.
 They play an important role in defending the interests of both the industry at large as
well as their own specific sectors.
 They come together sectorally or geographically. Some are even more finely
segmented such as gender or age.
 They are also important points of contact for networking and broadening the list of
global associates.
1. What are the main functions of international travel and tourism organizations?
2. Write a concise essay on IATA.
3.14 Further Reading

Bogdanovych, A. Berger, H. Simoff, S. and Sierra, C (2004) E-Commerce Environments
as 3D Electronic Institutions. Proceedings of EC2004 conference, Lisbon,
Portugal: 237-242.
25
Bogdanovych, A. Berger, H. Simoff, S. and Sierra, C (2006) Travel Agents vs. Online
Booking: Tackling the Shortcomings of Nowadays Online Tourism Portals.
Proceedings of the (ENTER’06) Conference, Lausanne, Switzerland: 418-428.
Britton, R (1978) The Image of the Third World in Tourism Marketing. Annals of
Tourism Research, v.6, n.3: 318-329.
Edgell, D. L. (1990) International Tourism Policy. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York.
Gee, Chuck. Y., Makens, James C. and Choy, Dexter J.L. (1997): Travel Industry. Third
Edition. Van Hostrand Reinhold Publishing.
IATA (2001): International Travel and Tourism Training Programme. Montreal: IATA
Aviation Training and Development Institute.
Jackson, Ian. (1997): An introduction to tourism. Melbourne: Hospitality Press Pty.Ltd.
Pine, B.J. II & Gilmore, J. (1998) Welcome to the Experience economy, Harvard
Business Review: 97–105.
26
4.0 LESSON FOUR:
THE KEY PLAYERS IN TOURISM
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
4.1 Introduction
In relation to the stakeholders of tourism planning, consideration needs to be given to
individuals and organizations acting as managers including government bodies, as well as
members of the tourism industry. Tourism management clearly relates to the tourists
themselves and will need to consider the host or resident population. This lesson presents
discussions on the management of tourism in relation to players and related issues on the
management of tourists/visitors, role of host community, resource management, tourism
industry, and partnerships in tourism planning and management.

(a) Describe the key players in tourism management;
(b) Discuss a number of introductory issues in relation to the key players in tourism
planning and management; viz. tourists, host community, tourism industry,
government agencies, media and NGOs.
4.3 Introduction to planning

Any discussion of tourism management requires consideration of a number of factors,
including:
Who is managing?
What is being managed?
How is it managed?
Where is it happening?
When is it happening?
27
These questions are linked and it may be difficult to separate, for example, the ‘who’
from the ‘how’ and the ‘when’ and the ‘where.’
4.4 Key players in tourism management

The key players in tourism planning and management are as follows:
 The tourists themselves

 The host population
 The tourism industry
 Government agencies (at local, regional, national and international level).
4.4.1 Tourists
Tourists are obviously of key importance in the management of tourism. Unfortunately,
tourists are often viewed as the major cause of the problems of tourism. They are seen as
outsiders and are often blamed by the local people for negative consequences of tourism.
According to Swarbrooke (1999) when the appearance of tourists and their behavior is in
marked contrast to that of the local population, it is also easy to point the finger of blame
at them. However, it is important to point out that the tourists have both rights and
responsibilities. Box 4.0 indicates a number of basic responsibilities of tourists and also
some others that are linked to the concept of sustainability in tourism, with Box 4.1
suggesting some tourists’ rights.
Box 4.0 Responsibilities of tourists

Basic responsibilities
 The responsibility for obeying local laws and regulations.
 The responsibility for not taking part in activities, which while is not illegal, or
where the laws are not enforced by the local authorities are nevertheless widely
condemned by society such as sex with children.
 The responsibility for not deliberately offending local religious beliefs or cultural
norms of behavior.
 The responsibility for not deliberately harming the local physical environment.
 The responsibility to minimize the use of scarce local resources.
Extra responsibilities of tourists in relation to sustainable tourism
28
 The responsibility not to visit destinations that have a poor record on human
rights.
 The responsibility to find out about the destination before the holiday and try to
learn a few words of the local language, at least.
 The responsibility to try to meet local people, learns about their lifestyles, and
establishes friendships.
 The responsibility to protect the natural wildlife by not buying souvenirs made
from living creatures, for example.
 The responsibility to abide by all local religious beliefs and cultural values, even
those with which the tourist personally disagrees.
 The responsibility to boycott local businesses, which pay their staff poor wages, or
provide bad working conditions for their employees.
 The responsibility to contribute as much as possible to the local economy.
Although there are a number of laws and regulations relating to the operational aspects of
the tourism industry, there are few regulations pertaining directly to the behavior of
tourists. However, there have been a number of attempts to influence the behavior of
tourists. They usually take the form of voluntary codes of conduct and/or the use of more
overt educational approaches.
Box 4.1 the rights of tourists and the responsibility of the host
community, government agencies and the tourism industry
The rights of the tourist Those who are responsible for protecting
these rights
The right to be safe and secure from  The host community
crime, terrorism and disease  Government agencies, e.g. security
services and health authorities
The right not to be discriminated against  The host community
on the grounds of race, sex or disability  The tourism industry
 Government agencies, e.g. immigration
departments
The right not to be exploited by local  The tourism industry
businesses and individuals  The host community
 Government agencies, e.g. police
The right to the fair marketing of products  The tourism industry
through honest travel brochures and  Government agencies, e.g. advertising
advertisements. regulators
The right to safe, clean physical  The host community
environment  The tourism industry
29
 Government agencies, e.g.
environmental bodies and policy
departments
The right to free and unrestricted  Government agencies, e.g. security
movement providing that they cause no services
damage. The right to meet local people  The host community
freely and the right to be courteous and  The tourism industry.
have competent service
(Source: Swarbrooke 1999)
4.4.2 The host community
Such terminology as the host community may be misleading as it implies that there are
guests to complement the supposed hosts. However, as tourists are not always welcome, a
more appropriate term could be local community, resident community or destination
community. The host community is heterogeneous and can be made up of long-term
indigenous residents and recent domestic as well as international migrants. In addition to
obvious variations in gender and age, a host community is likely to have individuals and
groups with several different value positions, political persuasions and attitudes to socio-
cultural phenomena including tourism.
The destination community can act as a major attraction for tourists. More often than not,
it is the cultural manifestations of the community including craft and art works as well as
less tangible factors such as music, dance and religious festivals that act as important
attractions. In some instances, meeting members of a particular community and staying
with them is a key motivation of certain types of tourist. However, there are a number of
dangers that may result from the contact between tourists and resident communities,
particularly in terms of erosion of destination community values and possible loss of
cultural identity.
In relation to tourism planning and management, if it is acknowledged that communities

are heterogeneous, then the importance of different interest groups and vested interests
needs to be recognized. The acceptance brings with the recognition that the planning and
management of tourism is more complex and yet a necessary task. In accepting that
communities are heterogeneous, Swarbrooke (1999) suggests that they could be divided
up in terms of:
30
 Elites and the rest of the population
 Indigenous population and immigrants
 Those involved in tourism and those not involved
 Property owners and property renters
 Young people and people
 Employers, employees and self-employed
 Those with private cars and those relying on public transport;
 Affluent and less well-off residents
 Majority communities and minority communities.
As early as the mid-1980s, Murphy (1985) had suggested that as tourism makes use of a
community’s resources, then the community should be a key player in the process of
planning and management. The rationale for community involvement in tourism is as
follows:
 It is part of the democratic process,

 It provides a voice for those directly affected by tourism,
 It makes use of local knowledge to ensure decisions are well informed, and
 It can reduce potential conflict between tourists and members of the destination
community.
Nevertheless, the actual involvement of a community in tourism planning will depend on

a number of factors. These include:
 The nature of political system at national and local level;

 The degree of ‘political literacy’ of the local population;
 The nature of the particular tourism issue;
 The awareness of tourism issue in the community;
 How the tourism issue is perceived by the members of the community;
 The history of involvement in tourism related issues; and
31
 Attitudes and behavior of sections of the media.
4.4.3 Government agencies

Government agencies are frequently referred to as public sector of tourism. They are not
commercial organizations intent on making a profit, but are meant to represent the views
of tax payers and electors. Governmental agencies are funded from taxes and in most
Developed countries are run by democratically elected representatives supported by paid
civil servants. In some parts of the world, particularly some Developing countries,
governments are headed by un-elected dictators or military rulers. There are a
multiplicity of government bodies that have a bearing on tourism planning and
management. These bodies exist at different scales from national, through regional, down
to local levels.
The following are the reasons for the involvement of the public sector in tourism
(Swarbrooke 1999):
 The public sector is mandated to represent the whole population and not just one set
of stakeholders or interest group.
 The public sector is intended to be impartial, with no particular vested or commercial
interests.
 The public sector can take a longer-term view of tourism development than, for
example, the private sector.
The public sector in many developed countries has what may appear at face value to be
contradictory roles. Governments may attempt to regulate tourism, but they also have a
role in marketing tourism. Governments may also be involved in setting aside areas that
designated for special protection for environmental or cultural reasons. This has led to the
creation of national parks in individual countries and when countries collaborate
internationally; this has led to the establishment of World Heritage Sites.
32
Governments may also require Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to be conducted
when a new tourism venture is to be developed. As Middleton and Hawkins (1998)
suggested, an EIA is an attempt to prevent environmental degradation by giving decision-
makers information about the likely consequences of development actions.
Public bodies can be proactive and play a positive role in tourism planning and
management. They may own or at least administer certain key assets for tourism such as
valued natural or semi-natural environments as well as the built environment attractions
such as museums and historic buildings. These can be marketed and/or regulated in such
a way that they provide models for private operators. Governments can also develop the
infrastructure necessary for both public and private sector tourism activities.
Further, there are an increasing number of international links and inter-governmental

treaties that are attempting to create more sustainable forms of tourism. One such
important development has been the application of Agenda 21 to tourism. Box 4.2 shows
the actions identified for travel and tourism companies from Agenda 21. It is possible that
such intergovernmental cooperation as envisaged by Agenda 21 will lead to fairer, more
equitable and more sustainable forms of international tourism.
Box 4.2 Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry

Actions identified for travel and tourism companies with the main aim of
establishing systems and procedures, which incorporates sustainable development
at the core of decision-making process for business operations. This also applies to
public sector business operations.
 Waste minimization, re-use and recycling
 Energy efficiency, conservation and management
 Management of fresh water resources
 Waste water management
 Management of hazardous substances
 Use of more environmentally friendly transport
 Land-use planning and management
 Involving staff, customers and local communities in environmental issues
 Design for sustainability
 Developing partnerships for sustainable development.
(Source: WTTC/WTO/Earth Council 1997)
33
4.4.4 The tourism industry
The tourism industry is often blamed for causing damage to destination areas, and
showing little willingness to be involved in planning for long-term viability of tourism
development. However, the complexity of tourism industry makes it difficult to point the
finger of blame directly at the cause of problems. Nevertheless, the tourism industry has
been accused of (Swarbrooke 1999):
 Being mainly concerned with short-term profit, rather than long-term sustainability,
 Exploiting the environment and local populations rather than conserving them,
 Being relatively fickle and showing little commitment to particular destinations,
 Not doing enough to raise tourists awareness of issues such as sustainability ,
 Only getting on the sustainability wagon when it is likely to achieve good publicity,
 Being increasingly owned and controlled by large trans-national corporations, who
have little regard for individual destinations.
4.4.5 Other players

Two other sets of actors are important in terms of tourism planning and management.
These are voluntary sector organizations and the media. The voluntary sector is made up
of a number of different groups that include pressure groups, voluntary trusts, some of
which have charitable status and industry associations.
There are also organizations that act as pressure groups, but are not part of the voluntary
sector. However, neither are they part of the tourism industry. Such organizations are
termed non-governmental organizations (NGOs). They usually have a far wider brief than
just tourism industry, but run events/campaigns and/or plan projects that have important
tourism dimensions. One such organization is the World Wide Fund for nature (WWF),
which has been actively involved since the early 1990s in the campaigning for more
‘environmentally friendly’ forms of tourism. Another NGO, Friends of the Earth has also
campaigned for preservation of the environment in relation to tourism development.
34
The tourism industry also has a number of pressure groups. The World Travel and
Tourism Council (WTTC) is a pressure group and is supported by major tourism
companies. It lobbies on behalf of the tourism industry. There are also a number of
professional bodies that represent the tourism industry. In Kenya, for example, there is
the Kenya Association for Tourist Operators (KATO), and Ecotourism Kenya, which are
major professional bodies for the tourism industry.
The media has potentially a key role in tourism planning and management issues. Much
of the media deals directly or indirectly with tourism. In many tourism destinations, a
number of the main terrestrial television channels regularly show ‘travel shows.’ These
tend to be relatively uncritical programs, whose aim is to promote holidays to particular
destinations. They focus mainly on wildlife and natural history. A number of newspapers
in each country also use a similar approach. There is also a significant number of travel
related magazines and radio programs, and much travel information is now available on
the World Wide Web (WWW). Probably the oldest form of literature concerned with
travel is the guidebook.
4.5 Summary
This lesson has introduced a discussion of key players in tourism planning and
management. The major players are the tourists themselves, members of host
communities, representatives of the travel industry and government agencies. NGOs and
the media are also important players in relation to tourism planning and management. In
relation to tourists and host communities, it is important to note that neither group is
homogenous. However, the heterogeneity of tourists and the communities is often
ignored in planning and management. The government role in tourism is often viewed as
promotional rather than regulatory, although government at various levels fulfills both
these roles. Historically, the media have tended to act in a largely promotional role, but
more recently, particularly through its focus on issues and the mounting campaigns on
tourism themes, a more critical stance has been developed.
35
(a) What are the major stakeholders in tourism industry?
(b) How influential are the media in tourism?
(c) Outline the responsibilities and rights of tourists, and host communities.
(d) What are the factors that affect actual involvement of communities in tourism
planning?
4.7 Activity
Consider a location that you know well that has been used by the media in terms of a TV
program, film or radio production. How has this been exploited for tourism purposes and
what further could be done? What are the potential issues, resulting from the media’s
involvement in promoting specific locations for tourism?
4.8 Further Reading

Peter Mason (2006): Tourism Impacts, Planning and Management; New York:
Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.
Swarbrooke, J. (1999): Sustainable Tourism Management; Wallingford: CABI
Publications.
Wilkinson, P. (1997): Tourism Planning on Islands; New York: Cognizant
Communications.
Wood, D. and House, S. (1991): The Good Tourist; London: Mandarin.
36
5.0 LESSON THREE:
GEOGRAPHY IN TRAVEL PLANNING
5.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about destination geography including factors that
determine a destination’s appeal including attractions, accessibility, costs and standards
of living, culture and climate. Next you will explore concepts of physical geography
including continents and oceans. Finally you will learn about cultural geography and
patterns of tourism.

(a) Describe the basic terms and concepts of destination geography

(b) Explore basic terms and concepts of physical geography
(c) Evaluate basic terms and concepts of cultural geography.
5.3 Destination Geography

A destination is a location that a traveler chooses to visit. Destination geography is the
study of all of the properties and characteristics of a location that influence travel. There
are many factors that determine which locations become tourist destinations. Some of
these include:
 Attractions: proximity to attractions is one of the major factors that influence a

tourist’s travel decisions. Some attractions are natural such as the Maasai Mara
Game Reserve in Kenya. Other attractions are historical such as the Fort Jesus at
Mombassa. Still others are created such as Disney World.
 Accessibility: A location’s geographical position as well as the modes of transport
available to reach the location, play role in determining which locations become
destinations. For example, it takes less time to fly 40000 miles from Nairobi Kenya
to London, England than it does to trek 200 miles from Nairobi to the famous
Mountain Gorilla Reserve in Rwanda. Some travelers value comfort and efficiency,
37
while others enjoy the challenge that reaching a location can offer. On balance,
however, convenient geographical position and a variety of available transport
options are likely to make a location a more popular destination.
 Costs and standards of living: Standards of living and costs for basic goods and
services vary widely around the world. Some locations provide excellent services
and luxurious goods, while others provide only basic services and simple goods. In
general, travelers to more remote destinations can expect goods and services to
which they are accustomed to be more expensive, less available and in some cases
completely absent.
 Culture: Just as standards of living vary widely from one destination to another, so
do culture. Culture is defined as the sum of characteristics of a society including
language, religion, politics, art, food, customs and related elements that shape and
distinguish it from other societies. Travelers will encounter a variety of cultures
around the world and even different cultures within the same geographic area. For
example, eating beef products is considered a delicacy in one culture; in another it is
considered sacrilegious. Having a basic understanding of different cultures, and
matching potential client’s needs and desires with those cultures will help make you
a more effective travel agent.
 Climate: travelers often cite climate as one of the most important reasons for
selecting one destination over another. Many people use the terms ‘weather’ and
‘climate’ as though they were one and the same. The terms, however, are different.
Weather is a condition that happens at a particular time, whereas climate is the
average weather over an extended period of time. Knowing a destination’s future
weather on any given date is impossible, but knowing something about a
destination’s climate is very important for planning effective travel itineraries.
 Finally, there are some characteristics of destinations that can change rapidly. Some
of these may be disease outbreaks, political unrest or uncertainty, natural disasters,
strikes or other labor shortages, extreme currency fluctuations or devaluations and
38
changes in governmental travel policy. Ultimately, however, what makes a
destination is an ongoing demand by travelers to visit an area. Table 5.1 outlines the
seven most important characteristics cited by travelers for choosing a destination.
Table 5.1 Seven Most Important Characteristics Cited by Travelers for Choosing
Destination
CHARACTERISTICS PERCENTAGE
Weather 57%
Sightseeing 44%
Beaches 39%
Entertainment 30%
Language spoken 28%
Restaurants 28%
Expensiveness 28%
Source: IATA 2001
5.4 Physical Geography
Physical geography can be defined as the study of the world’s natural terrain and
features. A good understanding of physical geography is essential to you as a travel
professional as it allows you to know both the constraints and benefits of the natural
world as experienced by travelers.
The major landmasses of the world are known as continents. Geographers typically
identify 7 continents, although some geographers group Asia and Europe as one
continent, Eurasia. The 7 continents as typically described by geographers are:
 Europe
 Asia
 Africa
 North America
 South America
 Australia
 Antarctica
39
Some geographers also include sub-continents when describing world geography. Sub-
continents include Central America, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands, and the Middle
East. 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water. Bodies of water are extremely
important in the travel industry. Many travelers seek warm weather vacations that include
stays on tropical beaches. Water also offers a variety of adventure travel opportunities
including white-water river rafting, parasailing, water-skiing, and snorkeling. Table 5.2
shows the size of four major oceans and the percentage of the earth’s water area they
occupy.
Table 5.2 Size of Four Major Oceans and Their Percentage of the Earth’s Water Area
OCEAN AREA (SQ KM AREA SQ MI % OF EARTH’S
WATER AREA
Pacific 166241000 64169026 46.0%
Atlantic 86557000 33411002 23.9%
Indian 73427000 28342822 20.3%
Arctic 9485000 3661210
Source: National Geographic Society. World Atlas 6th Edition, Washington DC (1992)
5.5 Cultural Geography

Cultural geography is the study of how geography influences people’s behavior, customs
and habits. Cultural geography is sometimes referred to as human geography because of
intensive focus on human behavior.
There are many components that make up cultural geography. Some of these are religion,
economics, food, art, architecture, language, national boundaries, politics, agriculture,
and employment. All of these components affect patterns of travel and tourism. As may
be noted, travelers visit destinations for a variety of reasons. Many of these reasons shape
an area of cultural geography known as touristic patterns. Touristic patterns may be
defined as a predictable combination of characteristics and qualities that describe why,
how, and when people travel.
40
When tourism is at its highest point, it is known as peak season. When tourism is at its
lowest point, it is called off or low season. Finally travel professionals refer to the times
in between peak and off-season as shoulder seasons. Not surprisingly, a traveler can
expect to pay the most for travel during peak seasons, the least during off-seasons and a
price somewhere in the middle during the shoulder season.
5.6 Summary
In this lesson, we have learned about destination geography including factors that
determine a destination’s appeal such as attractions, accessibility, costs and standards of
living, culture and climate. It is important to understand the world’s natural terrain and
features because this knowledge aids in developing effective travel plans for clients.
Next, we have examined the concepts of physical geography including continents and
oceans. Finally, we have learned about geography and patterns of tourism.

1. Describe the factors that determine which locations become tourist destinations.
2. Explain how aspects of physical and cultural geography influence destination choices
by travelers.
5.8 Further Reading

as 3D Electronic Institutions. Proceedings of EC2004 conference, Lisbon, Portugal: 237-
242.
Booking: Tackling the Shortcomings of Nowadays Online Tourism Portals. Proceedings
of the (ENTER’06) Conference, Lausanne, Switzerland: 418-428.
Edgell, D. L. (1990): International Tourism Policy. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York.
Pine, B.J. II & Gilmore, J. (1998): Welcome to the Experience economy, Harvard
Rugg, D. (1973): The Choice of Journey Destination: A Theoretical and Empirical
Analysis. The Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 55(1), MIT Press: 64-72.
41
Yeoman, I. Durie, A. McMahon-Beattie, U and Palmer, A (2005): Capturing the Essence
of a Brand from its History: The Case of Scottish Tourism Marketing. Journal of Brand
Management. Vol 13, No 2: 34-147.
42
6.0 LESSON SIX:
TRAVEL FORMALITIES
6.1 Introduction
In this lesson we look at the various types of travel documents and the procedures
required for travel. You will learn how to access information regarding documents
needed when travelling internationally. This lesson emphasizes the need for accuracy
when supplying information on visa and passport requirements and customs and currency
regulations. In addition, you will gain information relating to other travel formalities such
as taxes collected by agents or paid individually by travelers, different forms of payments
to choose when travelling, health matters and why travelers should be made aware of the
need for travel insurance. All these items are fundamentals given to the clients by travel
agents.

(a) Distinguish between the various types of passports, visas, and other travel
documents and advise customers how to obtain the documents necessary for
their travel
(b) Describe health and preventive measures for travelers
(c) Explain the collection of taxes related to travel.
(d) Interpret customs and currency information for customers.
(e) Evaluate the use of different forms of payment for international travelers
(f) Describe the value of purchasing travel insurance and explain the essential
elements of the contract
(g) Describe auxiliary services and information supplied by travel agents
(h) Explain travel agent’s responsibility relating to travel documentation and
provide correct and up-to-date information to customers.
6.3 The Passport

A passport can be defined as ‘an official document issued by a competent public
authority to nationals or to alien residents of the issuing country’ to enable one travel to
another country.’ Other than allowing access to another country, the passport can be used
as a means of identification. Another purpose of the passport is to provide evidence of
legal entry into another country.
43
Some countries allow joint passports. That means that two or more people travelling
together hold a single joint passport. The passport holder may also travel using the
passport without being accompanied by those who are also included on the passport,
provided those others included in the passport remain at the country of residence.
Travel agents should therefore ensure that:
 Clients understand that individuals wishing to travel to another country usually

require a passport
 The client’s passport is valid for the whole time spent traveling
 Clients are made aware of any other regulations relating to passport’s validity, e.g.
some countries require that a passport be valid up to six months beyond an
individual’s stay in a particular country.
 People who travel on a joint passport must travel together. For example, a mother and
a child travelling to Europe. The mother will not be able to continue her journey to
America, leaving her child behind in Europe. This is because the child would be left
with no proof of legal entry into the country and therefore could not be able to leave
without the mother.
Having stated this, there are general rules useful to remember regarding the validity and
other information contained within passports. These include:
 A passport is normally valid to a maximum of ten years

 A passport is normally valid for all countries unless exceptions are noted
 A passport that is ten years old or that has no further room for visas must be
replaced by a new one.
 Check the passport’s expiry date because some countries require that an
individual’s passport be valid for six months beyond the traveler’s intended length
of stay
 Children over the age of sixteen will normally require their own passports
44
 A passport remains a property of the issuing authority and can be withdrawn at
any time.
All passports generally contain similar information. This includes:
 Family name
 Given names
 Nationality
 Date of birth
 Children
 Sex
 Place of Birth
 Date of issue
 Authority
 Date of expiry
 Observations
 Holder’s signature
 Holder’s photograph.
Most of the above will be self-explanatory, except for observations. This note may
contain no information or may for example state something like the following:
“This passport is issued in replacement of passport no. A419605 dated 13 th march 2008
reported lost.”
Other documents are also used instead of passports. These include:
 Identification cards (ID cards)

 Travel certificates
 Military ID cards
45
 Seaman discharge books
 Affidavits
 Government-issued birth certificates.
6.4 Types of passport

The types of passports currently issued are outlined here below:
6.4.1 Normal Passport: most countries issue normal passport, which complies with the
definition given in the previous section 2.3 as ‘an official document issued by a
competent public authority to nationals of the issuing country’ to enable one travel to
another country.”
6.4.2 Alien’s Passport: This type of passport may be issued to individuals living in a
country of which they are not citizens.
6.4.3 Children’s Identity Card: Issued by some countries only instead of a passport. It
is often not accepted by other countries. Therefore travel agents should ensure that the
country to which the child is travelling will accept such cards.
6.4.4 Diplomatic or Consular Passport: Issued to diplomatic, consular, and other

government officials on missions entitling the bearer to diplomatic or consular status
under international law and custom.
6.4.5 Other Passports: International Red Cross and Laissez-Passer travel documents
supplied to refugees. These are passports issued by international organizations such as the
United Nations and International Red Cross.
6.4.6 Official, Special or Service Passports: Issued to government officials or other

persons on government missions. The type of passport has to be specified by the issuing
authority.
46
6.4.7 Other Travel Documents: These documents may not have the same legal effect as
passports, and may be valid only for travel between a limited number of countries and for
specified purposes.
6.5 The Visa

A visa is defined as an entry in a passport or other travel document made by an official of
a government, indicating that the bearer has been granted authority to enter or re-enter the
country concerned. It usually specifies the authorized length of stay, the period of
validity, and the number of entries allowed during that period. It permits a citizen of one
country to enter another country. Some countries require that citizens of other designated
countries obtain a visa prior to traveling to their country. Therefore you should know the
citizenship of your clients and the visa requirements, if any, of the countries to which
they intend to travel.
The visa system assists immigration authorities in keeping records of whom and how
many visitors are likely to travel to and from a country. Visa regulations are drawn up in
a bilateral agreement between two countries. Under normal circumstances, once a visa
has been issued, then entry into the country should be granted. Travel agents should be
aware, however, that the final decision regarding entry into any country remains with the
immigration officials at the entry point.
It is important that an agent not to assume that travelers, no matter how well traveled they
are may know the travel regulations. Agents should therefore collect the following
information from the client in order to check visa requirements:
 Country of origin, where the journey begins

 Any stopover or transfer points en route
 Country of destination
 Country of final destination such as when the traveler returns to the country of
origin and re-entry permit if needed
 What passport the client is travelling on.
47
The agent will then consult the Travel Information Manual (TIM), which is produced in
book form on a monthly basis. Alternatively, TIM can be assessed via a computer
reservation system (CRS). TIM is up-dated each month and provides airlines, agents and
others working within the air transport industry with a valuable source of information
relating to government requirements for international travel. TIM also provides travel
agents with many of the answers to their client’s questions on the subjects listed below:
 Passport
 Visa
 Health
 Airport tax
 Customs
 Currency.
Outlined below is a suggested visa check-list for travel agents:
 Travel agents should check visa requirements for all clients

 The agent is responsible for providing advice on obtaining a visa
 Check transit and entry requirements to all countries visited or being transited
 Remember that the rules regarding transit often differ from those related to a
‘stopover.’
 A ‘transit’ can mean different things in different countries. Check the time
permitted for transit. If the client’s transfer is longer than the transit time
allowed, then a visitor visa must be applied for instead of a transit visa.
 Several countries restrict entry to certain nationals. Check TIM under the
section Admission and Transit restrictions.
Note: Visas are extremely important documents and therefore travel agents should refrain
from making travel arrangements, which include a penalty for cancellation, until a visa
48
has been granted. Alternatively, clients must be advised on any cancellation fees in
advance.
6.6 Types of visa

Table 6.0 provides different types of visas and schemes in existence and which are
referred to in the TIM.
Table 6.0 Types of Visa
VISA TYPE EXPLANATION
Visitor Visa Also referred to as entry permit, entry visa, business visa or travel
visa. It provides right of entry to another country, subject to satisfying
immigration authorities at the point of entry.
The usual condition of obtaining a visitor’s visa include proof of

holding sufficient funds for the length of stay and proof of pre-paid
onward travel. Some countries ask for proof of funds and onward
tickets before issuing the visa. The agent can provide a letter stating
what travel arrangements have been reserved.
Transit Visa Provides rights of entry into another country purely for the purpose of
making travel connections onward to a third country. Regulations
related to transit vary from country to country and should be checked.
For example, one country may stipulate that passengers who transit
within eight hours, for example, do not need a visa. Whereas another
country may require a passenger to obtain a transit visa even they
arrive and leave all within a four-hour period.
The rule for agents is simply this: always check transit regulations in
TIM.
Transit without Many countries have made agreements that allow other (TWOV)
visa (TWOV) nationals to transit their country without the need to obtain a visa.
The period of validity of TWOV will vary from one country to
another. You will find the specific regulations regarding how long a
passenger is permitted to stay in transit and how many times a
passenger may enter a country using the TWOV system in the transit
visa text in TIM.
Re-entry Where necessary, these permits entitle travelers to return to their
permits country of domicile.
Exit permits They entitle travelers to leave a country. These permits may be
necessary for citizens to leave their own country of domicile. Exit
permits may be required by foreign nationals to leave a country
through which they had been travelling or by expatriates.
Schengen visa Schengen is an agreement between several member states of the
European Union (EU) and effectively creates a ‘borderless’ region
known as the Schengen Area. Created in1985, Schengen states
49
comprise Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.
There are 4 types of Schengen visas:

 Airport transit visa
 Transit visa
 Short period visa (3 months)
 Long period national visa (valid in country of issue only)
Other types of visa include:
 Tourist cards
 Visa waiver program.
Although not strictly visas, operating in much the same way as a visitor’s visa, tourist
cards entitle the holder to enter a country on a single trip for a specified period of time.
Extensions are normally allowed.
The Visa Waiver Program entitles citizens of specific countries to enter the U.S., for
example, for business or tourist visits of up to 90 days. Under the rules of the Program,
foreign nationals must enter the country by air or sea holding onward or return tickets and
using an air or sea carrier that has agreed to participate in the Visa Waiver Program.
6.7 Obtaining Travel Documents

It is always the client’s responsibility to obtain the necessary documents (passports and
visas) for their journey. The agent’s responsibility lies primarily in supplying clients with
accurate and up-to-date information, thereby enabling them to enjoy trouble-free
international travel. Administrative is often charged for a visa service. Whether the
traveler applies for the visa directly or an agent applies on the client’s behalf, the
procedure is normally the same. Table 6.1 below describes the check-list for applying
passports and visas.
50
Table 6.1 How to Obtain Passports and Visas
Passport Check-List Visa Check-List
Carefully read and complete an Complete an application form, which can
application form. This is normally be obtained from the country’s consulate or
obtained from the country’s immigration embassy
office or country’s consulate
Photographs are normally required, 1. Some visas require you to send in
details of how many, what photo size and photographs.
what color will be explained on the
application form. Some countries require 2. A fee is payable for many types of
a third party who has known the visa. Check the application form for
applicant for a minimum period of time details of how long the procedure
to sign the back of the applicant’s photo will take.
in order to verify identity.
Check that all evidence is included: 3. Some agents may be able to process
Photos, completed form and payment a visa application faster than an
individual
Check where the application is to be sent Send a visa application as far in advance as
and send it out far in possible. Clients may find it quicker and
safer to deliver the application for visas in
person. Passports sent by post office should
always be sent via a secure or registered
form of mail. Visas can take several weeks
even months to issue; travelling should
apply well in advance of the planned travel
date.
6.8 Health Certificates and General Information

General health information is another travel formality that agents need to be able to offer
advice. Agents should check for any compulsory vaccinations required to protect against
disease and infections whilst traveling. As well as general advice on any vaccinations and
preventive health precautions recommended for the area visited, it is necessary to check
the health regulations of:
 The country of destination

 The country of origin or departure
 Any transit countries.
51
The TIM lists information on health requirements for individual countries. This
information can be found in the country pages under Section 3 Health.
The World Health Organization (WHO) collects and publishes individual country health
requirements in its booklet entitled “International Travel and Health.” However, this
official information does not always reflect actual practice at a point of entry to a country.
For this reason, agents are advised instead to use TIM as the source of reference on
health. TIM aims to describe exactly what is happening at airports.
In addition to health information listed under each country, a general information section
of TIM indicates different areas of the world where infectious diseases such as hepatitis,
cholera, plague and yellow fever exist. Other lists detail countries where malaria exists
and preventive treatment required. TIM offers good advice for travelers on how to stay
healthy while traveling.
In situations where travelers are required to be vaccinated against a certain disease, an

internally recognized certificate is issued. The holder is required to produce this
vaccination certificate at the point of entry into the country. This certificate is an
individual document and can be obtained from health clinics, travel clinics, doctors or
other authorized medical personnel.
Key Learning Point
If required travelers must obtain a health certificate, proving they have been
vaccinated against a specified infectious disease (either yellow fever or
cholera). If they fail to do so, they could be deported out of the country to the
place where they boarded the plane. Alternatively, some countries may detain
and hold a person in quarantine.
6.9 Health Preparations

Travelers should try to make sure that they are healthy before they start travelling. Before
they embark, they should take out travel insurance and a visit to your medical advisor is
highly recommended. Travelers should carry with them prescriptions written in
languages if possible to show that they can legally use the medication. It is surprising
52
how often over-the-counter drugs from one country may be illegal without a prescription
or even banned in another country.
6.10 General Preventive Measures

6.10.1 Basic Rules
Care in what you eat and drink is the most important health rule. Some travelers
experience stomach upsets although most of these occurrences will be relatively minor.
Agents should be aware of some basic rules and preventive measures that travelers can
take. But remember to be sensitive in describing the risks to clients; after all trying the
local cuisine is part of the experience of travel.
6.10.2 Water and Drinks

Bottled mineral water is available virtually everywhere, and most travelers drink this,
rather than risk what comes out of the tap. If tap water is used, the simplest way of
purifying it is to boil thoroughly for 10 minutes. Remember that at high altitude water
boils at lower temperature, so germs are less likely to be killed. Alternatively, water can
be chemically treated with chlorine tablets, but iodine is more effective in purifying
water. Treated water should be left to stand for 30 minutes before drinking.
Travelers should be wary of fruit juices, particularly if water has been added and with
drinks that contain ice. Make sure that fresh milk has been pasteurized and that dried milk
has been made up without boiled water.
6.10.3 Foods
Travelers must be careful of what they eat; the main points of hygiene are:
 Salads and fruit should be washed with purified water or peeled

 Thoroughly cooked foods is safest but not if it has been left to cool or if it has
been reheated
 Raw shellfish or fish are often hazardous to health.
53
If an eating place looks clean and well run and if the vendor also looks clean and healthy,
then the food is probably safe. In general, places full of customers should be fine.
6.10.4 Nutrition
Travelers overseas on long trips and traveling rural areas should make sure their diet is
well balanced. Eggs, beans, lentils, rice and nuts are all safe to get protein. Fruit that can
be peeled is a good source of source vitamins. If food is limited or poor, it may be a good
idea to carry vitamin or iron tablets to supplement one’s diet.
In hot weather the tourist must ensure to drink enough, never rely to feel thirsty to
indicate when to drink. Not needing to urinate or very dark yellow urine is a danger sign.
The traveler should always carry a water bottle on long trips.
6.10.5 Everyday Health and Warning Signs

The normal body temperature is 98.6 degrees F or 37 degrees C (Celsius). More than 2
degrees Celsius higher is high fever. One should know how to take temperature and pulse
rate. As a general rule, the pulse increase about 20 beats per minute for each degree
Celsius rise in fever.
Respiration or breathing rate is also an indicator of illness. Count the number of breaths
per minute: between 12 and 20 is normal for adults and older children (up to 30 for
younger children and 40 for babies). People with high fever or serious respiratory illness
breathe more quickly than normal.
Potential medical problems that travelers are exposed to can be broken into three areas:
 Climatic and geographical considerations, problems caused by extremes of

temperatures, altitude or motion
 Diseases and illnesses caused by unsanitary conditions, insect bites and stings,
and animal or human contact
 Simple cuts, bites or scratches.
54
Many health problems can be avoided by taking care of one-self. Wash hands frequently,
clean teeth with purified water rather than with tap water. Avoid potential diseases by
dressing sensibly. It is possible to get worm infections by walking barefoot; walking over
corals without shoes can cause dangerous cuts. One can avoid insect bites by covering
bare skin when insects are around, by screening windows and beds or by using insect
repellant.
6.11 Summary
In this lesson we have so far been able to define a passport as an official document issued
by a competent public authority to nationals or to alien residents of the issuing country to
enable one travel to another country. We have also been able to distinguish various types
of visas and explain the procedures of obtaining the various travel documents.
In addition an explanation has been given on what international health certificates are and
how they can be obtained. Identification of common causes of healthy problems while
travelling has been done, with the description of preventive measures that a traveler
should always take into account given an elaborate coverage.
1. TIM lists different government regulations on Passports, Visas, Health, Airport

Taxes, Customs and Currency. Discuss.
2. Describe the basic rules for keeping healthy while traveling
3. Explain what international health certificates are and how they are obtained
4. TIM lists different government regulations on Passports, Visas, Health, Airport
Taxes, Customs and Currency. Discuss.
5. Describe the basic rules for keeping healthy while travelling
6. Explain what international health certificates are and how they are obtained.
7. Describe the procedure of obtaining travel documents
8. Distinguish between the various types of visas.
9. Define a passport and its various types.
10. Describe preventive measures that a traveler should take.
11. Identify common causes of health problems while travelling.
55
as 3D Electronic Institutions. Proceedings of EC2004 conference, Lisbon,
Portugal: 237-242.
Booking: Tackling the Shortcomings of Nowadays Online Tourism Portals.
Proceedings of the (ENTER’06) Conference, Lausanne, Switzerland: 418-428.
of a Brand from its History: The Case of Scottish Tourism Marketing. Journal of
Brand Management. Vol 13, No 2: 34-147.
56
7.0 LESSON SEVEN:
PLANNING TRAVEL ITINERARIES
7.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about planning travel itineraries by following basic
guidelines in five categories that include pace, interests, details, energy and routing. You
will also review resources for helping you to develop travel itineraries.

(a) Explain the basics of planning travel itineraries.
(b) Explain the basics of planning air itineraries
(c) Identify resources for developing travel itineraries.
7.3 Basic Steps in Planning Travel Itineraries

The term ‘itinerary’ may be defined as the line(s) of travel, linking points in a passenger’s
journey, beginning with the point of departure, followed by those points traversed in the
journey itself and ending at the destination point. Time spent on careful and detailed
planning of an itinerary is never wasted. You might have to plan a route that includes
places unfamiliar to you or take into account the fact that certain passengers may not
travel via some countries, whilst yet others will want to reach their destination by a
specific time. All these special aspects have to be borne in mind in order to produce the
most practical itinerary in accordance with the passenger’s desires.
Planning itineraries is an essential function for a professional travel agent and is an

effective way to gain a client’s trust. This is because a satisfied client will be more likely
to use your services in the future. Happy clients are also more likely to refer you to their
friends and business associates, thereby generating additional revenue. In order to make a
successful itinerary, you need to qualify your clients. Qualifying a client is a process that
involves assessment of the most efficient routes to maximize time. The process consists
57
of asking questions to potential and existing clients about their needs and wants for their
travel arrangements.
Once a client has been properly qualified, the basic destinations have been identified, and
air and ground transport segments have been booked, it is time to plan the client’s travel
itineraries. Planning an itinerary involves:
 Mapping out a route,

 Establishing distances and travel times, and
 Deciding which activities to recommend during your client’s journey.
When planning an itinerary, it is important to follow some basic guidelines that can be
broken down into five categories:
 Pace
 Routing
 Interests
 Details and
 Energy.
7.3.1 Pace
Pacing refers to how quickly or slowly to follow some basic guidelines an itinerary
moves. Providing a comfortable pace for clients is essential to their enjoyment of the trip.
While it is frequently important to keep the itinerary moving, setting a pace that is too
rapid can overburden the clients and decrease their enjoyment. A client’s age and health
should also be considered when determining pace. Generally younger and healthier
clients can move at a faster pace, but this is not always true and each client should be
considered on an individual basis. Finally any disabilities need to be evaluated when
determining an itinerary’s pace.
58
Key learning point
A good rule of thumb for determining pace for self-driving clients is not to
exceed 150 miles or 240 kilometers per day, allowing for rest stops and
sightseeing along the way can improve the client’s enjoyment of the trip.
7.3.2 Routing
It is important as a travel agent to plan both an interesting and efficient routing for client.
Ideally, the route should be both scenic and practical. When possible avoid back-tracking,
doubling back or routing a client in circles. This is particularly important when routing
corporate clients because you will need to build the routing around the individual’s
business appointments. It is important to listen carefully to client’s plans and help them
assess if the plan is realistic within the framework of geography.
7.3.3 Interests
One very significant way to add value to your client’s trip is to match his or her interests
with corresponding activities and attractions along the way. To do this effectively, you
must talk to you clients and listen carefully to the type of activities and the manner in
which they describe their interests. It is helpful to provide a balance by planning some
variety into the trip. To do this, you can schedule a mix of recreational activities,
educational activities, and ‘frivolous activities’ into the basic itinerary. Determining and
matching interests takes practice and destination expertise, but the extra effort it takes to
practice and learn will be rewarded in the form of client satisfaction.
7.3.4 Details
No matter how clever an itinerary you have put together for your client, if you do not pay
attention to details, the itinerary may be a failure. Details include checking to make sure
attractions on the itinerary are open when your clients arrive, reconfirming all ground
handlers and transport, and even checking with your clients to make sure they have made
all necessary preparations including packing their passports and filling all essential
prescriptions. Paying attention to details may seem tedious, but imagine how
embarrassing it would be to reschedule a client’s visit to NKM, Nairobi on Monday only
to learn that the Museum is closed on that day.
59
7.3.5 Energy
Finally, matching the energy level of the client with the energy level and intensity of the
itinerary is another way to assure the overall success of the trip. When considering this
aspect, it is important to take note of how much walking certain destinations require,
whether or not the client is traveling alone or with a family that includes small children
and what type of travel experience the client is looking for. For example, a traveler in
search of a quiet beach vacation may not appreciate four scheduled activities per day. Get
a sense of your client’s energy level, listen to what they tell you they want, and then
match the itinerary based on your observations and experience.
7.4 Basic Step of Planning

When planning the itinerary for the passengers, remember always to observe the
following steps:
 Establish the places the passenger wishes to visit

 Establish the order in which the passenger wishes to visit them
 Link the cities in such a way as to avoid doubling back and zigzagging (unless
absolutely necessary) while at the same time meeting any special request made by the
passenger
 Take account of political situations, geographical limitations and the practicality of
transport options
 Ascertain that convenient air/sea/rail or road connections exist and, where possible
choose the quickest
 Give preferences wherever possible to itineraries with the lowest fares. Detours often
raise the price.
 Plan your itinerary methodically, using a form such as the one shown below, Figure
7.0.
 Be prepared to provide alternatives in case the passenger changes his or her mind or,
when unexpected circumstances arise, which will prevent the itinerary proceeding as
originally planned.
60
(a) Planning Pro-Forma
When completing an itinerary Pro-Forma, avoid using codes and abbreviations. Give all
details in the clearest possible manner. This will greatly assist any other agency staff
member who may have to service the passenger at a later date and will assist the
passenger if the agency policy is to give a copy of the itinerary to the passenger.
Figure 7.0 Sample Pro-forma (Blank)

ITINERARY FOR Prepared by:
MR/MRS/MISS … Palbina Travel Co.
ADDRESS Westmont House
POSTAL CODE Community
CITY
TELEPHONE: HOME World-Wide travel
BUSINES Experts
DATE OF BOOKING IST CONTACT METHOD: PHONE,
DATE PERSONAL VISIT,
LETTER, FAX, ETC.
From: City/AIRPORT DAY DATE LOCAL FLIGHT CLASS REMARKS/ HOTELS
DEPT TIME NO. CONTACT, ETC
TO
ARR
DEP
To
ARR
DEP
TO
ARR
DEP
VALID PASSPORT
ENTRY VISA/RE-
ENTRY PERMIT
TRANSIT VISA FOR FARE
OTHER DOCUMENTS TICKET/ VOUCHER
NUMBER
REQUIRED PAYMENT DETAILS
VACCINATIIONS:
 CHOLERA
 YELLOW
FEVER
RECOMMENDED TAX(ES)
PREVENTIVE
TREATMENT
PNR AIRPORT TAX(ES)
7.5 Resources for Planning Travel Itineraries

The first resource is a good understanding of travel geography. Of course, the best way to
gain knowledge of travel itineraries is to travel to the destination yourself. Unfortunately,
there is simply no way to visit every possible destination that your clients might request.
Therefore, consider using the following resources:
61
 Your clients: Follow up with current clients and find out how their trips were.
Feedback, both positive and negative can be a valuable source of information.
Consider developing a database of clients and making notes about their experiences in
the database. This type of follow-up will not only give you valuable information
about the destinations and itineraries that you planned, but it will also help you build
rapport and establish client loyalty and trust.
 Travel guidebooks: Libraries and bookstores carry large numbers of travel
guidebooks. Many of these guidebooks are quite helpful to travel agents.
 National and regional tourist boards: Government tourist boards and offices offer
tremendous variety of useful information to the travel agent. You will be able to
gather information about the history, culture, geography, transport system, lodging,
museums, special agents and local currency. Many of these boards will send you
professional brochures, posters, videos, etc that can be used as part of your sales
process.
 Periodicals: subscribe or utilize local libraries to locate appropriate travel articles.
There are dozens of excellent publications including National Geographic, Travel and
Leisure and Travel holiday magazines. In addition, there are a number of excellent
specialty magazines that focus on a particular aspect of travel such as SCUBA diving,
skiing, or boating.
 Specialty journals: There are a variety of professional specialty journals that may be
of help to you as an agent. Topics include anything from art to zoos and frequently
include useful statistics to the travel industry. For example, Museum News may
publish an entire issue devoted to cultural tourism.
 Travel industry organizations: Industry organizations are extremely useful sources
of information to the professional travel agent. Examples of these include Cruise Line
International Association (CLIA), Ecotourism Society, Dive Travel Industries
Association, and the Fishing Travel Industry Association.
 Travel Industry journals: Publications including Travel Weekly, Travel agent and
Travel age are designed specifically for the professional travel agent. Consider
subscribing to one or more of these trade publications.
62
 Confidential tariffs: many tour and ground operators offer publications for specific
destinations and countries that describe land services, rates for accommodations,
sightseeing and excursions, transfers, meals and other items.
 Computers and Internet: Perhaps two of the greatest technological advances for the
travel agent are personal computers and the Internet. There is a variety of excellent
computer CD-ROMs that contain volumes of information about geography and
myriad travel issues and destinations. The Internet is also becoming an essential
source of information to the professional travel agent. Not only can a wealth of
information be obtained through the Internet but is also now possible to take ‘virtual’
tours of just about any destination in the world.
7.6 Summary
In this lesson, you have learnt about planning travel itineraries by following basic
guidelines in five categories. These include pace, interests, details, energy, and routing.
You have also reviewed resources for helping to develop travel itineraries.
1. What is an itinerary?
2. Describe the steps involved in the planning an itinerary.
3. True or False: When completing an itinerary Pro-Forma, avoid using codes and
abbreviations.
4. Ideally when planning a client’s itinerary, routing should be scenic and
practical. Discuss.
7.8 Activity
You would like to start practicing how to ask questions to get valuable information from
potential travel clients. Pick two or three close friends or business colleagues and ask
them about their past vacations.
7.9 Further Reading

242.
63
Rugg, D. (1973) The Choice of Journey Destination: A Theoretical and Empirical
Management. Vol. 13, No 2: 34-147.
64
8.0 LESSON EIGHT:
TAXES, CUSTOMS AND CURRENCIES
8.1 Introduction
In this lesson, we will be discussing preparations necessary to ensure an enjoyable visit
overseas. There include arrangements related to taxes levied by individual countries on
arriving and departing passengers and to import and export regulations and why these
regulations are imposed. Finally, the lesson examines issues related to currency, common
restrictions, changing money and alternative ways of paying for purchases and services
while travelling abroad.

(a) Explain the taxes relating to international travel
(b) Explain custom duty and regulations
(c) Identify and evaluate the various forms of payment for travelers
8.3Taxes
Many countries levy various types of tax on travelers. Payment is collected on hotel bills,
car rentals, by port charges on cruises and other services. A departure tax is often charged
when travelers leave the country. Various transport or airport facility taxes may have to
be collected by travel agents upon sale of tickets.
Tax relating to air travel, collected by travel agents may be linked to the ticket price. Any
tax collected by agents must be recorded on the ticket coupon to show how much and
what type of tax has been collected.
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Taxes are levied for arriving, departing or transiting a particular or airport and are a direct
source of revenue for the government. Further taxes are collected for security procedures,
noise pollution, etc.
TIM provides information on those taxes collected at an airport. Clients should be
informed of any taxes that they are expected to pay, so local currency can be reserved for
this purpose. Note that TIM does not list information on taxes collected by travel agents.
Therefore, individual agents will provide their staff with chargeable tax procedures. In
computerized agencies, tax information can be obtained from the Central Reservation
System (CRS).
The number of taxes collected by agents on behalf of government has grown steadily. In
many countries this tax is as much as a third of the fare. Always remember to quote the
tax costs to customers as the same time as the ticket cost. This will avoid any
misunderstanding later.
8.4 Customs
Customs regulations govern the transport of articles and species from one country to
another. The regulations may protect one country’s population from the spread of
dangerous infectious diseases. Also there are regulations that protected endangered
species. The import and export of certain articles may be restricted or prohibited all
together. Import and export limits for permitted items may be exceeded, but if so, a duty
must be paid. The duty collected by customs officials is another direct source of revenue
for governments.
Most governments allow concessions on certain items. Such duty-free items include
tobacco, alcohol, and perfume. TIM describes the customs regulations of individual
countries on the quantities of duty-free items that may be imported or exported.
Personal effects such as clothes, jewellery, cosmetics, a camera, or laptop computer, etc
are not normally subject to restrictions because they are for personal use. TIM describes
regulations relating to the following:
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 Passenger travelling with pets
 With flora and fauna
 Baggage clearance
 Firearms, other weapons and small caliber ammunition.
8.5 Currency and other Forms of Payment

Type of currency information available to travel agents through TIM is limited to
regulations on the import and export of local and foreign currency. Also included is the
name of the currency and its associated three-letter code as demonstrated in Table 8.1
below.
Table 8.1 Examples of the World’s Currencies and Three-Letter codes
COUNTRY CURRENCY CODE
Argentina Argentine Peso ARS
Austria Austrian Schilling ATS
Botswana Pula BWP
Bahrain Bahrain Dinar BHD
Czech Republic Czech Koruna CZK
Spain Peseta ESP
Japan Yen JPY
Kenya Shilling SHS
Malaysia Ringgit MYR
Guatemala Quetzal GTQ
India Indian Rupee INR
United Kingdom Pound Sterling GBP
Russia Ruble RUR
Vietnam New Dong VND
United States of America Dollar USD
Travel agents are often faced with questions from clients about exchanging foreign
currency, how much cash to take or what other form of payment to travel with. Often the
answers to these questions depend on many different factors including:
 where they are traveling to

 for how long
 whether they are traveling alone or in a group
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 In cities or rural areas, among others.
Travelers can learn more about budgeting by reading destination guidebooks. These
books provide useful maps and information on the local transport, cost and type of
accommodation, where to eat, sightseeing trips, festivals, shop opening hours and
holidays and maps. As a traveler agent, you should be able to recommend such good
books for your customers.
In the final analysis it is the traveler’s personal responsibility to decide how to finance the
trip, but travel agents should aim to guide the client regarding the security of funds whilst
overseas.
The following description provides various options and indications as to when one form
of payment is more appropriate than another.
(a) Cash
Cash is the easiest form of payment, but it carries the most risk. Cash lost or stolen
cannot be replaced without insurance and now more and more travel insurance policies
are excluding cash from their coverage. Perhaps the best advice is never to carry cash
over the limit stipulated in your insurance policy.
Cash limits on the import and export of local and foreign currency are illustrated in TIM
in the Section 6 Currency, under the country heading. In certain countries, the amount of
currency that may be imported or exported is limited. However, these limits are usually
set high enough so as not to affect the average traveler.
The basic rule is to discourage clients from carrying large sums of cash overseas.
However, some cash is necessary as certain items such as local transport cannot be paid
for in any other way. It is therefore important for the travelers to carry cash in small
denominations in the local currency or if you cannot obtain it, then in US dollars (USD)
or English pound (GBP).
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(b) Traveler’s Cheques
Some travel agencies are able to arrange issue of traveler’s cheques. This is one good
way to earn more revenue through extra services to customers. Otherwise, traveler’s
cheques are obtained from banks or foreign exchange bureaus.
Not all travelers’ cheques are equally acceptable. Certain countries prefer one brand to
another. It is always wise to check a guidebook as banks have been known to refuse to
accept lesser known brands. The well known brands include American Express, Visa,
Thomas Cook, Citibank, etc. Travelers should choose those brands that offer an ‘instant
replacement’ policy. Travelers must keep record of the cheque numbers and the initial
purchase details. Without this you find that the ‘instant’ is actually is a very ling time
indeed. Travelers should also keep a record of cheques cashed and keep these details
separately from the cheques themselves.
Clients must sign each cheque upon purchase and then again when the cheque is cashed.
It is important to warn clients to warn to countersign the cheques as this is used as a
method of identification. A second form of identification, normally a passport is required
before a bank or money exchange bureau will cash cheques.
(c) Credit cards

Using a credit card can limit or even remove the need to carry traveler’s cheques. Not
only can one pay for many goods and services by card, but they can also be used to get
cash advances at most banks and large hotels.
Automated teller machines (ATM) are more and more common in cities and are
accessible 24 hours a day. Credit cards are safe and fees are often cheaper than using
traveler’s cheques. Travelers should not rely solely on credit cards as acceptability can
vary depending on how fast the credit card company is paying its bills. Travelers are best
advised to take another form of payment as a backup.
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(d) International transfers
If one needs money to be sent from home, nominate a large bank in a major city to
receive the funds. Avoid out-of the way branches, as they will be less efficient in
handling overseas transactions. A fee will be charged by a sending bank.
Telex, telegraphic or cable transfer is recommended. Avoid sending money by mail. One
will need to allow a period from several days to several weeks for the transfer to come
through. Check with the sending banks about the time required. Sometimes, for an
additional fee, funds can be transferred on the same day. One can also transfer money
through American Express or Thomas Cook.
8.6 Summary
 TIM lists only those taxes that are collected from passengers at airports, and not those
that are collected by travel agents upon sale of a ticket.
 Three letter currency codes for cities/airports and airlines are internationally
recognized and used throughout the air transport and travel industries.
 Up-to-date travel guidebooks provide a very good source of practical information for
travel agents.
 Travelers should known that some travel insurance policies limit the amount of
coverage for loss of cash and others do not cover loss at all.
 Carrying a small amount of local currency is always useful and sometimes essential
to pay for local transport, food and drink and entrance fees.
 Traveler’s cheques can be replaced if lost. Travelers must keep a record of individual
cheque numbers and the date and place where cheques have been cashed.
 Traveler’s cheques will only be accepted if the holder is in possession of a passport or
other form of identification.
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1. Identify and explain taxes levied on the international traveler.
2. Explain custom duty and regulations
3. Evaluate and explain the various forms of payment available to travelers.
4. Describe a travel agent’s responsibility relating to information on taxes,
customs, and currency.
8.8 Further Reading

242.
Management. Vol 13, No 2: 34-147.
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9.0 LESSON NINE:
THE FIVE A’S ESSENTIALS TO A SUCCESSFUL
DESTINATION, BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS AND
COMMERCIAL SKILLS
9.1 Introduction
Destinations can only succeed in attracting visitors if they have a good choice of ways to
get there, places to stay, and things to do. Many destinations are seeking to attract
investment in each of these 5 A categories to broaden the range of choices for the
visitors. That holds out yet another earning opportunity for agents. Operating a
professional and efficient travel agency requires a good mix of qualifications and skills.
Some are unchanged from the past, others are new and emerging. This means having a
vision, sufficient cash flow and well-trained staff as well as being up to date with
information technology and having access to market intelligence.
9.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By completing this lesson, you will be able to:
(a) Describe the five essential requirements of a successful destination

(b) Discuss the necessary infrastructure standards and services
(c) Explain the business requirements and commercial skills necessary for a travel
agency to operate efficiently.
9.3 MIX AND BALANCE

There has to be a good mix and balance between the 5 A’s that are essential to a
successful destination. These are:
 Accommodation
 Accessibility
 Activities
 Amenities
 Attractions.
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People like to do different things when they travel. They come from different
backgrounds, they have different likes and dislikes, and of course different budgets.
Some like active holidays; others just want to sit on a hotel balcony enjoying a good
view, drink, and read a book. Yet some may want to play games and do shopping.
A destination has to cater in some shape or form to all these needs. The following
provides a description of some of the new trends emerging in each of these essential 5
A’s:
9.3.1 Accommodation
Accommodation provides places for people to stay. Once confined to hotels,
accommodation now includes hostels, camper-vans, inns, and lodges. At many
destinations, you can even stay at people’s homes under new holiday programmes called
home-stays, designed to bring you into contact with the local people.
9.3.2 Accessibility
No destination can function well unless there is a means of getting there such as airline,
bus service, railway line, or port. Lack of adequate accessibility is frequently cited as one
the major impediments to tourism development and investment in a destination.
9.3.3 Activities
Having reached the destination, what do you then do? Enjoy a game of golf or casino?
Go scuba-diving? Take a jungle trek? A river cruise? Destinations are working harder
than ever to broaden their range of activities in order to get people to stay longer and
spend more in their localities. Again this means more competition and hence more
opportunities for agents to sell emerging products.
9.3.4 Amenities
The sampling of local fare is one of the top draws of a destination. Restaurants, designer
bars and shopping plazas always attract their fair share of visitors. Having an active night
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life for the night-owls adds to the appeal. Travel agents who are specialists in various
destinations have to ensure that they remain constantly updated on such amenities.
9.3.5 Attractions
What is there to see? Some like to go to the local museums or art galleries. Others prefer
the thrill of an amusement park. Such attractions are particularly appealing for families
with children, one of the fastest growing holiday segments.
If you are handling special events like business meetings or conferences, you will also
have to focus on the facilities offered by the various hotels or conference venues to
ensure that they are up to standard and meet your clients’ requirements.
9.4 INFRASTRUCTURE: ANOTHER CRITICAL REQUIREMENT

It is becoming critically important for destinations to ensure that their infrastructural
facilities are of high standards such as offering telecommunications services,
environmental management, health and sanitation, and perhaps most critical safety and
security.
The travel industry has seen many instances of destinations losing both business and their
long term reputation because they have failed to adequately meet these standards. Travel
agencies have now access to various means of updating themselves about infrastructural
conditions at destinations such as:
 Travel trade media

 Home government advisories
 International travel and tourism organizations, and
 Global environmental watchdog groups, among others.
9.5 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF SUCESSFUL BUSINESSES

The growing complexity of the travel industry has altered many of the business
requirements and commercial skills necessary for a travel agency to operate efficiently.
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Nowadays there is a greater need for a broad cross-section of management, marketing,
financial, and technological skills that were perhaps less important in the past.
It is critical to have a good mix and balance of the skills and requirements of the past and
the future as detailed here below:
9.5.1 A Vision
Assuming that you want to build a really good travel consultancy, you will need to
perfectly clear about where you are today and where you want to be 10 years hence. This
is where you will have to decide how best to harness and channel your skills,
background, and experience in creating an outstanding company.
9.5.2 Enough Money

Having a good vision is a good start, but suppliers will still ask you to “show me the
money.” Hence, perhaps the most important business requirement is to have sufficient
cash to support the volume of turn over. For example, in many countries airlines have to
be paid fortnightly or even weekly under the Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP). But if
you are handling a major commercial account which pays you only monthly, you will
need to have enough money to cover those weeks in between. You also need to pay fixed
costs such as staff salaries, rent, and other utilities for at least a year until you get enough
cash flow moving through your agency.
9.5.3 Financial Competence

In addition to having enough money, it is important to know how to manage it. You are
often dealing simultaneously with airlines, hotels, wholesalers, charge-card companies,
banks, corporate clients, and your own customers. Airfares are always going up and
down. Currencies are fluctuating globally and the travel industry is one of the first to feel
the results of global financial instability. Income from commissions and fees has to be
monitored. Of course, the need to keep costs down and know the basic principles of
accounting goes without saying.
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9.5.4 Well-trained Staff
The second most important requirement is to have a well-trained staff. Unlike the
manufacturing business, which is capital intensive, ours is a service business, which is
‘friendliness-intensive.’ Staff needs to be well-trained in all elements of the travel
process, from product knowledge to legal obligations. They should be able to sell a
holiday in a fun way, but with full awareness of the business side. As one of the
fundamental changes taking place in the travel agency community, is the shift from being
‘order-takers’ to ‘sale--generators,’ good training substantially helps productivity and
efficiency.
9.5.5 Staff Compensation

Naturally, you don’t want your trained staff to go off and join the competition. While this
can be a perennial problem, it can be minimized through a variety of bonus, incentive or
equity schemes that help staff develop a sense of ownership in the agency.
9.5.6 A Good Understanding of Information Technology Trends and Issues

Nowadays, this is becoming imperative. The travel business would cease to exist without
the technology that drives it. The market place is awash with various offers by computer
vendors and suppliers of hardware and software, all claiming to solve everyone’s
problems forever. Many takers find out later that not all the promises made by the IT
product salespeople materialize.
9.5.7 A Smooth Internal Organization

Lax administrative structures, reporting systems and chains of command can disrupt the
functioning of even a small agency. Everyone must know who is doing what. Good
teamwork minimizes internal politics and maximizes morale. In a highly competitive
environment, it is not the biggest team that wins but the most efficient. Keeping a good
back office has tremendous financial advantages:
 It ensures smooth billing and collection processes

 Allows the financial data to be ‘mined’ more effectively.
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This helps you better service you major customers while thinking of ways to provide new
services to some of the less productive ones.
9.5.8 Good Negotiating Skills

This is another critical requirement to enhance the Unique Selling Proposition of your
agency. You have to be able to secure the best products at the best prices. You will also
have to negotiate with staff and sometimes with lawyers and complaining customers.
This will also involve good interpersonal skills.
9.5.9 Market Information and Intelligence

Although this is not strictly a ‘business requirement,’ you must keep abreast of a rapidly
changing world so that you are aware of changes in company ownership, senior
management positions, upcoming laws and regulations, and many other issues affecting
your business environment, principals, and suppliers. Being forewarned is being
forearmed. This will require you not just to read the travel trade papers but also to get
involved in industry associations and regularly attend travel trade shows and conferences.
9.5.10 A Balanced Product Mix

Never put your eggs in one basket. Even if you specialize make sure that your product
range is diversified enough for you to make ends meet for long enough, should anything
happen to affect any one sector of your markets. For example, in the early 1990s, many
travel agents had become specialists in selling Southeast Asian destinations and were
badly hit when some of those destinations suffered domestic political crises and
environmental problems.
9.5.11 Creativity
Last but not least, creativity is fundamental to keeping you ahead of the game. This
ranges from creativity in coming up with business solutions to knowing when to apply
that little extra touch that wins you a new account. It involves being creative in the
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packaging of your products as well as creative in the way you decorate and design your
travel agency.
9.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt that:
 There has to a good mix and balance between the basic 5 A’s that are essential to a
successful destination. These are accommodation, accessibility, activities, amenities,
and attractions.
 Lack of adequate accessibility is frequently cited as one of the major impediments to
tourism development and investment in a destination.
 Destinations are working harder than ever to broaden their range of activities in order
to get people to stay longer and spend more time in their localities.
 The travel industry has seen many instances of destinations losing both business and
their long-term reputation because they have failed to adequately provide high
standards of infrastructural services and facilities.
 Nowadays there is a greater need for a broad cross-section of management,
marketing, financial and technological skills that were perhaps less important in the
1980s.
 Perhaps the most important business requirement is to have sufficient cash to support
the volume of turnover
 The second most important business requirement is to have well-trained staff. Unlike
the manufacturing business, which is capital-intensive, ours is a service business,
which is friendliness-intensive.
 A good understanding of information technology trends and issues is becoming
imperative. The travel business would cease to exist without the technology that
drives it.
 In a highly competitive environment, it is not the biggest team that wins, but the most
efficient.
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1. Describe the components that make a good holiday destination

2. What are the 5A’s that are essential to a successful destination?
3. Describe the business requirements and commercial skills necessary for a travel
agency to operate efficiently.
9.8 Further Reading

Bogdanovych, A. Berger, H. Simoff, S. and Sierra, C (2004): E-Commerce Environments
242.
Bogdanovych, A. Berger, H. Simoff, S. and Sierra, C (2006): Travel Agents vs. Online
Britton, R (1978): The Image of the Third World in Tourism Marketing. Annals of
Analysis. w of Economics and Statistics, vol. 55(1), MIT Press: 64-72.
79
10.0 LESSON TEN:
CHARACTERISTICS, ATTRIBUTES AND SKILLS
10.1 Introduction
Due to its highly service-oriented nature, tourism and travel industry requires those who
work in it to have a broader variety of ‘high-touch’ or interpersonal and high technical
skills than other professionals. This means being efficient and courteous, patient and
resourceful. It also means being creative and having some ‘finer points’ that can make a
lot of difference in distinguishing you from others.

(a)Describe the desirable characteristics of travel agents
(b) Describe the qualifications of a travel agent
(c) Explain how to become a successful travel agent.
10.3 Desirable Characteristics

In the changing world of travel and tourism industry, a combination of high-touch and
high-tech skills are necessary. The list of desirable characteristics is perhaps longer the
list of business and commercial skills needed by the agency itself. Indeed, it is the skills
of the agent that makes the company.
It is important to note customers come to the travel agency to get advice on where to go
and what to do. They want their travel plans booked and confirmed. Invariably, they want
the best price. Often, they will chop and change their itineraries. They want all this done
professionally, thoroughly and politely.
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To be able to deliver that service and clinch that sale then becomes your most important
function. In order to do that, you will need:
 Creativity: Look at the customer, analyze his or her needs, ask proper questions and
then make creative suggestions. Do not forget that person has come to you for
something that he or she could not find by herself on the Internet or elsewhere.
 A love for the job: Are you enjoying what you are doing? You should be. If not, it is
time to look for another job.
 Communication and presentation skills: ability to present information and about your
product in a persuasive, courteous and pleasant manner.
 Service-mindedness: Never forget that what people are buying from you is something
they have worked very hard to save up for. Some may be first-time travelers. Others
may be veterans. Either way, they expect you to provide that service. The one thing
that the Internet cannot provide is the emotional link of eye contact, a pleasant smile,
and a warm handshake.
 Resourcefulness: Clients often ask difficult questions, and are certainly going to shop
around. If you do not have the information they want, you need to know where and
how to get it.
 Patience: Even after doing your best, you may lose the business. No one can win all
the time. You must be able to put these losses behind you and look forward to the
next challenge.
 A cool head: Handling customer complaints is becoming an art itself. Cooling down
irate clients, talking them through their problem and solving it, is becoming a skill
worth its weight in gold. If you have a background or interest in psychology, this
could well be a good field to specialize in.
10.4 Qualifications
The following are major qualifications for a travel agent working in the travel and
tourism industry:
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(a) Multi-cultural Background: It is assumed that whoever is working in this industry
have been exposed to different cultures in their young days such as in school or
university, which is a major asset.
(b) Language skills: The importance of this will rise significantly in the next few years. If
everyone speaks some English in a global world, your Unique Selling Proposition
will lie in your ability to communicate with people of different t cultures and also in
their own language.
(c) Good Organizational Skills: The complexity of travel and tourism industry requires a
human touch to simplify and sort out. Being able to organize well is a major asset in
terms of increased productivity and low wastage of time and money.
(d) Professional Integrity and Ethics: True in any profession, but especially in travel,
which has its fair share of swindle and scandals. Customers are buying a product they
have neither seen nor experienced. Are you offering them the best option?
(e) Team Spirit: No company can survive without it. We are all parts of a much bigger
machine. If the parts do not do the job they are designed and programmed to do, the
machine stops functioning. It is as simple as that.
(f) Good knowledge of Geography: Where are the Wasini Islands? Which is the tallest
mountain in Kenya and where is it located? Where is Maasai Mara? Do you know the
seventh wonder of Nature? Where is it located in Kenya? Even if you did not study
them in school or university or any college, there is no shortage of tools to help you
with geography, from CD-ROM atlases to travel guidebooks, magazines and TV
programmes. Of course, there is Internet too.
(g) Finance, Accounting and Managerial Skills: Imperative if you want to move the
corporate ladder. To rise through the ranks, you need to be good at strategic planning
and deal-making. Your persuasive skills have to be next to none.
10.5 The Finer Points

While skills and qualifications are important to build a successful career or a profitable
business, the real edge lies in creativity and resourcefulness. Getting started is important
to achieve success. Knowing how and when to do it can be equally critical.
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Here are a few tips, which are in line with the changes taking place in the industry at
large:
 Know your customer by answering these basic questions:
o What does this customer or client want from me?

o How can help him/her get it?
Knowing your customer has many advantages because it helps you understand to whom
to sell, what to sell them, and when best to sell to them. You when people travel, where
they went last time and where they might be interested in going next.
 Know your product: If you know what you are selling, you can generally find
someone to sell it to. Let’s say you decide to specialize in mountain-climbing
holidays. If you present yourself as a leading authority on this and are quoted in the
media interviews, look at the free publicity you generate for yourself each time the
issue is covered in the media.
 Focus on time and money factor: In an era when time is money, saving someone
time can mean money. Saving a lot of people a lot time can mean a lot of money. Can
you provide your customers with products that can get them the best possible value
for money in relation to the time they have available?
 Balance your business: Do not over-expose yourself to any one market segment,
supplier or country. Establish a good mix of each. This will protect you against
unforeseen problems that could affect any one of them.
 Stockpile an inventory of little touches: look after your customers with as much
care as you give to your family. Sent a bunch of flowers on birthdays, a greeting card,
and a bottle of wine. One agent is reported to have offered to take care of a family
dog while the family was away on holidays. If you know your customers well, there
is no shortage of little touches you can impress them with.
 Focus on the advice factor: If you are going to ask customers to pay for advice in
future, you will need to make sure that your advice is will be the best money can buy.
83
Make sure you are fully up-dated, from changes in visa regulations to the best way to
get more frequent flyer points.
 Think Small: Being big does not necessarily mean being successful. Small
companies can be relatively more successful, that is, they can make more money from
handling fewer people. Running small companies also allows you to provide better
customer service.
10.6 Summary
In this lesson you have learnt:
 The characteristics, attributes, and skills of successful travel agents needs, which
include creativity, a love for the job, communication and presentation skills, service-
mindedness, resourcefulness, patience, and a cool head.
 In the changing world of travel and tourism industry, a combination of high-touch and
high-tech skills are necessary to work productively and efficiently in the industry.
 Never forget that what people are buying from you is something they have worked
very hard to save up for
 If you have been exposed to different cultures in your young days such as in schools,
university or college always helps. It further enlivens the process.
 It takes more than skills and qualifications to build a successful career of a profitable
business. It takes creativity and savvy. Getting started in important, but knowing how
and when to it can be equally critical to success.
1. Customers come to an agency only to look for the best price. Discuss.
2. Explain how one’s ability to speak several languages and being comfortable with
different cultures can significantly affect your business.
3. Describe the attributes and characteristics of a successful travel agent.
10.8 Activities
Go to a local airport and position yourself near the check-in counter of a departing flight:
 Observe the procedures followed by staff as they deal with different kinds of
passengers. You will, for example, see people with overweight baggage trying to
84
convince the staff to reduce or waiver the excess baggage payment; passengers
catching connecting flights inquiring about what could happen in case of delays;
people without visas for the country they are going to.
 Jot down a check list of the various problems you see. Importantly, see how the
check-in staff handled the problems.
 Do this several times, selecting different airlines each time.

Bogdanovych, A. Berger, H. Simoff, S. and Sierra, C (2004): E-Commerce Environments
242.
Britton, R (1978): The Image of the Third World in Tourism Marketing. Annals of
85
11. 0 LESSON ELEVEN:
THE ROLE OF THE TRAVEL AGENT IN THE
TRAVEL AND TOURISM BUSINESS
11.1 Introduction
Change brings both opportunities and challenges. In spite of claims that travel agents are
going to be bypassed, a huge number of opportunities are emerging that will require the
management and organizational skills of a professional travel consultant. Most
significantly, hundreds of companies out there are more than eager and willing to work
with the agents in selling their products, which are among the most perishable
commodities on the planet.

(a) Explain how selling travel is an art and science
(b) Describe the growth potential of the travel industry
(c) Describe how the travel industry has changed
(d) Distinguish between specialist and generalist travel agents
(e) Describe the downside of the travel industry
(f) Describe the core business of the travel industry.
11.3 The Profession

There are few professions in the world today as exciting as selling travel. According to
IATA (2001) travel is an adventure, an education, and an experience all rolled in one. It
is a continuous learning curve. It is both a science and an art. An art in terms of the places
they sell and the richness of the cultures that we enjoy. It is a science in terms of
managing the business side of it.
Travel agency is not supposed to be a boring, stereotypical job in which you sell the same
product every day. It is a sophisticated, specialized business that requires travel agents to
86
master everything from knowledge to selling skills to the complexities of distribution
systems, which of course, include knowledge on the demographics of the local
communities. The beauty of change today is that a travel agent or consultant can work not
only in travel agencies, but also in a number of companies, organizations, societies,
educational institutions, or anyone else who requires the help of a professional travel
manager.
11.4 The Significance of the World’s largest Growth Industry

Tourism is the world’s largest growth industry with no signs of slowing down in this
twenty-first century. According to WTO receipts from international tourism have
increased by an average of 9% annually for the past twenty-five years. It is the largest
world’s export earner and an important factor in the balance of payments of many
countries. The growth of the tourism industry contributes to the economy in the following
areas:
(a) Jobs
Travel and tourism industry employ an estimated 100 million people worldwide. The vast
majority of these jobs are in small and medium sized, family-owned enterprises. Research
shows that job creation in tourism is growing one-and-half times faster than any other
industrial sector.
Tourism jobs and businesses are usually created in the most underdeveloped regions of a
country, helping to equalize economic opportunities throughout a nation, and providing
an incentive for the local population to remain in rural areas rather than move to
overcrowded cities.
(b) Infrastructure
Travel and tourism stimulates enormous investments in new infrastructure, most of which
help to improve the living conditions of local residents as well as tourist. Tourism
development projects often include airports, roads, marinas, sewage systems, water
treatment plants restoration of cultural monuments, museums, and nature centers.
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(c) Tax Revenue
The tourism industry provides governments with hundreds of millions of dollars in tax
revenues each year through accommodation and restaurant taxes, airport user’s fees, sales
taxes, park entrance fees, employee income tax, and many other fiscal measures.
11.5 What is it that really changed?

In the past, when the travel industry was not as big as it is today, the systems and
processes that controlled it were relatively simple. The agents acted as the distribution
points for the airlines, hotels, and suppliers in the industry who did not have the money to
set up sales outlets at every street corner.
The agent sold seats and rooms to the travelers. In return for the agent’s investment in
staff, office space, phone, and telex systems, he was paid a commission, which was
usually 9% of the cost of the ticket or 10% of the cost of the hotel room. This was simple
and straightforward business.
However, times have changed with the arrival of Internet. Everything is gone global.
New marketing alliances emerged. Database management became relatively easier. In
turn, product suppliers decided they could find other ways of selling their products
directly to consumers. The airlines began by re-thinking their commission payment
schemes. Hotels have not yet followed suit. Most of them are already offering net rates
(free of commissions) to the major travel agency groups.
There are more than million travel agents worldwide. In many parts of the world, they
still command influence in the travel decision process. Thus for every company seeking
to exclude travel agents, there are others waiting to use their services. For example:
 The Marriot is one of the few hotel groups that publicly announce the volume of
commissions it pays to travel agents that has been going up every year.
 Small luxury hotels of the world says that travel agents helped boost its central
reservations
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 In the 1999, Radisson-SAS Hotels launched a global scheme to persuade agents to
sell meetings at its hotels at commissionable rates
 Some cruise lines say repeatedly and emphatically they have no intention of selling
their products direct to consumers and instead are coming up with new training
programmes designed to persuade travel agents to sell cruse instead of land-based
tours.
However, they have to learn to generate sales not just to take orders. They have to be able
to find the product best suited to the client’s needs and see how best to reshape and re-
mould it accordingly. That is what is keeping everyone happy: the customer, the product
supplier, and you, the professional travel consultant.
11.6 Specialist and Not Generalist

A major change taking place is that the age of the generalist is being succeeded by the
age of the specialist. Agents now have an opportunity to sell health holidays, gourmet
coking tours, sports events, exotic railway journeys, adventure travel as well as whale and
bird-watching tours. There is no shortage of things that one can become an expert on
ecotourism, museums, art, culture, religious sites, national parks and others that make the
travel industry great. There will always be people doing wonderful things in the world,
and they will want to do two things:
 Show them off in order to have them appreciated by the maximum number of
people possible, and
 Make money.
If you, the travel agent can bring more people to those creative places and help the
investors make money, you have every right to make money too, for helping both the
visitors and the investors.
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11.7 What is it being sold?
The simple fact is that competition among travel industry suppliers is at all-time high,
and it is increasing everyday. Thousands of hotel rooms are opening somewhere
everyday. Thousands of airline seats, hotel beds, cruise berths, and tour coach seats are
all waiting to be sold, day after day. The travel industry sells the world’s most perishable
products. An unsold seat or room is revenue lost forever.
The job of the travel agent is therefore to sell those seats, berths, and beds, and get paid
for it on a commission basis.
There is another major advantage of telecommunications of using the Internet or Intranet,

if you are part of a large travel agency chain. Travel agents are now working from their
homes since technology has become a good friend for travel agents.
11.8 The Downside of Business

However, it is important to recognize that the industry is becoming more complex.
Customers and travel industry companies are getting very demanding. Expectations are
rising as never before. Everyone wants the highest quality, the highest standards, and the
highest professionalism at the lowest cost.
Products are becoming complex too. Just keeping track of frequent-flyer points, shifts in
airline alliances, and the different offers from hotel groups can make the job of the agent
very difficult. Computer Reservation Systems (CRS) codes, visa regulations, fair
construction details, and terms and conditions (the fine print) attached to every product
add more complexities. Consumer protection rights mean that the threat of legal action is
omnipresent. Customers are not loyal. With various suppliers to choose from, and
constantly looking to try different things, they frequent change agencies if they can find
one that gives them a lower price.
It is mistakenly claimed that the only reason why customers go through travel
agencies today is to have someone to blame and sue for compensation should
something go wrong on their holiday (IATA, 2001).
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Things can and do go wrong. Most of them are out of the agent’s control. Weather
conditions delay flights or security considerations require re-routing of a tour itinerary.
Though these problems seldom occur, sorting them out for demanding customers can
lead to an inordinate waste of time, money, and resources for small and medium-sized
travel agencies.
It is during such times that you really need to be in love with your job and the many
wonderful opportunities if offers. You need to keep things in perspective and not to let a
few negatives outweigh the many more positives.
On the business side, the financial pressures of being a small or medium-sized agent can
be heavy. Many such agents unable to manage the pace of change and unable to compete
are selling out to large global chains, which are themselves consolidating in order to
improve their negotiating power with airline alliances and global hotel chains. This is
affecting the medium-sized agencies most. The giant agency groups have an advantage
that they can negotiate the best price and compete amongst themselves for market share
and volume, based largely on price and diversity of product. However, the small agents
continue to do business with a select clientele that like personalized services and do not
mind paying for it.
Regardless of the changes taking place, the core business remains the same: selling
destinations and experiences along with the means of getting to those destinations, that is,
a place to stay and things to do. This is supported by the travel agent’s major advantage:
being certified and governed by various laws and regulations that require them to do
business in the highest professional manner. These laws do not always apply when
consumers choose to make direct bookings over the Internet. However, that is their
choice. As long as the agents can provide the highest standards of service and the best
possible products supported by some plain, old-fashioned friendliness and value-added
‘little touches,’ they should be able to retain their customers.
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11.9 Summary
In this lesson, we have learnt that:
 Selling travel is both a science and an art. An art in terms of the places we sell and the
richness of the cultures that we enjoy, and a science in terms of managing the
business side of it.
 Working in a travel agency is not a boring, stereotypical job in which you sell the
same product day after day. It is becoming an increasingly sophisticated, specialized
business that requires mastery of everything from product knowledge to selling skills
to the complexities of distribution systems.
 Tourism is the world’s largest growing industry with no signs of slowing down in the
first century.
 News of the death of travel agent has been greatly exaggerated. What is dying is the
way the travel agents do business, not the agents themselves.
 For every company seeking to exclude travel agents there are others waiting to use
their services.
 A major change taking place is that the age of the generalist is being replaced by the
age of the specialist. Agents now have an opportunity to sell health holidays, culinary
tours, sports events, exotic railway journeys, adventure travel as well as whale and
bird-watching tours.
 The breadth, depth and continuing growth of the industry means that there are
opportunities for everyone, provided they are willing to raise standards, develop
expertise and work hard.
1. Explain how selling travel is both an art and science

2. Distinguish between a generalist and specialist in travel agency businesses.
3. What are the core businesses of a travel agency?

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12.0 LESSON TWELVE:
TOURISM SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
12.1 Introduction
This lesson examines the socioeconomic impacts and tourism industry. It provides an
opportunity to understand what can be done to make the most of the positive impacts,
while at the same time reducing the negative effects. This lesson is written in two
sections. First it looks at the positive impacts of tourism and this is followed with a
description of negative impacts.

(a) Describe the social impacts of tourism
(b) Explain the economic effects of tourism
12.3 Tourism Impacts on the Society and Economies

Tourism has a dramatic impact on the people who live in area, sometimes known as the
host community and the way they live their lives. For example, a tourist attraction may
give local people more facilities to enjoy. It would also give local people the opportunity
to mix with a variety of people from different parts of the country and world. At the same
time these facilities can create traffic congestion and extra noise.
But first of all let us examine the positive impacts, which tourism has on people.
12.3.1 Positive Impacts

(a) Generating income
Tourists who are drawn to an area by an attraction will spend money on accommodation,
food and drink, entertainment, travel, gifts and souvenirs. This spending on goods and
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services will benefit businesses in which the money has been spent. The additional
revenue allows the employment of people who will in turn themselves have money to
spend locally.
The contribution of tourism to a local area is often greater than is at first apparent. This is
because of the multiplier effect. This suggests that money spent on goods and services
helps to boost the local economy because a proportion of the money originally spent then
circulates among other local businesses. The money generated multiplies because of all
the local people who themselves have money have more money to spend on goods and
services.
Local councils also benefit from tourism in that tourists spend their money in council
operated facilities such as leisure centers, museums and car parks.
(b) Employment
The creation of income from tourism is closely bound up with employment. According to
Hayward (2000) almost one in every fourteen people in the world is employed either by
the tourist industry or as a result of the tourist industry. The multiplier effect on
employment is similar to that on income. When tourists visit an attraction, jobs are
created directly. These jobs support families who in turn require their own goods, which
give rise to indirect employment in the area for shops, pubs, leisure centers and clubs,
among others.
Thus, travel and tourism acts as an economic catalyst because:
 Job creation, which is more rapid than any other industry

 Multiplier effect, which constitute a range of other activities stimulated by the
industry
 New business formation, encouraging small and medium sized businesses, which in
turn help to generate service and entrepreneurial skills.
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 Service stimulus, which may include the likes of insurance, financial services and
communications and thus creating further jobs and training opportunities.
(c) Promoting a positive image of an area
Tourists travel to destinations in order to see the man-made and natural attractions of the
area. When these attractions are kept in good condition, they create positive images for
the area and ensure that people continue to go to the attractions. This is normally good
since it promotes a sense of pride and can increase the popularity of the area.
(d) Regenerating derelict sites

Many tourist attractions and facilities are built on derelict sites, thus putting waste land to
good use.
(e) Better Quality of Life

Some of the beneficial effects of tourism on people can include greater opportunities for
local people, especially those who transfer employment from agriculture to the service
industry. This may give people higher wages and better job prospects. It can also give
both the host and tourists a broader outlook, which could result in less prejudice towards
different cultures.
Tourists themselves can be altered by their holidays. They may change their views of
other cultures and develop respect for the culture and tradition of other people. They may
feel a need to conserve and promote the culture of the area they visit. Tourists may return
home and influence friends and relatives with new views and opinions.
(f) More Tourism Facilities for Local People

Tourism can create wealth in an area. This wealth can help provide facilities such as
theaters, village halls, etc. for local people. These facilities provided initially for the
enjoyment of tourists give local people the chance to improve their quality of life and
take part in community activities for the benefit of everyone.
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Other facilities enhance the scope for recreation for local people. Moreover, if it were not
for tourism that provides financial support such facilities would not exist. Many local
businesses would not survive without the tourist population and the money brought in
from outside. Without tourism some areas would certainly be poorer. Therefore the
existence of shops and other businesses supported by tourism helps to keep communities
a live and active.
Public transport could be badly affected without the boost in population brought about by
tourists. It could lead to a reduction in the frequency or the number of bus or train
services. It could also reduce the viability of taxi businesses in communities if there is
less demand for the taxis. The loss of or reduction in transport services would cause some
severe hardship, especially for rural communities.
Businesses whose survival is aided by such tourist population increases include retail
shops, accommodation (hotels, guest houses), catering (cafes, restaurants, public houses),
and entertainment (cinemas and theaters).
(g) Health and Fitness Opportunities

Tourism can offer local people a better quality of life. It can provide greater opportunities
to improve their health and fitness if they are able to use the facilities developed for
tourists. Nowadays many people are taking more interest in leading a healthy lifestyle,
possibly because exercise and a sensible diet can help to relieve stress, reduce weight and
increase fitness. For example, the development of public sector leisure centers and private
health clubs, brought about by the demand for a healthier lifestyle, has meant there are
now more health and fitness opportunities than ever before. People of all ages can enjoy
such activities as aerobics, fitness training and jogging.
Health tourism originated in the belief in the curative power of climate, mineral springs,
and other environmental conditions. The therapeutic value of mountain air, mineral water
and sunshine led to the emergence of spas in different parts of Europe. Wall and
Mathesion (1995) point out that tourism and health are linked in three ways:
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 The betterment of health is a common motive for travel;
 The standards of public health in destination areas contribute to the quality of the
tourist product;
 Disease may be contracted by tourists in one place and transferred to other
destinations or their home.
One of the most ancient links between travel and health is the taking of waters at mineral
and hot springs. Health tourism as defined by IUOTO (1973) is the provision of health
facilities utilizing the natural resources of the country, in particular mineral water and
climate. Many other health establishments and rest homes with minimal dependence upon
natural resources such as health farms should added to this definition.
Tourists like any other travelers crossing an international border have a duty to conform
to the health formalities in force but at the same time can be expected to be protected
against risks during their stay. The interests of the tourists and the destination area are
served by the provision of high quality health facilities. As Richard (1973) pointed out
that people go on holiday above all for a change to indulge in sports in a different climate
and to enjoy local amenities but no matter how excellent the amenities provided, tourists
attach the utmost importance to their health and comfort.
Tourism can also contribute to the maintenance and improvement of public health
facilities in destination areas because it provides additional sources of revenue which can
be invested in their upgrading. However, tourism also induces pollution which may be
conducive to the development of disease. Thus, paradoxically tourism can aid in the
improvement of public health facilities in destination areas and at the same time lead to
deterioration in standards of health.
(h) The chance to meet new people

For many people going away on holiday is an opportunity to make new friends. Likewise
if one joins a local leisure center and uses it on a regular basis, it becomes possible to
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meet with people who will become friends. The leisure and tourism industry is people-
based. Working in these centers can lead to friendships with colleagues and the public.
(i) Better community spirit
Facilities like village halls and community centers provide a focal point where people can
meet. They are usually run by volunteers for the benefit of the local community. A
community spirit can be built up if volunteers work together to organize activities for the
local community such as playgroups, yoga, flower arranging or bridge. Not only do these
facilities encourage socializing they can also provide a place where people have the
chance to learn a new hobby, like photography, still life painting, or a sport like table
tennis.
12.3.2 Negative Impacts

Tourism may bring prosperity to area, but it may also cause radical changes to
socioeconomic landscape. Such changes are not confined to any one country but spread
across the world. Whenever tourism has made a significant contribution to the society,
there is also some alteration in response to the influx of visitors.
(a) Higher Prices for goods, services and houses

The prices for goods and services in tourist areas are often increased during peak season
in order to gain maximum tourist income. This is a big disadvantage for local people,
especially those trying to buy their own homes. Secondly, holiday cottages are used for
only a small proportion of the year, for example, weekenders. This can make the property
much more expensive and put it out of reach for locals, especially first-time buyers.
(b) More local taxes

Extra charges may be levied on the local community in order to finance facilities and
services that are for tourists. Local people may have to pay for facilities like tourist
information centers, brochures, and leaflets which are mainly for tourists through their
council tax.
(c) The Demonstration Effect
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This is an all-embracing concept, which means an introduction of foreign ideologies and
ways of life into societies that have not been exposed to tourist lifestyles. The
demonstration effect can be advantageous if it encourages people to adapt or work for
things they lack. However, the effects of foreign domination of the industry and the
impacts of tourists who parade symbols of their affluence to interested hosts are
detrimental. According to UNESCO (1976) at the outset, hosts may develop an inferiority
complex, which sets off a process of imitation. The weaknesses of the tourists are quickly
perceived and subsequently exploited. A dual pricing system often develops and
bargaining may be required for the purchase of goods and services in order to balance
these tendencies of merchants exploiting the ignorance.
The secondary implications of the demonstration effect on employment and migration

contribute to modifications in the internal structure of host communities. This may occur
through:
 Changes in the roles of women

 Changes in community cohesion
 Changes in demographic structure
 Changes in institutional structures and membership
(d) Neo-colonialism
This is a view that tourism is a new form of colonialism and imperialism. According to
some writers the growth of tourism in these destinations has been only a change in the
form and magnitude of travel without a major alteration in its colonial quality. Although
the legal ties between the metropolitan powers and tourist destinations changed as many
developing countries received independence, the economic relationships between them
have remained essentially the same. This condition has prompted the charge that tourism
is a neo-colonial activity.
Three economic conditions substantiate this claim:
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 Many developing countries have grown to depend upon tourism as a means of
securing revenue. However, their success depends in part on their willingness to
accommodate fully the needs of tourists. The West Indies, for example, waived taxes
and import restrictions, developed appropriate infrastructures and relaxed
environmental safeguards in an attempt to encourage the development of the tourist
industry. In other words, their political and economic priorities and organization have
been directed towards the satisfaction of the demands of tourists.
 The development of tourism may be accompanied by one way transfer of wealth from
the destination area to points of tourist generation. It has been shown that there is a
high leakage, which leaves very little profit in the destination area. This is because a
large proportion of the goods and services which are consumed by the tourists are
imported from the place of tourists’ origin, and thus most of the profits are transferred
to these points.
 Employment of non-locals in professional and managerial positions and the frequent
existence of foreign, absentee employers have also provoked charges of neo-
colonialism. These features also contribute to high leakages through the remittances
of salaries and profits to the tourist generating countries. According to Bugnicourt
(1977) these situations especially for African tourism can be described as ‘tourism
with no return.’
(e) Prostitution
Prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession, which formed part of the ancient
society as travel. It certainly existed prior to the growth of mass tourism. According to
Wall et al (1995) one might expect one or more of the following hypotheses to explain
increases in prostitution in tourist resorts:
 The processes of tourism have created locations and environments which attract
prostitutes and their clients;
 By its very nature, tourism means that people are away from the puritanical bonds of
normal living, anonymity is assured away from home, and money is available for
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hedonistic spending. These circumstances are conducive to the survival and
expansion of prostitution.
 As tourism affords employment for women, it may upgrade their economic status.
This in turn, may lead to their liberalization and eventually to their involvement in
prostitution to maintain or acquire new economic levels.
 Tourism may be used as a scapegoat for a general loosening of morals.
Advertising which exploits the four Ss of tourism – sea, sun, sand and sex through the use
of erotic pictures and saucy slogans has created images for some destinations as havens
for sexual enjoyment. The alleged permissiveness and promiscuity of the inhabitants has
even become a selling point. Attitudes of residents, for example, the Seychelles towards
sexuality have been called ‘happily amoral.’ These attitudes coupled with the aspirations
of local women for western economic status, form a foundation for the proliferation of
prostitution. Unfortunately the Seychelles has one of the highest rates of venereal
diseases in the world.
(f) Crime
Crime in holiday resorts can increase if local residents see tourists as wealthy targets. In
places where the local population may be poor, the only benefit of tourism for them has
nothing to do with job creation and wealth but is an opportunity to gain from tourists
illegally.
On the other hand, it is sometimes tourists who are responsible for increased crime rates.
This may be, for example, as a result of destructive behavior, usually associated with too
much alcohol and other drugs. According to Lin and Loeb (1977) the following three
factors are critical in influencing relationships between tourism and crime:
 The population density during the tourist season

 The location of the resort in relation to an international border
 The per capita incomes of hosts and tourists, with large differences between them
tend to encourage robbery.
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In summary tourism contributes to an increase in crime, especially on a seasonal basis. It
does this through the generation of friction between the host population and tourists,
which may be manifest in criminal activities. In addition, the target for criminals is
expanded and situations are created where gains from crime may be high and the
likelihood of detection is small. The effects of crime on host community appear to be:
 Increased expenditure on law enforcement during tourist season

 Monetary losses from burglary and larceny, property damage from vandalism,
commercial embezzlement, tax dodging, and the growth of black markets,
 Heightened tension
 The visible presence of the law in increased foot patrols and traffic controls may lead
to false sense of security.
(g) Gambling
Gambling like prostitution is not endemic to tourism. However, it has been largely
responsible for the fame and notoriety of many tourist destinations such as Monte Carlo,
and Les Vegas. In spite of the concern on the part of local police and church groups that
gambling would attract organized crime, prostitution and violence, casinos are legalized
in the hope that they would:
 Generate tourist activity

 Generate local employment and economic activity
 Increase the income of the city by expanding its tax base.
The increasing interest in the use of casino gambling as a means of reviving resorts has
been associated with growing concern for the problems that follow. According to Pizam
(1978) because of its side effects gambling was perceived as one of the most undesirable
consequences of tourism by residents of Cape Cod.
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(h) Religion
Religion has been a powerful force which has long caused people to travel to religious
centers in many parts of the world. Travel to the ancient cities of Palestine and
Christendom, Mecca, Medina and Bangkok is not new. According to Ritter (1975)
pilgrimages by the Persian Shiites to their sacred death-place at Kadhimain in Iraq, by the
Jews to Jerusalem and by the Sunnis to Medina can be described as ‘tourism of the
dead,’ a form of travel which is little known in the western world.
Although tourists of Western Europe do not often travel for spiritual reasons to their
aspired burial place, they are often motivated to travel because of religious affiliations or
curiosity. The peak tourist periods in Jerusalem and Damascus during Easter and the time
of Passover are partly a result of the spiritual devotion of Western Christians. Rome or
more specifically the Vatican attracts Catholics from all parts of the world. The
cathedrals of England have become such popular tourist attractions that their fabrics are
threatened by pressures from visitors (English Tourist Board, 1979).
According to Wall and Mathesion (1995) relationships between tourism and religion have
changed from their traditional form. Holy places such as Jerusalem, Mecca and Medina
have become tourist destinations for visitors lacking a strong spiritual motivation. Anti-
western sentiments has increased in such places because of political factors and because
locals and devout pilgrims find that their living conditions and religious experiences have
been marred because of frequent photography, the proliferation of signs and rowdy
behavior. Thus, conflict is arising between locals, the religious devout tourist and the
curious visitor. There is concern that holy places are being developed for tourism and this
is detracting from the religious significance which has made them famous.
The church has exploited tourism for its own benefit. Tourism is being used as a source
of revenue. A collection box is often found at entrances and exists to cathedrals and
shrines, and souvenir booklets and postcards are frequently displayed for sale. In some
churches guided tours are conducted and donations are requested on leaving. This
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situation is not the prerogative of any one religion or culture: it is prevalent in the temples
of India as in the cathedrals of Britain.
(i) Language
White (1974) identified three ways in which tourism can lead to language change:
 Through economic change: the new jobs associated with expanding tourist
development are frequently not filled by local residents and immigrants are hired. A
shift towards the use of the immigrant’s language may occur as they exert pressure on
local residents to speak their language.
 Through the demonstration effect: tourists’ portrayal of their material and financial
background, and their attitudes and behavior, may introduce new viewpoints and
stimulate a broader interest in non-local affairs within the indigenous community.
Aspirations of achieving similar status on the part of hosts may prompt them to
replace their own language with that of the tourists.
 Through direct social contact: this involves direct communication between tourists
and hosts. Although it may occur under a variety of circumstances, workers in the
retail and service sectors may be required to converse in the tourists’ language, for the
latter may not be able to speak the local language.
12.4 Summary
The issues which have been examined in this lesson indicate that socioeconomic effects
of tourism have influence on the host communities and vice-versa. These impacts can be
positive and negative. However, the creation of a balance between the positive and
negative effects should be a challenge for the tourism industry and policy makers.
1. What are the positive economic impacts on a local area by the development of a
new tourist attraction?
2. Why does the price of goods rise in tourist areas?
3. Why is there an increase in crime during peak season at holiday destinations?
4. How can tourism offer people a better way of life?
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London.
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13.0 LESSON THIRTEEN:
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM
13.1 Introduction
This lesson is about the impact of tourism on environment. It deals with both positive and
negative effects which indicate that the environment of places has contributed to the birth
and progress of tourism as well as a wide range of negative effective the tourism industry
has on the environment.

By the of this lesson you should be able to:
(a) Describe the positive impacts of the tourism industry
(b) Explain the negative effects of the tourism industry
13.3 Tourism and Environment

13.3.1 Positive Impacts
It is difficult to determine the degree to which tourism has been the sole incentive for the
adoption and expansion of conservation measures. Some forms of conservation existed
before the advent of mass tourism. However there is evidence that tourism has been an
important stimulus to conservation in many countries, especially with the support of
UNESCO, the World Bank, and the World Tourism organization (WTO). As a result a
number of positive impacts of tourism on the environment have emerged. These include:
(a) Conservation and the preservation of natural areas, archaeological sites and
historical monuments have emerged as important spill-over benefits of tourism. In
turn, the protection of these prime tourist resources enhances and perpetuates tourism
by maintaining its very foundation. The tourist industry has as much interest in
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maintaining a quality environment as an organization specifically dedicated to that
cause.
(b) Wildlife and forest reserves have been established and large tracks of scenic land
have been preserved partially because of their ability to attract tourists. Conversely,
local tourist offices, tour companies and hotels complement their own facilities by
organizing guided hikes and camp trips along authorized trails. In this way tourists,
who on their own may have little interest or lack the means to engage in such
activities are able to enjoy viewing wildlife, vegetation and scenery.
(c) Tourism can also be credited with extending environmental appreciation. The
tourist industry has discovered, made known and rendered accessible specific regions
and aspects of nature. In Switzerland, for example, mountain vacation in winter was
relatively unknown until after the development of mountain railways and sports
resorts. Also the use of mineral springs of which Switzerland has many, has increased
over the past few decades of rapid tourist growth. Similar examples are found in
Canada with ‘ecotours’ into the Canadian tundra, an area not visited previously by
people other than scientists and hunters.
(d) In the absence of an attractive environment, there would be little tourism. Ranging
from the basic attractions of sun, sea, and sand to the undoubted appeal of historic
sites and structures, the environment is the foundation of the tourism industry.
Tourism if it is to be successful and sustained actually requires the protection of the
scenic and historical heritage of destination areas. The protection of such prime
attractions has come to be viewed as an investment as the economic potential of
tourism has become more widely recognized. This is also a compelling reason for
planning and development agencies to concern themselves with environmental issues.
Cohen (1978) concluded that such actions are more often than not politically
defensive since conservation and preservation measures can be presented to the
public as being economically necessary and not simply as a means of satisfying
tourist demands.
(e) Tourism can assist conservation more directly than by merely promoting its
initiation and continuation. Tourism provides both the incentive for conservation and
the economic means by which such measures can be carried out. According to Beck
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and Bryan (1971) many historic houses, villages, old churches and so on could not be
kept in a proper state of repairs without tourist money. This is because given a
reasonable influx of tourist money it is usually possible to keep the tourist nuisance at
an accepted level.
(f) Tourism has provided an impetus for the conservation of natural resources. The
establishment of national parks in Africa constitutes a good example of the ability of
tourism to stimulate conservation. Before Tanganyika now the Republic of Tanzania
received independence in 1961, it was predicted that African wildlife would be
destroyed once European control was relaxed. Not only have such fears been
unfounded, national parks in Tanzania and other parts of East Africa have increased
greatly in number and strength (Owen, 1969). Increasing recognition by East African
governments that tourism may contribute to foreign exchange earnings has stimulated
a corresponding realization of the need for the conservation of natural resources
which appeal to the tourists, particularly wildlife. For example, Lake Manyara
National Park at the floor of Great Rift Valley is a well-known haven for wildebeest,
water buck, giraffes, zebras, lions, leopards, and flocks of flamingos and pelicans
(Netboy, 1975). Thus tourism has fostered the protection of these diverse species as
they serve as major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.
(g) The establishment of parks requires additional justification to that of wildlife
preservation. Tourism development through the creation of parks, generates other
benefits as secondary effects of conservation. These include net gains in foreign
exchange, creation of employment within the park and in ancillary tourist services,
the fostering of demand for locally made products, and the hastening of
infrastructural construction. Such effects are justifications for the expansion of
African national park systems. Moreover it can be argued that the economic benefits
derived from the use of such areas for tourism far exceeds those which would be
yielded from agriculture. Netboy (1975) observed that Africa has an enormous
comparative advantage over the rest of the world in producing wildlife and can do it
on land unsuited to almost anything else.
(h) Finally, tourism has been responsible for the introduction of administrative and
planning controls, which have been adopted in order to maintain the quality of
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environment and to ensure the provision of satisfying experiences for visiting tourists.
Measures vary from site to site and from country to country depending on the
resilience of the protected area or attraction, the nature and intensity of tourist use,
and the political structure of the bodies initiating and administering the controls.
Unfortunately many such measures have emerged as a result of the physical
deterioration of sites and attractions from uncontrolled and excessive use.

The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism.
However, tourism's relationship with the environment is complex - many activities can
have adverse environmental effects. Many of these impacts are linked with the
construction of general infrastructure such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities,
including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas. The negative
impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on
which it depends.
On the other hand, tourism has the potential to create beneficial effects on the
environment by contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It is a way to
raise awareness of environmental values and it can serve as a tool to finance protection of
natural areas and increase their economic importance.

Negative impacts from tourism occur when the level of visitor use is greater than the
environment's ability to cope with this use within the acceptable limits of change. For
example, uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural areas
around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as:
(a) Depletion of Natural Resources

Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources when it increases
consumption in areas where resources are already scarce.
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(b) Water Resources
The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf
courses and personal use of water by tourists. This can result in water shortages and
degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a greater volume of waste water. In
drier regions like the Mediterranean, the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern.
Because of the hot climate and the tendency of tourists to consume more water when on
holiday than they do at home, the amount used can run up to 440 litres a day. This is
almost double what the inhabitants of an average Spanish city use.
Golf course maintenance can also deplete fresh water resources. In recent years golf
tourism has increased in popularity and the number of golf courses has grown rapidly.
Golf courses require an enormous amount of water every day and this can result in water
scarcity. If the water comes from wells, over-pumping can cause saline intrusion into
groundwater. Golf resorts are more and more often situated in or near protected areas or
areas where resources are limited, exacerbating their impacts. An average golf course in a
tropical country such as Thailand needs 1500kg of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides per year and uses as much water as 60,000 rural villagers.
(c) Local resources
Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy, food, and other raw
materials that may already be in short supply. Greater extraction and transport of these
resources exacerbates the physical impacts associated with their exploitation. Because of
the seasonal character of the industry, many destinations have ten times more inhabitants
in the high season as in the low season. A high demand is placed upon these resources to
meet the high expectations tourists often have (proper heating, hot water, etc.).
(d) Land degradation
Important land resources include fertile soil, forests, wetlands and wildlife. Increased
construction of tourism facilities has increased the pressure on these resources and on
scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources in the provision of tourist facilities
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can be caused by the use of land for accommodation and other infrastructure provision,
and the use of building materials. Forests often suffer negative impacts of tourism in the
form of deforestation caused by fuel wood collection and land clearing. For example, one
trekking tourist in Nepal can use four to five kilograms of wood a day.
(e) Pollution
Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry. This can be air
emissions, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and chemicals, or even
architectural/visual pollution.
(i) Air pollution and noise
Transport by air, road, and rail is continuously increasing in response to the rising
number of tourists and their greater mobility. Tourism now accounts for more than 60%
of air travel. One study estimated that a single transatlantic return flight emits almost half
the CO2 emissions produced by all other sources (lighting, heating, car use, etc.)
consumed by an average person yearly. Air pollution from tourist transportation has
impacts on the global level, especially from CO2 emissions related to transportation
energy use. And it can contribute to severe local air pollution. In addition to causing
annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to wildlife and can
cause animals to alter their natural activity patterns.
Example
In winter 2000, 76,271 people entered Yellowstone National Park on snowmobiles,

outnumbering the 40,727 visitors who came in cars, 10,779 in snow-coaches and
512 on skis. A survey of snowmobile impacts on natural sounds at Yellowstone
found that snowmobile noise could be heard 70% of the time at 11 of 13 sample
sites, and 90% of the time at 8 sites. At the Old Faithful geyser, snowmobiles could
be heard 100% of the time during the daytime period studied. Snowmobile noise
drowned out even the sound of the geyser erupting.
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(ii) Solid waste and littering
In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions,
waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the
natural environment - rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. For example, cruise ships in the
Caribbean are estimated to produce more than 70,000 tons of waste each year.
Solid waste and littering can degrade the physical appearance of the water and shoreline
and cause the death of marine animals. In mountain areas, trekking tourists generate a
great deal of waste. Tourists on expedition leave behind their garbage, oxygen cylinders
and even camping equipment. Such practices degrade the environment with all the
detritus typical of the developed world, in remote areas that have few garbage collection
or disposal facilities.
Example
The Wider Caribbean Region, stretching from Florida to French Guiana,

receives 63,000 port calls from ships each year, and they generate 82,000 tons
of garbage. About 77% of all ship waste comes from cruise vessels. On
average, passengers on a cruise ship each account for 3.5 kilograms of garbage
daily - compared with the 0.8 kilograms each generated by the less well-
endowed folk on shore.
(iii) Sewage
Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to increased sewage
pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions,
damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs
because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering
their ability to survive. Sewage pollution threatens the health of humans and animals.
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(iv) Aesthetic Pollution
Often tourism fails to integrate its structures with the natural features and indigenous
architectural of the destination. Large, dominating resorts of disparate design can look out
of place in any natural environment and may clash with the indigenous structural design.
A lack of land-use planning and building regulations in many destinations has facilitated
sprawling developments along coastlines, valleys and scenic routes. The sprawl includes
tourism facilities themselves and supporting infrastructure such as roads, employee
housing, parking, service areas, and waste disposal.
(v) Construction activities and infrastructure development
The development of tourism facilities can involve sand mining, beach and sand dune
erosion and loss of wildlife habitats.
(vi) Deforestation and intensified or unsustainable use of land
Construction of ski resort accommodation and facilities frequently requires clearing

forested land. Coastal wetlands are often drained due to lack of more suitable sites.
(vii) Marina development
Development of marinas and breakwaters can cause changes in currents and coastlines.
(viii) Coral reefs
Fragile marine ecosystems are suffering worldwide from reef-based tourism

developments. Evidence suggests a variety of impacts to coral result from shoreline
development, increased sediments in the water, trampling by tourists, ship groundings,
pollution from sewage, souvenir extraction.
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(ix) Trampling
Tourists using the same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and soil,
eventually causing damage that can lead to loss of biodiversity and other impacts. Such
damage can be even more extensive when visitors frequently stray off established trails.
(x) Anchoring and other marine activities
In marine areas many tourist activities occur in or around fragile ecosystems. Anchoring,
scuba diving, yachting and cruising are some of the activities that can cause direct
degradation of marine ecosystems such as coral reefs.
(xi) Alteration of ecosystems by tourist activities
Habitat can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. For example, wildlife viewing can
bring about stress for the animals and alter their natural behavior when tourists come too
close.
13.4 Summary
In this lesson so we have learnt that tourism has been a force for the preservation and
rejuvenation of areas by stimulating the conservation of historical and archaeological
sites, and unique or quaint man-made landscape features. It has also been an incentive for
the conservation of natural resources, which because of their uniqueness or educational or
ecological values are appreciated as tourist attractions. This type of conservation has led
to the growth of tourism in these destinations.
However, these changes have wrought with them some adverse effects which include
hotel encroachment in urban areas, pollution and degradation of resources. Remedial
measures to alleviate such effects as traffic congestion, visual pollution, etc have to put in
place.
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1. ‘Environmental protection and nature conservation are …natural allies of tourism

industry (Ralf Corsten, 1999). Comment on the extent to which this statement may
true.
2. What part can tourism play regarding the reclamation of derelict land buildings?
3. What are the negative environmental impacts of tourism on the Coastal Region of
Kenya?
4. Why do you think the coastal region of Kenya is a popular tourist destination?
5. What factors need to be taken into account when planning the future tourist use of
this area?
6. What part can tourism play regarding the reclamation of derelict land?
London.
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14.0 LESSON FOURTEEN:
MANAGING DESTINATIONS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
14.1 Introduction
Modern tourism has expanded rapidly in the post-war growth era. In the past,
governments supported the growth and development of tourism in order to reap the
potential benefits, but did not pay much attention to possible negative impacts. Whereas
tourism can bring development, it can also be responsible for a range of detrimental
effects on the natural and physical environments: air and water pollution, traffic
congestion, physical erosion of sites, disruption of habitats and species that occupy the
places visitors use, and the destruction of scenic areas by poorly planned or poorly
designed buildings. Exposing local communities and their customs to tourists can be a
means of sustaining traditions and rituals, but it may also be a powerful agent for cultural
change, and key element in the erosion of distinctive beliefs, values, and practices.
Although tourism is capable of generating significant levels of employment at national,
regional and local levels, there are significant uncertainties that surround a market
particularly subject to sudden fluctuations in demand.
The challenges of destination planners and managers will be to meet the demands of
increasingly sophisticated tourists, while balancing the fragile and finite resources of the
destination, preserving indigenous cultures and traditions, and taking social responsibility
for the negative impacts on the host community. In this lesson, we focus on the principles
and characteristics of sustainable destinations. In the first part, we describe the evolution
of a new way of thinking about development: the sustainability paradigm. Strategies and
practices for managing tourism development are explored. In the concluding section, we
explore and evaluate ecotourism as an approach to sustainable tourism development.
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(a) Describe the cornerstones and principles of sustainable development;
(b) Describe the major elements of sustainable tourism development;
(c) Explain the interrelationships between destination planning and sustainable
tourism development;
(d) Outline strategies for tourism management; and
(e) Discuss approaches to monitoring tourism development.
14.3 Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development emerged in the mid-sixties. However, the term
was first used in the Brundtland report entitled “Our Common Future,” prepared by the
World Commission on Development and Environment in 1987. The vision put forward
by the report was one of economic development that was not simply concerned with
attaining maximum economic growth but also issues of fairness between individuals and
groups making up today’s society (intra-generational equity) as well as fairness between
the present generation and those that are to come (inter-generational equity), Garrod and
Fayal, 1998. The sustainability development approach implies that the resources for
development are conserved for indefinite future as well as present use. Sustainable
development is therefore defined as, “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
The concept of sustainability has been further elaborated since then, notably in Agenda
21 of the Global Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the
Earth Summit, which was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Item 3 of the Rio Declaration
states that, “the right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations” (United
Nations, 1992). Figure 14.1 illustrates the cornerstones of sustainable development.
The sustainable development approach ensures that future generations everywhere will
have sufficient resources to adequately sustain themselves and maintain a reasonable
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quality of life. For people whose present quality of life is not of an acceptable standard,
the resources if sustained will be available for them and their children to potentially
achieve quality of life in the future. Achieving sustainability is now the underlying
principle for all types of development including tourism. Careful planning and
management of resources development are the key means to achieving sustainability.
Table 14.1 contrasts the characteristics of societies working towards a sustainable future
with those living for the present only.
Figure 14.1: The cornerstones of sustainable development
Table 14.1 a contrast of characteristics of societies working towards

sustainability and dead-end thinking
Building a sustainable Dead-end thinking
future
Concern for Preoccupation with politics
environmental health is and economic growth
balanced against political overshadows all
issues and economic environmental
growth considerations.
The nation’s resources Resources are rapidly
are consumed on a exploited to maximize
sustainable basis to profits over the short-term
ensure their long-term
profitability
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The environment is an The environment is a
integral part of strategic ‘postscript’ in pursuance of
thinking in companies business goals
All feasibility studies Development and
into major projects conservation are viewed as
incorporate an mutually exclusive
environmental impact activities
assessment
Affected communities Communities are briefed or
are allowed to participate ‘consulted’ on projects
in environmental after the decision to
sensitive decisions before proceed has been taken
they are taken
Early attention is given to Attention is focused on the
the underlying causes of environment only when the
environmental symptoms are obvious and
degradation and to the damage is usually
symptoms advanced
Environmental processes Ad hoc solutions to combat
are thoroughly environmental problems
researched in order to are formulated as and when
predict the future they arise
consequences of present
trends in population and
industrial output
Environmental themes The public is
are introduced into environmentally ‘illiterate’
appropriate subjects of and easily misled in
the school curriculum, choices concerning the
and are featured in mass environment
media and advertising
Polluters are subject to The taxpayer finances
environmental standards government agencies to
laid down by law, which clean up environmental
carry stiff penalties pollution after it has
occurred.
(Source: Sunter (1996): Future Perspectives)
Sustainable development is seen to offer a route for resolving the potential conflict
between tourism and the environment. Destination managers and researchers observe that
destinations move through a lifecycle, starting off as unexplored and undeveloped areas
and gradually moving through to congested, unpopular areas with significant
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environmental and social problems. The challenge is therefore to prevent a destination
reaching the point of over-consumption of resources.
14.4 Sustainable Tourism Development

Sustainable tourism development is a positive approach intended to reduce the tension
and friction created by the interaction between the tourism industry, visitors, the
environment and host communities. Underlying sustainability to tourism is the
philosophy that the environment must be conserved if the industry is to be viable in the
long term by applying the following principles:
 Sustainable tourism development implies that the resources for tourism be

conserved, and often enhanced for both present and continuing future use and
enjoyment by residents and visitors.
 Tourism development must be compatible with the society and culture of the
tourism destination.
 Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of the host population for
improved living standards.
 The expectations of increasing numbers of tourists must be satisfied in a way that
the destination continues to attract tourists. Simultaneously, tourists respect and
protect the environments and host communities they visit.
 Tourism resources must be properly maintained often can be improved through
the application of conservation measures and the development of appropriate
visitor facilities and services. This approach brings benefits to a destination on a
permanent basis. In fact sustainable tourism can be an important justification and
help to pay for the conservation of certain resources.
 Tourist attractions, facilities, services, and infrastructure must be planned, located,
designed, and managed in an environmentally and culturally sensitive manner so
that they do not congest, pollute, or degrade the environment, or create social
problems.
 Local communities participate in planning tourism in their areas, and benefit
directly from tourism.
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Therefore, sustainable tourism development recognizes limits to growth, takes a long-
term view of economic activity, and questions uncontrolled economic growth. It supports
long-term viability and quality of both human and natural resources, with an approach
aimed at establishing the appropriate nature and scale of tourism development. It
embraces a community-oriented approach, encouraging community involvement and
participation.
The various definitions of sustainable tourism emphasize three important features:
 Quality: sustainable tourism involves providing quality experiences for visitors,

while improving the quality of life of the host community and protecting the
quality of the environment.
 Continuity: it ensures the continuity of the natural resources on which it is based,
and the continuity of the culture of the host communities.
 Balance: it balances the needs of the tourism industry. It emphasizes the mutual
goals of and cooperation among visitors, host communities, and destinations.
14.5 Realization of Sustainable Tourism Development

Various tourism organizations and bodies acknowledge the relevance of the concept of
sustainable development for an industry so dependent on the environment. The
organizations have adopted various initiatives and programs and have been launched to
realize sustainable development in tourism. For example, the Charter for Sustainable
tourism, Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism industry, UNEP IE Tourism Program,
International Hotels Environmental Initiative, and ECoNETT, are among the list of
initiatives. Figure 14.2 below offers an overview of a range of programs and initiatives,
with Table 14.0 outlining the Charter for Sustainable Tourism.
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Figure 14.2 Sustainable tourism initiatives
Table 14.0 Charter for Sustainable Tourism

1. Tourism development shall be based on criteria of sustainability, which means that it
must be ecologically bearable in the long-term as well as economically viable, and
ethically and socially equitable for local communities.
2. Tourism should contribute to sustainable development and be integrated with the
natural, cultural and human environments; it must respect the fragile balances that
characterize the many tourist destinations, in particular small islands and
environmentally sensitive areas.
3. Tourism must consider its effects on the cultural heritage and traditional elements,
activities and dynamics of each local community.
4. The active contribution of tourism to sustainable development necessarily
presupposes the solidarity, mutual respect and participation of all the actors, both public
and private, implicated in the process, and must be based on efficient cooperation
mechanisms at all levels: local, national, regional and international.
5. The conservation, protection, and appreciation of the worth of the natural and cultural
heritage afford a privileged area for cooperation. This approach implies that all those
responsible must take upon themselves a true challenge, that of cultural, technological,
and professional innovation, and must also undertake a major effort to create and
implement integrated planning and management instruments.
6. Quality criteria both for the preservation of the tourist destination and for the capacity
to satisfy the tourists, determined jointly with local communities and informed by the
123
principles of sustainable development, should represent priority objectives in the
formulation of tourism strategies and projects.
7. To participate in sustainable development, tourism must be based on the diversity of
opportunities that are offered by the local economy. It should be fully integrated into and
contribute positively to local economic development.
8. All options for tourism development must serve effectively to improve the quality of
life of all people and must influence the socio-cultural enrichment of each destination.
9. Governments and competent authorities with the participation of NGOs and local
communities shall undertake actions aimed at integrating the planning of tourism as a
contribution to sustainable development.
10. In recognition of economic and social cohesion among the peoples of the world as a
fundamental principle of sustainable development, it is urgent that measures be
promoted to permit a more equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of tourism.
11. Environmentally and culturally vulnerable spaces, both now and for the future shall
be given special priority in the matter of technical cooperation and financial aid for
sustainable tourism development. Similarly treatment should be given to zones that have
been degraded by obsolete and high impact tourism models.
12. The promotion of alternative forms of tourism that is compatible with the principles
of sustainability, together with the encouragement of diversification represent a
guarantee of stability in the medium and long term.
13. The establishment of sustainable tourism policy necessarily requires the support and
promotion of environmentally compatible tourism management systems, feasibility
studies for the transformation of the sector, as well as the implementation of
demonstration projects and the development on international cooperation programmes.
14. Governments, industry, authorities, and tourism-related NGOs should promote and
participate in the creation of open networks for research, dissemination of information
and transfer of appropriate knowledge on tourism and environmentally sustainable
tourism technologies.
15. The travel industry together with bodies and NGOs, whose activities are related to
tourism, shall draw up specific frameworks for positive and preventive actions to secure
sustainable tourism development and establish programmes to support the
implementation of such practices. They shall monitor achievements, report on results
and exchange their experiences.
16. Particular attention should be paid to the role and the environmental repercussions of
transport in tourism, and to the development of economic instruments designed to
reduce the use of non-renewable energy and to encourage recycling and minimization of
residues in resorts.
17. The adoption and implementation of codes of conduct conducive to sustainability by
the principal actors involved in tourism are fundamental if the industry is to be
sustainable.
18. All necessary measures should be implemented in order to inform and promote
awareness among all stakeholders in the tourism industry, with regard to contents and
objectives of the Lanzarote Conference.
(Source: World Conference on Sustainable Tourism Held in Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain on 27-28 April
1995)
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14.6 Tourism Sustainability Indicators
Sustainable tourism development is interpreted in terms of what destinations and the
tourism industry can do to implement and operationalize sustainable tourism
development. Three areas of action are identified:
14.6.1 Planning
The objective of tourism planning is to set a framework to achieve balanced and
sustainable destination development. This involves deciding what type and level of
tourism is desirable and sustainable at a destination level or within a particular tourism
operation, setting parameters and principles guiding development, and developing
mechanisms to ensure that the right type of tourism development takes place.
Inskeep (1991) broadly defines planning as organizing the future to achieve certain
objectives. According to WTO (1994) tourism planning is optimization and balancing
the economic, environmental and societal benefits of tourism, with equitable distribution
of these benefits to the society, while minimizing possible problems of tourism.
Contemporary tourism planning embraces the triple bottom line approach to
sustainable development. This means that well-planned tourism development:
(a) is economically viable and results in economic benefit to tourism businesses and host
communities;
(b) conserves and protects environments, and contributes financially to the continued
conservation of tourism resources; and
(c) respects host communities and cultures, and involves local communities in the
planning and operation of tourism in their local areas.
The process of tourism planning can be described as a step-by-step procedure as

demonstrated in Figure 14.3. It is important to emphasize here that tourism planning will
not ensure the sustainable development of tourism. Programs and techniques have to be
put into place in an effort to help direct and manage tourism development.
125
14.6.2 Managing tourism development
Implementing techniques and strategies to ensure that tourism development remains
within the limits of what is regarded as sustainable. A range of management techniques is
available to destination planners and managers. Destination planners and managers have
to select the most relevant techniques for the particular level of destination. Some of the
approaches and techniques include Recreational opportunity Spectrum (ROS), zoning,
carrying capacity, and Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) – see details in TSA 307.
(a) Monitoring tourism development

Periodically determining whether development falls within the guidelines and conforms
to the principles, and taking corrective action where necessary. Good monitoring
indicators require that the site management team has a good set of baseline data on
existing conditions and that it has a process in place to detect change. Some indicators
need to be monitored several times a day (e.g. queuing times, the amount of litter
generated in busy areas), while others such as the size of resident mammal populations or
the area of eroded ground at viewing points, will be reviewed less frequently.
Figure 14.3 Sustainable tourism initiatives (source: Keyser, 2002)

VISION & STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES
(.setting overall direction;
.balancing economic, social, and environmental considerations;
.reflecting and reinforcing general development objectives)
↓
SITUATION
ANALYSIS
(.collecting, synthesis, and interpreting data and information: (i) tourism product – tourism
plant; (ii) market/demand analysis – supply of infrastructure; (iii) existing policies and plans –
institutional arrangements)
↓
PLAN
FORMULATION
(.market and product development;
.spatial framework/structure plan;
.infrastructure investment plan;
.human resource development plan)
↓
126
IMPLEMENTATION
FRAMEWORK
(.institutional arrangements;
.roles and responsibilities;
.timeframes and resources)
↓
IMPLEMENTATION
AND MONITORING
14.6 Sustainable Business Practice

Tourism operations can implement various strategies and tools to manage their impacts
on the destination, thereby contributing to sustainable tourism development. The
International Hotels Environmental Initiative and the Green Globe programme are some
of the examples of tourism industry initiatives supporting sustainable development. The
WTTC has developed general guidelines for tourism operations based on the
International Chamber of Commerce on Sustainable Development (see Box 14.1).
Box 14.1 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) Environmental Guidelines
Travel and tourism is the world’s largest industry. A clean healthy and safe environment is
essential for further growth. The WTTC recommends these guidelines to companies and
governments to take into account in policy formulation that include:
 Travel and tourism companies should state their commitment to environmentally

compatible growth.
 Targets for improvements should be established and monitored.
 The environment commitment should be company-wide.
 Education and research into improved environmental programs should be encouraged.
 Travel and tourism companies should seek to implement sound environmental principles
through self-regulation, recognizing that national and international regulations may be
inevitable and that preparation is vital.
 Environmental improvement programs should be systematic and comprehensive. They
should aim to:
(a) identify and minimize product and operational environmental problems, paying
particular attention to new projects;
(b) pay due regard to environmental concerns in design, planning, construction, and
implementation;
(c) Be sensitive to conservation of environmentally protected or threatened areas, species
and scenic aesthetics, achieving landscape enhancement where possible;
(d) Practice energy conservation;
(e) Reduce and recycle waste;
(f) Practice fresh-water management and control sewage disposal;
(g) Control and diminish air emission and pollutants;
127
(h) Monitor, control and reduce noise levels;
(i) Control, reduce and eliminate environmentally unfriendly products such as asbestos,
CFCs, pesticides and toxic, corrosive, infectious, explosive or flammable materials;
(j) Respect and support historic or religious objects and sites;
(k) Exercise due regard for the interest of local populations including their history; and
(l) Consider environmental issues as key factors in the overall development of travel and
tourism destinations.
The first step in implementing sustainable business practices is acceptance by the

company of its corporate responsibility for environmental management and the adoption
of environmental policies. In an ideal situation, tourism companies will implement
sustainable business practices as part of a comprehensive environmental management
system (EMS), and not only to create the impression for consumers that the operation is
‘environmental friendly.’ An EMS has the objective of defining and implementing the
environmental policy best suited to the activity, goods and services of a company. An
EMS prevents and minimizes environmental impact, sets specific environmental
objectives and targets, and provides a framework for the tourism operation to constantly
manage its environmental actions actively and systematically.
Characteristics of a sustainable business include:
 Environmental policies that are integrated into every aspect of the business
functioning;
 Employees who are educated about environmental responsibilities;
 Assessing the impact of activities before development;
 Environmentally-friendly products and services;
 Advising and educating customers about appropriate environmental conduct;
 Appropriate facilities and operations;
 Selecting contractors and suppliers on the basis of their environmental
responsibility;
 Contributing to the common effort to increase environmental awareness;
 Being open to the environmental and social concerns of employees, consumers
and host communities; and
128
 Measuring and monitoring performance on a regular basis, and reporting on
findings.
14.7 Summary
A sustainable tourism destination rarely occurs by accident. Rather, it is the product of
careful planning, management, and monitoring of tourism development. In this lesson,
we have explored the principles, and characteristics of sustainable destinations, and a
range of approaches to sustainable development. We examined the application of the
concept of sustainability to tourism development, and identified some of the initiatives of
the tourism industry and tourism organizations in the field. It is indicated that planning is
critical to the long-term economic, social and environmental sustainability of a
destination and its tourism industry. An outline and illustration of the application of steps
in tourism planning process in emerging destinations are provided. In the last section we
also looked at the steps that can be taken by operators in the tourism industry to improve
their sustainability.

(a) What are the three cornerstones of sustainable development?
(b) Explain the meaning of the triple bottom line approach to tourism development.
14.9 Activity
Contact any provincial tourism organization and determine whether it has incorporated
the concept of responsible or sustainable tourism in the provincial tourism legislation or
policy.

Manning, T. (1999): Indicators of Tourism Sustainability, In Tourism Management;
(20) 179-81.
Keyser, H. (2002): Tourism Development; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
129
15.0 LESSON FIFTEEN:
TOURISM GROWTH AND SUSTAINABILITY
15.1 Introduction
Even with an understanding of basic fundamentals of tourism planning, several major
issues of implementation must be considered, primarily the development of land. All
functioning components of the tourism system are related to land resources. Most
attractions, even events are anchored to place settings. Transportation facilities, even air
and sea have important land and site requirements. Services require land and location
factors important to both local and travel markets. Information and promotion are all
about land development for tourism. Because land resources are finite, and show great
wear and tear from tourism growth as well as other economic development, the urgency
of planning is becoming more and more evident.

(a) Describe the responses to destructive impacts of mass tourism
(b) Describe the elements of sustainable tourism development
(c) Discuss arguments for low-impact and high-impact tourism development
(d) Describe issues of concern for sustainable tourism development
15.3 Tourism Growth

In the past, most planning, promotion, and management of tourism has been focused
towards growth. Many nations and communities accepted the popular belief in expanded
tourism as an unlimited economic good. To this end, they invited and accepted virtually
any new tourism development as worthwhile. But in all these generalizations about
growth, it never used to be clear what kind of growth was most desirable. The negative
consequences of massive tourism growth have now documented. Huge development
worldwide has shown environmental, social, and cultural degradation; unequal economic
130
benefits; spread of diseases; and promotion of paternalistic influences. Deforestation, soil
erosion, litter along mountain trails, and wildlife disturbance are among the negative
impacts. In recent years of the dark side of tourism has stimulated new plans and
remedial action by both the public and private sectors.
Throughout the world, many destinations have adapted to great volumes of visitors.
Mega-attractions such as Walt Disney World are specifically designed to handle masses
of visitors that have produced great economic growth. These experiences support the
belief that growth is always desirable and workable.
15.3.1 Responses to Damaging Impact of Mass Tourism

(a) Demarketing
This is a means of discouraging customers in general, especially in areas that are unable
to accept more visitors no matter how well designed and managed. Benfield (2000) has
identified several strategies of demarketing:
 Increasing prices
 Increasing warnings of capacities in attraction advertising
 Reducing expenditures on advertising
 Eliminating trade discounts
 Reducing distribution outlets
 Reducing quality of product
 Providing vicarious visitor experience (interpretation).
In spite of resistance by promoters, the excesses of tourism growth may require

demarketing in order to reach the goal of sustainability.
(b) Regeneration
Another approach to economic growth is to regenerate the existing physical development
rather than develop new land. Many destinations contain sites with obsolete uses that
with creative design and planning could be converted to tourism.
131
Researchers William and Gill (1999) have reviewed past capacity theories and concluded
that setting precise arithmetical limitations on visitor numbers is not feasible. Instead, a
system approach that relates incremental growth on goals and objectives is more realistic.
On a case by case basis, indicators of change can be established for a community’s
tourism objectives such as for social, economic and environmental impacts. These
indicators are monitored, triggering needed changes in management. The results may or
may not indicate limits to growth.
15.4 Achieving Sustainability

The best solution to sustainable development is likely to occur not from advocacy of
environmentalists or governments but from voluntary action from developers of tourism.
The process by which this is to be achieved is through codes of practice and agreements
locally by information, monitoring, communication, and adaptation among an array of
groups and individuals with different and similar interests. They should also be able
embrace a new ethic for sustainable places as suggested in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Ethic for Sustainable Places

Current Ethic Ethic of Sustainable Place
Individualism, selfishness Interdependence, community
Shortsightedness, present-oriented ethic Farsightedness, future-oriented ethic
Greed, commodity-based Altruism
Parochialism, atomistic Regionalism, extra-local
Material, consumption-based Nonmaterial, community-based
Arrogance Humility, caution
Anthropocentricism Kinship
(Source: Gunn, 2002 pp.83)
There continue to be many locations that because of good design and management can
accept great volumes of travelers yet at the same time protect the environment,
accomplishing sustainable development objectives. National parks have increasingly
demonstrated this principle. When visitors are guided only into areas where they do no
132
damage to the environment, design has been successful. When management gives visitors
descriptive information by means of literature, guidance, lectures, exhibits, and
demonstrations, they gain rich experience without damaging the setting. There are two
major objectives for the foregoing scenario:
 A satisfied park visitor

 A managed outcome of the consequences of park visitation.
The basic principle underlying these objectives is well planned and thoughtfully
implemented site modification to accommodate an increase in the number and range of
visitor groups to a particular site so that it does not work against the conservation goals of
a park.
15.5 Elements of Sustainable Development and Tourism

The following seven elements have been identified as important in research and policy if
sustainable tourism development has to be achieved:
 Sustainable tourism development is determined largely by what the stakeholders want

it to be: a wilderness or a developed resort.
 It can be accomplished only when people have found mechanisms for working
together.
 Environmental impact results from many forms of tourism other than only visiting
natural resources. Visiting friends and relatives, business travel, and visiting urban
historic sites require special planning if sustainable development is to be achieved.
 Because most tourist establishments are small businesses, unable to obtain research
and professional studies, a lot of education is needed. Guidelines and computer
models may assist.
 Research can demonstrate that sustainable development pays.
 Economic measures such as willingness to pay and contingent value can demonstrate
the real value of sustainable development.
133
 A review of cases where sustainable tourism development is being achieved can help
communities and rural areas plan to reach their own sustainable objective.
15.6 Development Adaptation

Experience demonstrates that there are differences between low-impact and high-impact
tourism development. Low-impact is tourism that is characterized as small scale and slow
progress, whereas high-impact refers to large scale and rapid development. There are
arguments for high-impact development:
 In areas that are not yet known as destinations, some large-scale attractions and
accommodations may be appropriate.
 High-impact development may be needed to attract support services such as airlines
access and promotion. This type of development may also be needed to provide the
noticeable change to attract local support for other tourism development.
Low-impact development as exemplified by ecotourism may be integrated more readily

into the existing social and economic life of a community. Because developers are
residents, they are more likely to be well acquainted with resource limitations. Low-
impact development has a greater opportunity for feedback from each increment of
growth. However, this type requires long-range planning so that each new development is
a logical part of the whole of tourism and not dispersed so widely that it is inefficient to
service and confusing for visitors. Many regions find that both kinds are needed,
provided that they are kept in balance.
15.7 Planning Concerns

If sustainable tourism is to be planned and developed, consideration must be given to
several issues in the earliest planning stages if they are to be avoided or overcome. The
issues identified by Collins (1991) are:
 Displacement of local people
134
 Direct and indirect erosion of resources
 Loss of access to resources by local residents
 Misleading promotion
 Adequate funding for planning
 Costs of establishing basic infrastructure
 Cultural conflicts with natives
 Better road access may exacerbate resource destruction.
For sustainable tourism development, certain controls are accepted by developers and
visitors as necessary. For example, the following have been listed as workable controls
that have met with success in balancing tourist use with resource protection:
 Entrance stations: These imply authority of management and provide information to

visitors.
 Visitor centers: Such centers reduce violations because the public is better informed.
Environmental education begins.
 Effective and courteous law enforcement: volumes of visitors require the same
exercise of police protection as in other locations, perhaps even more so because
tourists are in a more vulnerable attitude.
 Resource management: The flora and fauna and land resources cannot be left to
‘nature’ in order to sustain these valuable reserves.
 Environmental interpretation and education: Guided trails, evening programs,
environmental education, extension programs in surrounding communities, living
history interpretation, self-guided automobile tours, rock climbing school, and
exhibits can provide rich visitor experiences without environmental damage.
15.8 Summary and Conclusions

 Tourism’s growth is showing increasing negative impacts. In areas of mass tourism
development, negative social, environmental, economic, and community impacts are
135
causing rethinking of growth as a singular goal. Instead, new programs of better
planning for lesser environmental impact are being considered.
 The concept of sustainability is creating new long-range planning. The natural and
cultural resources can be eroded severely if only short-range planning and
development are employed. Because these resources are the foundation for the
majority of tourism, it is important that they be protected for the future.
 Tourist saturation requires measures of control. A new balance between promotion
and development is needed in order to reduce excessive erosion of the key objectives
of travel. In the future, quotas and other mechanisms may be required to keep
volumes of visitors within the limits of carrying capacity. In some instances,
demarketing, the reduction or elimination of promotion is being applied to this issue.
 The concept of sustainable tourism development such as ecotourism requires special
planning and development. The goal of better visitor understanding of resources
requires very special design and management of tourism sites.
15.9 Review questions

(a) Who can accept the responsibility of balancing tourism growth with protection of the
resource foundations?
(b) How can planners stimulate the creation of solutions to excessive numbers of visitors
and in what ways?

Dowling, L.A. (1991): An Ecotourism Planning Model. In Ecotourism: Incorporating
the Global Classroom (ed. B. Weiler), Bureau of Tourism Research: Sydney.
Gunn, C.A. (1994): Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, and Cases, Taylor and Francis:
Washington, DC.
Keyser, H. (2002): Tourism Development; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wearing, S. and Neil, J. (2000): Ecotourism Impacts, Potentials and Possibilities,
Genesis Typesetting.
136
16.0 LESSON SIXTEEN:
ECOTOURISM
16.1 Introduction
In this lesson, ecotourism is defined. It highlights the major practices associated with
THIS type of tourism. The lesson is concluded with a description of significance and the
three main elements of ecotourism.

(a) Determine the meaning.
(b) Describe the major elements of ecotourism.
(c) Explain the importance and benefits of ecotourism
16.3 Definition of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is defined as responsible travel that conserves the natural environmental and
sustains the well-being of the local people (USAID, 1992). According to Sproule (1996)
it is a practice that gives the local people more opportunities to participate effectively in
tourism development activities, employing them to mobilize their own capacities, makes
them social actors rather than passive subjects, manage, decide, and control activities of
tourism resources that affect their lives. It is a low-impact, small-scale, carefully planned,
locally owned and managed tourism that is closely integrated with other sectors of the
economy and supports indigenous culture and environment. It contributes to conservation
by generating funds for protected areas, creating employment opportunities for
communities surrounding protected areas, and providing education to visitors (Boo,
1992). It also includes respecting and involving local communities in entrepreneurial
opportunities (Cater, 1993; Tourism Concern, 2000; ESOK, 2003). According to Harman
(2001), the trend in the world as well as Kenya is to create a tourism industry that will be
low impact: An industry that meets our needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.
137
Ecotourism, also referred to as community-based tourism involves traveling to relatively
undisturbed or historical areas to study, admire, and enjoy scenery, plants, animals and
cultural attractions (Ceballos-Lascurian, 1987). Despite its many varying definitions,
however, there is a general agreement that ecotourism is characterized by small-scale
development designed to:
 Attract tourists to natural environments, which are unique and accessible,

 Use tourism to bring about improved nature conservation through education, and thus
leading to changes in attitudes at all levels,
 Respect and involve local communities in employment and entrepreneurial
opportunities.
The processes involved in ecotourism include all aspects of planning, developing,

marketing, and managing resources and facilities. For example, visitor provision includes
access to natural areas and cultural heritage, guiding and interpretive services,
accommodation, catering, sales of produces and handicraft and transport. Appropriate
recreational and special interest activities such as trail walking, photography, and
participatory conservation programmes are also part of ecotourism. In some locations
hunting and fishing are included as appropriate activities provided that they are carefully
researched and controlled within a management plan that supports conservation. This
kind of sustainable use of resources relies on local knowledge, provides significant local
income, and encourages communities to place a high value on wildlife, resulting in net
conservation benefits.
On the whole, there is a general agreement that ecotourism seeks to minimize the
negative impacts on the environment while contributing to the conservation of the region.
The encouragement of active participation by the local population in the conservation and
education dimensions of tourism development process is an essential element of
ecotourism (Hall and Kinnaird, 1994). It is therefore argued that with ecotourism,
development starts with the people first, as it is from this basis that the industry will
138
develop, and their involvement allows them to avoid many pitfalls already associated
with conventional mass tourism (Cater, 1993).
Although originally advocated as a means of promoting both conservation and economic

development, ecotourism is now a major growing industry in many developing countries,
particularly in many tropical regions that contain a diversity of flora and fauna not
available in Western countries. It has the additional appeal of promoting environmental
responsibility and education by enabling the tourists to enjoy the beauties of sensitive
areas as well as giving opportunities to tourists to assist in preservation activities (Agrusa,
1996).
According to Wight (1993), today’s marketplace is becoming ‘greener’ and more

environmentally sensitive than ever, with 85 percent of the industrialized world’s citizens
believing that the environment is the number one public issue. This attitude has evidently
had an effect on the rise in popularity of ecotourism (Jesitus, 1992). It has also been
demonstrated that ecotourism expands by between 20 and 25 percent each year (Hasek,
1994). Tourism Concern (2000) had recognized that ecotourism is receiving considerable
attention from international, regional and national conservation and development partners
such as UNEP and WTO with growing concerns that ecotourism be genuinely
community-based. This is because it offers an opportunity to capitalize on their natural
attractions and gain all the economic benefits that tourism has without destroying the
resources they are based upon (Cater, 1993).
Ecotourism in areas with significant biodiversity is increasing more rapidly than the
tourism industry as a whole. It is considered to be self-reliant strategy as a norm that
satisfies the basic needs for the entire population, economic independence, cultural
identity, and spatial decentralization. Accordingly, interest in ecotourism has grown
rapidly since the mid-1980s among the decision-makers, practitioners, and advocates.
They all agree that for any significant changes to be witnessed, it is imperative to allow
the local communities to take control (Ndege, 2006; Ashley, et al, 2000; Sproule, 1996).
139
16.4 Elements of Ecotourism
The term ecotourism was first introduced by Hector Ceballos-Lascurain (1988) in
Mexico, and since then has generated a lot of heated debate about what it means and how
it is used by the tourism operators. Some use the term ecotourism purely as a marketing
and advertising tool without offering their customers any type of environmental
experience. However, there are some general agreements on the elements of ecotourism
of which there are three main ones:
1. Ecotourism is nature-based, that is, it occurs in a natural setting

2. It is educative and interpretive
3. It is managed in a sustainable manner.
1. Nature-Based
The abbreviation ‘eco’ in ecotourism stands for ecological element of tourism. Without
some reference to nature and environment, a tourism operation cannot be considered
ecological. Nature-based refers to both flora and fauna of an area, and can be associated
with environments that have been modified by human beings. But it should be stressed
that not all nature-based tourism is regarded as ecotourism, unless it includes the other
two elements: interpretation and sustainability.
2. Education and Interpretation

In ecotourism, it is no longer possible to ferry tourists around in a bus, with a few
obligatory photo-stops, without providing other information. This is because the
ecotourists are interested in what they see and to know more not only about the natural
environment, but also about indigenous heritage and cultural aspects of the region.
Ecotourism plays a particular role in this area with the provision of information and other
learning opportunities being integral to the product and not afterthought. However, this
educational element must be provided in an interesting manner since the ecotourists are
on holiday. Thus the significance for ecotourism operators to include personal
knowledge, carry good reference library and/or employ specialists such as botanists or
biologists to assist in the interpretation of the theme of their project.
140
3. Sustainable Management
Sustainable management means managing the physical stresses on the environment such
as the number of people and the way they behave by introducing minimum impact
techniques of waste disposal and minimization of energy use. Issues related to
souveniring items and interfering with wildlife are also part of sustainable management.
Sustainability does not refer to the natural environment, but also recognizes the need for
the local communities to benefit from tourism and aim to sustain the well-being of local
people, an important aspect of ecotourism philosophy. This is achieved by purchasing
goods and services locally and employing as many local staff as possible as well as
through personal, financial, and time commitments.
16.5 Benefits and Importance of Ecotourism

Third World countries host many ecotourists. The total for all types of tourism to Africa,
Latin America, and Indonesia in 1992 was estimated at about $55 billion (Norris, 1992).
For example, in Brazil nature travel has become the country’s largest new source of
revenue. In south-central Africa, Rwanda’s ecotourism is the largest source of foreign
exchange earnings. Much of this is generated by visitors to the Mountain Gorilla Project
begun in the 1970s. The success of this Project has convinced the national government to
preserve and protect the critical habitat of the gorilla. It has also brought support for other
parks and reserves in that country. The importance of ecotourism can thus be summarized
as follows:
 Provides jobs and income for local people

 Makes possible funds for purchasing and improving protected or natural areas to
attract more ecotourists in the future
 Provides environmental education for visitors
 Encourages heritage and environmental preservation and enhancement (the creation
of new or enlarged national and state parks, forest preserves, biosphere reserves,
recreation areas, beaches, marine and underwater trails, and attractions).
141
6.6 Summary
 Ecotourism also referred to as Community-based tourism is defined as traveling to
relatively undisturbed or historical sites to study, admire, and enjoy scenery, flora, fauna,
and cultural attractions as well as conserving, educating, respecting and engaging the
local communities in employment and entrepreneurial opportunities.
 The process involves planning, developing, marketing and managing tourism resources
and facilities in a sustainable manner. This can include visitors’ access to natural areas
and cultural sites, provision of guiding and interpretive services, accommodation,
catering, sales and transport.
 Ecotourism has three main elements which include ecological, interpretation and
education, and sustainability.
 Ecotourism has benefits which include jobs and income for the local people, education,
and environmental preservation and enhancement, among others.
(a) Define Ecotourism

(b) What is the significance of Ecotourism?
(c) Describe the three major elements of Ecotourism.
(d) Describe the relationship between Ecotourism and related forms of tourism.

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

AGE 313: GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM

DAVID ABEL MAGIYA OSEBE

1.2 Learning Objectives

(a) Explain the tourism and leisure concepts

 A journey at which one returns to the starting point, or

However the following are not considered to be tourists:

 People arriving with or without a contract of work to take up an occupation or engage

 The natural resources and environment component,

1.4.1 Natural Resources and Environment

(i) Those that belong to the destination (its residents) and

1.4.2 The Built Environment

Increasingly, the success of a destination is determined by its ability to assemble,

 information concerning the potential tourism market, which is essential for

1.4.3 Operating Sectors of the Tourism Industry

2.2 Learning Objectives

2.3 Categories of Tourists

2.3.1 Interactional Types

2.3.2 Cognitive-Normative Types

 Experiential, looking for meaning in life of others.

2.4 TRAVEL EXPERIENCES

2.4.2 Cultural Tourism

2.4.3 Historical Tourism

2.4.4 Environmental Tourism

2.4.5 Recreational Tourism

2.4.6 Business Tourism

2.6 Review Questions

Describe the significance of the following categories of tourists:

3.2 Learning Objectives

3.3 Introduction to Travel and Tourism Organizations

 For discussion of common issues

3.4 Universal Federation of Travel Agents’ Association (UFTAA)

3.5 International Air Transport Association (IATA) WWW.IATA.ORG

3.6 World Tourism Organization (WTO)

The transfer of tourism know-how to developing countries is one of its fundamental

3.7 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) WWW.WTTC.ORG

3.8 International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH&RA) WWW.IH-RA.COM

3.9 American Society of Travel Agents, INC. (ASTA) WWW.ASTA.COM

3.10 International Airline Passenger Association (IAPA) WWW.IAPA.COM

3.11 International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA) WWW.ICCA.NL

3.13 Review Questions

3.14 Further Reading

4.2 Learning Objectives

4.3 Introduction to planning

4.4 Key players in tourism management

 The tourists themselves

Box 4.0 Responsibilities of tourists

Extra responsibilities of tourists in relation to sustainable tourism

In relation to tourism planning and management, if it is acknowledged that communities

 It is part of the democratic process,

Nevertheless, the actual involvement of a community in tourism planning will depend on

 The nature of political system at national and local level;

4.4.3 Government agencies

Further, there are an increasing number of international links and inter-governmental

Box 4.2 Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry

4.4.5 Other players

4.8 Further Reading

5.2 Learning Objectives

(a) Describe the basic terms and concepts of destination geography

5.3 Destination Geography

 Attractions: proximity to attractions is one of the major factors that influence a

5.5 Cultural Geography