MID 8214 Flood Mitigation and Management Notes

MID 8214: Flood Mitigation
and Management
George Kimbowa
georg.kimb@gmail.com
+256704177737/ +256777683435
Busitema University
Tororo, Uganda
Jan-Apr, 2024
2/15/2024 George Kimbowa 1
Introduction: Hazards
❑"natural hazard" refers to all atmospheric, hydrologic, geologic
(especially seismic and volcanic), and wildfire phenomena that,
because of their location, severity, and frequency, have the potential
to affect humans, their structures, or their activities adversely.
i. ATMOSPHERIC (Hailstorms, Hurricanes, Lightning, Tornadoes)
ii. SEISMIC (Fault ruptures, Ground shaking, Tsunamis, Seiches)
iii. OTHER GEOLOGIC/HYDROLOGIC (Debris avalanches,
Expansive soils, Landslides, Rock falls, Submarine slides,
Subsidence)
iv. HYDROLOGIC (Coastal flooding, Desertification, Salinization,
Drought, erosion and sedimentation, River flooding)
v. VOLCANIC (Gases, Lava flows, Mudflows, etc…)
vi. WILDFIRE (Brush, Forest, Grass, Savannah)
Introduction
❖Floods are high stream flows, which overlap natural or artificial
banks of a river or a stream and are markedly higher than the
usual as well as inundation of low land.
❖“Any flow which is relatively high and which overtops the natural or
artificial banks in any reach of a river may be called a flood”.
❖In rainy season, when heavy rainfall occurs in the catchment area,
the flow of the river is increased and sometimes it exceeds the
normal carrying capacity of the river.
❖Then the surplus water overtops the banks of the river and
submerges the surrounding areas consisting of villages,
agricultural lands, etc. This phenomenon is known as flood.
❖Apart from the overflow of rivers, the floods may be caused by the
failure of some dam, with a sudden release of huge amounts of
water, causing considerable damage to life and property.
Global Perspective
• Through geophysical studies, it has been found that more
than 1.5 billion people on the earth planet reside on riverside
or coastal flood plains where they produce 1/3 of the food
consumed by the world.
• At least, some fraction of these plains go under flood water
one or the other day, hence causing widespread losses to
human lives, devastated homes & heads of cattle dead,
destroy agricultural crops and disrupt the communication links
such as railways, roads as well health hazards (i.e. spread of
diseases such as cholera or Gastrointestinal symptoms, etc.).
• Even after the receding of floods, it takes several months or
even years for the community to come to the pre-flood status.
Flooding Hazard
• Flooding is a result of heavy or continuous rainfall exceeding the
absorptive capacity of soil and the flow capacity of rivers, streams, and
coastal areas
• Two types of flooding
i. land-borne floods, or river flooding, caused by excessive run-off brought on by
heavy rains, and
ii. Sea-borne floods, or coastal flooding, caused by storm surges, often
exacerbated by storm run-off from the upper watershed. E.g. Tsunami
What is a Flood Event?
❖Hydrological event (in the general sense) characterized by high discharges and /or
water levels
❖Can lead to inundation of land adjacent to streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and
other water bodies
❖Caused by and/or exacerbated by intense or long-lasting rainfall, snowmelt, dam
break, earthquake, landslides, ice jams, high tides, storm surges, operational failure
Trends in number of natural catastrophes

Flooding Around The World
Bangladesh
Bangladesh regularly floods. The land is densely populated. Most of the land
forms a delta from three main rivers - Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna.
Flooding is an annual event as the rivers burst their banks. This seasonal
flooding is beneficial as it provides water for the rice and jute (two main crops
in the area). It also helps to keep the soil fertile.
The low-lying land means it is easily flooded. Half the country is less than 6m
above sea level. The snowmelt in the Himalayan Mountains adds to the water
in the main rivers. There are human causes too; building on the floodplains
and cutting down trees both increase the effects of flooding.

Photo courtesy of Sustainable sanitation (@flikr.com) – granted under creative commons licence - attribution
Flooding Around The World
New Orleans, USA
The impacts of flooding on coastal communities can be devastating, as seen in New Orleans
after Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
New Orleans was one of the worst affected areas because it is below sea level and the
defences were unable to cope.
Despite an evacuation order, many of the poorest people remained in the city.
People sought refuge in the Superdome stadium. Conditions were unhygienic, and there was
a shortage of food and water. Lots of people were hungry and thirsty, and some people
resorted to looting. Tension was high and many felt vulnerable and unsafe.
1 million people were made homeless and about 1,200 people drowned in the floods.
Oil facilities were damaged and as a result petrol prices rose in the UK and USA.
Photo courtesy of Sustainable sanitation (@flikr.com) – granted under creative commons licence - attribution
Developing Countries are Hit the Hardest

Natural Disasters in Uganda
2010 –over 200 people killed by Landslides in Bududa

Flood Perspectives in Uganda
Flooded highway main tarmac road to North and Eastern Uganda, 2007
❑ The worst affected areas are in the
Northern & Eastern parts of Uganda
include the districts of Mbale, Manafwa,
Bukeda, Budadu, Kumi, Soroti, Katakwi,
Amuria, Lira, Pader, Kitgum, Nebbi, Gulu
and scattered areas of central Uganda.
The cost of the damage caused by floods in Teso sub-

region has been put at Shs120 billion.
Displaced
Population
District 2007
Soroti 44,122
Lira 13,017
2/15/2024
Amura 19,374
George Kimbowa
Flat flooded area of Teso region; 2007 12
Katakwi 14,133
Flood Perspectives in Uganda 12.5
12.0
11.5
Water Level (m)

11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Water Levels at River Kapiri Monitoring station, the

main outlet for the flooded areas in Teso sub-region
Water overtopped the bridge and weakened it.

The Monitoring station was over topped.; 2007
People woke up in the
morning and their houses
were under water
Residents of Kyarumba in Kasese District cross River Floods in Pader District, September 2007
Nyamugasani using a makeshift bridge after the May 2014
floods swept away the main bridge

The damaged bridge on River Kafu in Hoima District as seen in late

November 2023
Kampala City Dealy floods, June 2019

Death and destruction as floods hit western Uganda, Rukiga District; Floods Leaves Residents Stranded
May 2020 And Counting Losses, September 2022

Houses submerged, crops and gardens washed away as River Nabuyonga broke it's banks after heavy
rains in Eastern Uganda, July 2022
Houses submerged, crops and gardens Villagers try to retreive the bodies of 14 people
washed away as River Nabuyonga broke from a minibus, July 2022
it's banks after heavy rains in Eastern
Uganda, July 2022

Causes of Floods
The primary causes for floods are-
I. Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff
from he tributaries and river carrying flows in excess of their
capacities.
II. Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.
III. Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their
tributaries.
IV. Intense rainfall when river is flowing full.
V. Poor natural drainage system.
VI. Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river
course.
VII. Cyclone and very intense rainfall when the el nino effect is on a
decline.
Flooding Types
i. River Flood: Flooding along rivers is a natural and inevitable part of life. Some floods
occur seasonally when winter or spring rains, coupled with melting snows, fill river basins
with too much water, too quickly. Torrential rains from decaying hurricanes or tropical
systems can also produce river flooding.
ii. Coastal Flood: Winds generated from tropical storms and hurricanes or intense offshore
low pressure systems can drive ocean water inland and cause significant flooding. Escape
routes can be cut off and blocked by high water. Coastal flooding can also be produced by
sea waves called tsunamis , sometimes referred to as tidal waves. These waves are
produced by earthquakes or volcanic activity.
iii. Urban Flood: As land is converted from fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots, it
loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization increases runoff 2 to 6 times over what
would occur on natural terrain. During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swift
moving rivers, while basements can become death traps as they fill with water.
iv. Flash Flooding in Arroyos/Washes: An arroyo is a water-carved gully or normally dry
creek bed. Arroyos can fill with fast-moving water very quickly. Flash flooding at this arroyo
in Arizona took only 58 seconds to develop.
v. Ice Jam: Floating ice can accumulate at a natural or man-made obstruction and stop the
flow of water.
Types of Floods
I-Flash floods
❖Such floods that occur within six hours during heavy rainfall and are usually associated
with towering cumulus clouds, severe thunderstorms, and tropical cyclones or during the
passage of cold weather fronts.
❖This type of flood requires rapid localized warning system and immediate response in
favour of affected communities.
❖Other causes of flash floods include dam failure or other river obstructions
❖Flash floods generally occur due to local high-intensity precipitation in hilly or
mountainous areas.
❖The short warning time makes them difficult to predict.
❖Discharges during flash floods are often much higher than normal flows in water courses
resulting flooding.
❖Flash floods are particularly dangerous on steep slopes triggering erosion and landslide.
❖They are characterized by a sharp rise followed by relatively rapid recession causing high
flow velocities.
❖Discharges quickly reach a maximum and diminish almost as rapidly.
I-Flash floods
❖In densely populated areas, they are more destructive than
other types of flooding because of their unpredictable nature.
❖Unusually strong currents carrying large concentrations of
sediment and debris, giving little or no time for communities
living in its path to prepare.
❖It causes major destruction to infrastructure, humans and
whatever else stands in their way

Flash flood/Debris Flow
Switzerland
Japan
U.S

What is a flash flood?
A flash flood is a life-threatening flood
that begins within 6 hours —and often
within 3 hours—of the rain event.
Flooding is a longer term event and
may last a week or more.
A flood is typically associated with a

defined body of water, but flash
floods can occur in normally dry
areas with no visible stream channel.
What is the cause of flash
flooding?
Consequently, included in the flash Most flash flooding is caused by slow-
flood definition is the rapid inundation moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms
of normally dry areas, roads, repeatedly moving over the same area, or
underpasses, and buildings. heavy rains from hurricanes and tropical
storms.
Midwest flooding caused by rain storms, August 2007

Hurricane induced flood
Floyd,1999: North Carolina
Hurricane Floyd,1999
Katrina, 2005: New Orleans, LA
Hurricane Katrina, 2005

How dangerous could flash floods be?
Clear Fork Road, WV,
July 14, 2001 -- This
house was torn apart by
the flooding of the
Flash floods can roll nearby Clear Fork
boulders, tear out trees, Creek.
destroy buildings and
bridges, and scour out new
channels. Rapidly rising Panther, WV, May 8,
water can reach heights of 2002 -- Heavy silting
happened on many
30 feet or more.
creeks and rivers as a
result of the violent flash
flood that struck
southern West Virginia
2/15/2024 George Kimbowa on May 2, 2002. 28
How dangerous could How do flash floods occur?
flash floods be?
▪ Flash flood-producing rains can
also trigger catastrophic mud
slides.
▪ You will not always have a warning
that these deadly, sudden floods
are coming.
❑ Several factors contribute to flash flooding. The

two key elements are rainfall intensity and
duration.
❑ Intensity is the rate of rainfall, and duration is how
long the rain lasts. Topography, soil conditions,
and ground cover also play an important role.
Rainfall and Runoff Relationship When rain is very
▪ Flash floods are rapid-onset hydrologic events
that can be very difficult to forecast. A combination intense...
of high rainfall rate with rapid and often very
efficient runoff is common to most flash flood
events.
▪ Ice jam formation on rivers can also play a role
in rapid-onset flash flooding, particularly upstream
of the ice jam.
Flash floods occur with intense

rainfall rates that often exceed
the soil's infiltration capacity even
when the soil is dry.
Soil Influences
➢ The three critical soil properties to
consider when assessing the risk of
flash flooding are
i. soil moisture,
ii. soil texture,
iii. and soil profile.
i. Soil moisture is often considered the
most important soil factor for rapid runoff
and flash flooding.
➢ There is some validity to this reasoning
in that if the soil is saturated there is
no room for additional rainfall to
infiltrate, and all rainfall becomes
runoff regardless of the soil texture.
Soil Influences: Soil Texture
❑ Certain soil textures such as clay, and to

some extent silt, can be associated with
low infiltration rates and result in rapid
runoff during intense rainfall.
❑ Therefore, runoff from intense rainfall is
likely to be more rapid and efficient with
clay soils than with sand.
❑ Although sandy soils permit greater infiltration

of intense rainfall, rapid runoff can occur if there
is only a thin layer of soil.
❑ For example, if an impermeable layer of rock
underlies a thin layer of soil, that soil layer can
saturate quickly and result in large amounts of
runoff.
Flash flooding facts Watch & warning
1. Flood can occur nationwide.
2. Flash floods are the #1 weather-related ❑ FLOOD WATCH - means that an overflow of water
killer in the Uganda from a river is possible for your area.
❑ FLASH FLOOD WATCH - means that flash flooding is
3. Nearly 80% of all flash flood fatalities are possible in or close to the watch area. Flash Flood
auto related! Watches can be put into effect for as long as 12 hours,
4. Many flash floods occur at night....be while heavy rains move into and across the area.
prepared to take quick action. ❑ FLOOD WARNING - means flooding conditions are
actually occurring in the warning area.
5. A mere 2 feet of water can float a large
❑ FLASH FLOOD WARNING - means that flash flooding
vehicle or even a bus. This is why you is actually occurring in the warning area. A warning can
should never drive through flooded roads. also be issued as a result of torrential rains, a dam
Just 6 inches of rapidly moving flood water failure or snow thaw.
can knock a person down.
What should we do in case of flooding?
The rule for being safe in a flooding situation is simple: HEAD FOR HIGHER GROUND AND STAY AWAY FROM
FLOOD WATERS!
When a flash flood WATCH is issued Be alert to signs of flash flooding and be ready to evacuate on a moment's
notice.
When a flash flood WARNING is issued for your area, or the moment you realize that a flash flood is imminent, act
quickly to save yourself. You may have only SECONDS!
Go to higher
2/15/2024 ground Climb to safety! George Kimbowa 33
II-River floods
❑Such floods are caused by precipitation over large
catchment’s areas or by melting of snow or
sometimes both.
❑They take place in river systems with tributaries that
may cover or drain large geographical area and
encompass many independent river basins.
❑These floods are normally built up slowly or on
seasonal basis and may continue for days or weeks
as compared to flash floods.
❑Factors such as ground conditions like moisture,
vegetation cover, depth of snow, etc. and size of the
catchments govern the amount of flood covering the
main rivers.

Riverine flood (rural)
U.S U.K

River floods

Riverine flood (urban)
During flooding Sediment / nutrition
After flooding
Producing diversified environment/habitat
Recharge of
Flushing sediment / groundwater
/erosion

Riverine flood (urban)
Switzerland
Indonesia

Pluvial flooding
Singapore
China

Groundwater flooding

III-Coastal Floods
I. Some floods are associated with the cyclonic activities like
Hurricanes, Tropical cyclones, etc. generating catastrophic
flood from rainwater which often aggravate wind-induced
storm and water surges along the coast.
II. As in river floods, intense rain falling over a large geographic
area produces extreme flood situation in coastal river basins.

Coastal flood
Italy
U.K

Coastal flooding

Impacts
1958
2013
1978
1887

Failure of hydraulic infrastructure
Japan
Japan

Mudflow
Indonesia Japan

Landslide
China U.S

Challenges of Flood Management
Population increase
Ecosystem Conservation Securing livelihoods
Climate Variability Absolute safety from Changes in the decision

and Change flooding is a myth making processes
(Community Participation)

Management of Flooding
• The cause of the risk of

flooding (excess rainfall,
coastal surge) is beyond
control
• The pathway of a flood
(topography and nature of
land surface and streams) can
be managed to some extent
• The impacted recipients
(people and property) can be
managed most
Alleviation (Flood Control or Flood Mitigation)
❖The various methods of flood control (or flood mitigation) and reduction of flood
damage can be classified under different categories depending on the attempts made
to solve this problem.
❖The flood control measures can be classified broadly as structural and non-structural
measures.
❖Flood control aims at attempts to
(i) modify the flood,
(ii) modify the susceptibility to flood damage
(iii) modify the loss of burden and bearing the loss or living with floods.
❖ The various flood control measures aim at avoiding damages from floods
(i) by the construction of protective works,
(ii) through the reduction of flood flows by storage, change in land use or similar
methods,
(iii) by modifying the susceptibility to flood damage and
(iv) by soil concentration in catchment area
Structural Mitigation Measures
I-Storage Reservoirs:
❖It is the most effective measure of flood disaster mitigation measures. The modern
reservoir are mostly multipurpose. The aim of reservoir is to store excess water
during flood period and release it when flood subsides.
❖Generally, the reservoirs are formed on the upstream of the area to be protected or
on the head reach of the river.
❖The flood control reservoir may be of two types:
(a) Detention Reservoirs
(b) Retarding Reservoirs
(i) Detention Reservoir In this type of reservoir, the spill ways with adjustable gates
provided with the dam so that the flood water may be detained for sometime and
then released according to the situation of the downstream area by operating the
gates of the spillways
(ii) Retarding Reservoir In this type of reservoir spillways are provided with the dam
at such a level an capacity so that the flood discharge is retarded and it takes
long time for the flood water to flow completely towards the downstream area.
The discharge stops when the water level falls below the crest of the spillways.
II-Confining river flow by embankments
(Levees)
❑Earthen embankments have been the principle methods of
controlling flood as a short-term measure.
❑ The levees are earthen embankments constructed parallel to
the river bank to continue the river water within a specified
section. Thus the surrounding area may be protected from
being flooded with surplus water which flow through the river
during the heavy rainfall in catchment area.

III-Channel Improvement Works:
❖Work performed to increase the discharge or velocity of stream
or to decrease the stage and duration of flood is known as
channel improvement works.
❖ It Includes,
(a) Increase in size of cross section by widening and
excavation of stream bed.
(b) Increasing velocity of flow in the channel by smoothing the
river bed and sides, and removing roughness offered by sand
bed, weed growth, etc.

IV-Diversion Works
❖From the upstream side of the flood affected area a diversion
channel is excavated to connect the river at the d/s area.
❖A diversion channel with a regulator upstream of the important
area is constructed.
❖The important area is placed on convex side of the river where
inundation and erosion are possible.
❖The diversion channel decreases the stage of flood near the
important area, and therefore possible flood disaster may be
reduced.

V-Flood Wall
• When no space is available for the construction of levee or

when it is not suitable to construct the levee due to local site
condition, then flood wall is constructed as local flood hazard
prevention for some important area situated at low level.
• There are masonry or concrete walls constructed just on the
river bank. These are trapezoidal in section and act as retaining
wall.

VI-Flood Ways
❑The low lying areas along the course of the river are known as
floodways.
❑Floodways are the vast depressions into which a portion of the
flood water diverted from a river through a natural or artificial
channel is temporarily stored during the rising flood.
❑When the river flow recedes the water from the flood ways
returns back to river.
❑The floodway is ordinarily used only during major floods.
❑Floodway may be used for agriculture at other times.

VII-Construction of Cut-off
❖In case of sharp bends in the course of a river, the velocity of
flow and the rate of discharge is reduced.
❖During heavy rainfall when large flood discharge approaches
the sharp bend of the river, it overflows its banks and
submerges the surrounding area.
❖So cut-off may be constructed in the meandering type of river
to reduce travel time and the water can flow with high velocity
along a straight path.

Runoff reduction by watershed management
❖It is an indirect method applied to the watershed, which has long-
term effect on flood disaster mitigation. Different watersheds
management are
(i) Afforestation
(ii) Contour farming
(iii) Contour bunds
(iv) Check bunds
(v) Gullying
(vi) Bank Protection
(vii) Diversion drains
(viii) Strip cropping etc.

Non-Structural Mitigation Measures
The non-structural measures include, modifying the susceptibility to
flood damage by
(i) flood plain management
(ii)Flood proofing including disaster preparedness
(iii) response planning
(iv) flood forecasting and warning.
Modifying loss burden by
▪ Disaster relief,
▪ flood fighting including public awareness, and
▪ flood insurance.
I-Flood plain Zoning
❖Area near the river are the most vulnerable for the flood hazards
provided the areas are not a highland.
❖Therefore, people should not be allowed to those flood prone
areas for dwelling houses.
❖Places below high flood level should not be recommended for
inhabitation.
❖These areas may be used as parks, recreation ground, etc. so
that inundation of such areas may result in saving life and
properties

II-Flood Forecasting
❖The emergency evacuation of the threatened area is one of the
most effective means of reducing damage due to flood under
certain circumstances.
❖Once the flood occurs, the normal activities of the society are
badly disrupted with immense losses.
❖Therefore, flood forecasting is a real necessity to minimize to a
great extent.
❖Temporary evacuation of persons and shifting the important
property to safer paces could be done before the flood arrives.

III-Flood Proofing
❑In cases where certain isolated of high value are threatened by
flooding, they may sometimes be individually flood proofed. It
essentially consists of a combination of structural change and
emergency action.
❑Structural change includes construction of the building wall with
some water proofing material, closure of lower level windows
and providing some means of watertight closure for the doors.
❑Thus, even through the building may be surrounded by water,
the property within it is protected from damage and many normal
functions can be carried on.
❑In Case of an industrial plant comprising building, storage yards,
roads, etc. may be protected by a ring levee or flood wall.
Mathematical Modeling
❖In the flood disaster mitigation measures, mathematical model by
computer can predict flood intensity and area of inundation whether
it is flood in river or a flash flood- due to dam break or dike failure.
❖When natural flood upstream of a river is known, mathematical
model of flood routing can predict the flood intensity at some
downstream point of the river.
❖Thus, mathematical modeling techniques can alleviate the flood
disaster in the river valley in case of both natural and dam- break
flood situation.
❖Mathematical model has become a very powerful tool in this age
by the use of modern high- speed computer in different fields of
science and technology.
Integrated Flood Management (IFM)
❖Sustainable Development "meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”
❖In the flood management context mainly on the viability of floodplain
use in the long term
❖Integrated flood management (IFM) aims at minimizing loss of life
from flooding while maximizing the net benefits derived from
floodplains.
❖As part of the approach, the management of flood risk is based on a
judicious combination of measures that address risk reduction, risk
retention and risk transfer through a strategic mix of structural and
non-structural measures for preparedness, response and recovery.

Why Integrated Flood Management

Integrated Flood Management:
Maximizing net benefits from floodplains
❑ “In the case of floods, the appropriate economic objective is

thus to maximize the efficiency of use of the catchment and not
to minimize flood losses. It can be easily shown that efficient
flood management policy can be accompanied by a rise in
both flood losses and the cost of flood management.”
❖In developing countries with primarily agricultural economies, food

security is synonymous of livelihood security.
❖In developed economies as the flood plains have been exploited,
the emphasis is on risk reduction

Integrated Flood Management
❖Flood Management in the context of Integrated Water
Resources Management, aiming at:
i. Sustainable development: balancing development needs
and flood risks
ii. Maximizing net benefits from floodplains: ensure
livelihood security and poverty alleviation thereby
addressing vulnerability
iii. Minimizing loss of life: in particular through end-to-end
FF&W Systems and preparedness planning for extreme
events
iv. Environmental preservation: ecosystem health & services
Integrated Flood Management
Integrated Flood Management (IFM) refers to the integration of
land and water management in a river basin using a
combination of measures that focus on coping with floods
within a framework of IWRM and adopting risk management
principles while recognizing that floods have beneficial impacts
and can never be fully controlled.

IFM:
Integrates……?
❖Land and Water Management
❖Upstream and Downstream
❖Structural and Non-structural
❖Short term and Long-term
❖Local and basin level measures
❖Top down and Bottom up decision making
❖Development needs with ecologic and
economic concerns
❖
IFM:
Towards a sustainable development
➢Integrates and mixes strategies
➢ Structural, Non-structural and Living with Floods
➢ Short-term and Long-term
➢ Local and basin level measures
➢Balances development needs and environmental
concerns
➢Addresses all aspects of Flood Management
➢ Scientific and Engineering
➢ Social Aspects
➢ Environmental Aspects
➢ Economic Aspects
➢ Legal and Institutional Aspects
➢Adaptive Management
Characteristics of Integrated Flood Management
Recognition that a river basin is a dynamic system with many
interactions/fluxes between land and water bodies

Characteristics of IFM
❖ Linkages between upstream

changes & downstream effects &
vice-versa
❖ Land use plans & water management

to be combined in synthesized plan
through co-ordination between land
management and water
management authorities

Requirements of IFM
❑ Clear and objective policies
i. Comprehensive assessment and understanding of
development opportunities and flood risks;
ii. Multi-sectoral approach to reach the objectives;
iii. Appropriate legislation and regulations; and
iv. Innovative economic instruments.
❑with a multidisciplinary approach

i. Appropriate Institutional structures for proper
coordination and linkages;
ii. Enabling participatory processes; and
iii. Information management and exchange
mechanisms.
How vulnerability and flood risk
Changes in socio- Land-use change, increasing
economic systems exposure and damage potential –
floodplain development, growing
wealth in flood-prone areas
Changes in Land-cover change - urbanization,
terrestrial systems deforestation, elimination of wetlands &
floodplains, river regulation
Changes in climate Holding capacity of the atmosphere,

& atmospheric intense precipitation, seasonality,
system circulation patterns
2/15/2024 George Kimbowa Source: Kundzewicz & Schellnhuber, 2004 74
Framework for Risk Management
Governance and Successful disaster risk
Organizational Coordination and management should be
Cooperation
supported by:
Risk Identification Risk Reduction
❖ effective governance,
Risk Transfer
and Assessment (Prevention & Mitigation) ❖ legislation,
❖ legal frameworks
Sectoral planning Catastrophe ❖ Institutional capacities
Historical hazard data,
analysis and changing Early warning systems
insurance/ at national to local
bond
hazard trends
Emergency preparedness markets levels
Exposed assets & & planning Alternative
❖ supplemented by
vulnerability
risk transfer effective information &
Risk quantification
knowledge sharing
mechanisms among
Information and Knowledge Sharing different stakeholders
George Kimbowa
Education and training
2/15/2024
75
Integrated Flood Management:
Objectives
❖ Sustainable development: balancing
development needs and flood risks
❖ Maximizing net benefits: ensure
livelihood security, poverty alleviation
and managing vulnerability
❖ Minimizing loss of life
❖ Environmental preservation

What is flood risk?
❑Probability x Consequence
❑Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability
❑Example floods:
i. Hazard: probability of a particular discharge or water level at a
particular place
ii. Exposure: Land and assets in the inundation area of that
flood
iii. Vulnerability: ability/disability of the people or assets to
withstand, cope with or recover from the negative effects of
that flood
Measures for Risk Reduction
Reduce hazard Reduce Exposure Reduce Vulnerability
i. Retaining water where it falls i. Structural measures on i. Physical: by improving the
(increasing infiltration, rooftop the river (Dykes, river infrastructure, well-being,
storing) training work such as occupational opportunities
ii. Retention basins (natural wet channelization, flood and living environment
lands or depressions, man made walls, raised ii. Constitutional: by
e.g., school play grounds, infrastructures such as facilitating equal
household underground tanks roads and railways) participation opportunities,
iii. Dams and reservoirs ii. Structural and non- education and awareness,
structural providing adequate skills
iv. Diversion channel measures/actions by and social support system
v. Land use management (e.g., individual (flood proofing) iii. Motivational: by building
house building codes in urban iii. Land regulation awareness and facilitating
areas, infrastructure building self organisation
practices, appropriate landscape iv. Flood emergency
planning) measures (flood warning
and evacuation)
IFM: Principles
Risk Management Risk Management
i. Mitigation and Water Cycle as a whole

Preparedness a) Flood and drought
management
ii. Response
b) Effective use of flood
iii. Recovery and waters
rehabilitation c) Ground water and surface
iv. Residual risks water interaction in flood
plains

IFM: Principles
i. Risk Management
ii. Water Cycle as a whole
iii. Multi-hazard approach
iv. River basin as a planning unit
v. Inter-disciplinary
vi. Stakeholders participation

National Development Policy
❑Natural resources management (including water resources

for domestic, agriculture, fishery, and industry
❑Land use management (agriculture, industry, dwelling, urban
development, etc)
❑Environmental management (conservation and modification)
❑Risk management policies, and
❑Social development issues (living conditions, level of poverty,
equity and fairness principles)
National Flood Management Policy:
The vision
✓Why flood management needs to be

improved;
✓How risks due to floods are to be mitigated
while making use of floodplains; and
✓When specific goals would be achieved.

National Flood Management Policy
i. What role do the flood plains play in the economy of the country/region?
ii. What issues in National development vision/policy have relevance to the
condition of floods or flooding and its management?
iii. How flood management can contribute to the national development?
iv. How flood risks can be appropriately factored in national development
planning?
v. How national development vision/policy should be aligned to the existing
and future flood risks?
vi. How flood risks are shared between central and local governments on one
hand and the individual on the other?
vii. What role do the different institutions play in flood management?
Urban Flood Management
Integrated with River Flood Management
Principales Sustainable Urban

Risk Management Drainage Systems
SPATIAL
PLANNING
Basin Storm
Plans IWRM
Flood Management Water Management
Plans
Plans Plans
LAND USE PLANNING
Integrated Total Water

Coastal Zone
Concepts Flood Cycle
Management
Management Management

National National flood
development management
vision/policy vision/policy
Beneficial and negative impacts

Basin flood
of flooding
management vision Role of flooding in social,
and policy economic condition
Land use
Flood Flood risk

Survey and Analysis
Hydrological, meteorological,
geomorphologic data,
assessment
Management environmental data

Social and economical data
↓
Hydro meteorological analysis
Hydraulic analysis
Planning Setting target for

basin flood
management plan
Damage analysis
Strategic Environmental
Process Identification and

Assessment (SEA)
Social Impact Assessment
Economic analysis
selection of options
to reduce flood risks
Basin Flood Monitoring

Management
Plan
Project
implementation plan

Extreme Weather and Climate Events
in IPCC AR4

Hazards
• Floods
• Droughts
• Flow regime changes

Vulnerability of coastal deltas
(IPCC 2007)

Policy Robustness Indicators
Affected parameters IFM Policy Principles conducive to
in relation to water sustainable adaptation policies
-Balanced outlook on technical storage

options including linkages to energy
Snow cover
production and greenhouse gas
storage,
seasonality of flows emmissions
Evapotranspiration, - Combined flood and drought management
Freshwater availability plans, IWRM as framing concept
Evapotranspiration - Food security and livelihood focus
freshwater & cooling
water availability - Managing all floods (smaller and
extremes, riverine and coastal)
Streamflow, flood
frequency, sediment - Flood Risk Management and multihazard
transport, slope stability outlook
Freshwater availability - Productive use of flood waters

Stormsurge - Best mix of structural and non-structural
frequency
options
2/15/2024
-Participatory and river basin approach
George Kimbowa 89
Basin Planning
Flood Proofing and

Building Codes
2/15/2024
Flood Hazard Mapping
George Kimbowa 90
What is the biggest individual risks?
i. Economic crises
ii. Political crises
iii. Unemployment
iv. Natural disaster
v. Poverty
vi. Traffic Accident
vii. Disease
viii.Criminality
ix. …
What is risk? Some public views…
❑« Government has to make sure that my neighborhood is save from
flooding »
❑« Those people who live in flood prone areas should pay by
themselves for any flood losses »
❑« We have lived here for generations and it is our land, so how can
we abandon this place? »
Risk perception
❖“intuitive risk judgements of individuals and social groups in the
context of limited and uncertain information” (Slovic 1987)
❖way in which a stakeholder views a risk, based on a set of values
or concerns. Risk perception depends on the stakeholder's
needs, issues and knowledge. Risk perception can differ from
objective
2/15/2024 data. George Kimbowa 92
i. How can we establish « acceptable levels » of flood
risk?
ii. Does the « benefit perspective » also belong into the
debate?
iii. Is there a chance that the public is interested in a
balanced picture?
❑perception as a major driver of the public debate on flood

risk management: culturally/wealth specific.
❑ Media as a major conduit for risk perceptions

Think about it..
I. What are the main drivers of flood risk perception in your
environment?
II. Do you see discrepancies between perceived and real
risks?
III. How can a balanced picture be drawn on the nature of
flooding?
IV. From your perspective, what role does public perception
play in the overall flood management in your country?
V. How can the knowledge on ‘public perceptions of floods’
contribute to the overall flood management process?
VI. Which priority issues or knowledge gaps need to be
urgently addressed?
Human needs and risks that need fulfillment
What are the fundamental

risks that need fulfillment?
How do those relate to

floods?

What do we mean by vulnerability?

Is the risk of flooding increasing?
Year

Lag times – rivers
25 Lag time
Peak discharge 50
20
40
Discharge (m3/s)
Rainfall (mm)
15
30
10
Rainfall 20
5
Baseflow 10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 120
Time (days or hours)

Physical factors
Location
Climate
Relief
change
Physical
factors
Weather Geology

Human factors
Climate Agricultural
change land use
Modifying Human Urbanisation

channels
factors
Upland Deforestation
drainage

Channel maintenance
Examples of channel maintenance:
• removal of blockages e.g. fallen trees
• managing vegetation on the banks.

Hard engineering – straightening/deepening

Hard engineering – walls and flood gates
Shrewsbury flood defences Keswick flood wall

Temporary (demountable) flood defences

Soft engineering – leaky dams

River restoration

Flood planning and preparedness
How would you respond?
• What would you need to think about in a flood?
• What would you do?

Exercise
I. To outline the driving forces and priority factors
contributing to prevailing risk perceptions within
communities
II. To discuss how flood plain dwellers regard the risk of
flooding
III. To develop a constructive approach to address media
coverage on floods

Concepts of flood risk

Definitions of the risk
❖“Natural hazard" refers to all atmospheric, hydrologic,
geologic (especially seismic and volcanic), and wildfire
phenomena that, because of their location, severity, and
frequency, have the potential to affect humans, their structures,
or their activities adversely.
❖Flood risk is “the combination of the probability of a flood
event and the potential adverse consequences for human
health, the environment, cultural heritage and economic activity
associated with a flood event” (EC, 2007)
❖Flood risks are essentially the cost of taking risk: the sum total
of the cost of risk reduction, costs of managing the residual
risks and the flood losses that occur.
Flood Risk Assessment
❑Definitions of the risk
❑“the combination of the probabilities of a flood
event and of the potential adverse
consequences for human health, the environment,
cultural heritage and economic activity associated
with a flood event”
❑flood risk is the expected losses from given events,
in a given area, over a specified time (world
meteorology organization WMO,2009)

Definitions of the risk

❑Understanding flood risk requires two essential inputs
I. A thorough understanding of the flood hazard
❖ Type of flooding
❖Source of flooding
❖Frequency
❖etc.
II. A thorough understanding of the consequence of
flooding
▪ Damage (economical loss)
▪ Social issues
▪ Indirect effects
▪ etc.
Risk management measures
❖Preparedness measures attempt to prevent potential risks
turning into disasters, both at societal level as well as at
individual level.
❖Response measures are implemented during or directly after a
flooding incidence. They need advance planning and
preparedness to respond to the emergency.
Mitigating Hazards of Riverine Floods
▪ Reducing riverine floods through infiltration and
evapotranspiration:
▪ upstream land use planning:
▪ Retaining/ transferring riverine floods:
Adopt a best mix of strategies
❖Best strategy depends on
hydrological and hydraulic
characteristics of river basin
➢Climatology
➢Basin characteristics
➢Socio-economic conditions
❖Preferred solution should adopt
mix of strategies that are flexible
✓uncertainty
✓resilient and adaptable to
changing conditions
Integrated management of floods
❖The ultimate aim of integrated urban flood risk management is to
minimize human loss and economic damages, while making use of the
natural resources for the benefit and well being of the people.
❖The basic steps of an integrated management process are:
➢Risk assessment
➢Planning and implementation of measures,
➢Evaluation and risk reassessment
Fig. Steps of risk management process

Risk management measures
❖The composition of risk can help to address not only the efforts
towards floods risk management but also in improving the well being
of people, particularly if the analysis points toward need to build
resilience in the effected population.
❖Flood risk management has to follow the stages of risk cycle through
i. Preparedness;
ii. Response; and
iii. Recovery

Assignment
1. Please discuss the impacts of the following structural measures
– Flood wall lining
– Widening & deepening
– Construction of embankments
– Straightening
– Building Culverts
2. For each measure consider :
– Impact on water levels & discharge upstream
– Impact on water levels & discharge in section where structure is
developed
– Impact on water levels & discharge downstream
– Impact on propagation of flood wave

Concepts of Flood Vulnerability
Basic Principles
❖Human population worldwide is vulnerable to natural
disasters, such as flooding, Tsunami, Elnino, wild fire.
❖Vulnerability studies help to take actions to reduce flooding
hazard
Flood Vulnerability
❖Flooding is normally expected in different parts of Uganda:
▪ Mt Elgon and lowlands
▪ Kasese
▪ Teso
▪ Kampala
Factors that influence vulnerability
i. Proximity to a possible flood (flood prone areas);
ii. Population density in the flood prone area;
iii. Scientific understanding of flood events;
iv. Public education and awareness;
v. Existence or non-existence of early-warning systems
and lines of communication;
vi. Availability and readiness of emergency infrastructure;
vii. Construction styles and building codes;
viii.Cultural factors that influence public response to
warnings;
Definition
I-Vulnerability is considered as the extent to which a system is
susceptible to flooding due to exposure, a perturbation, in conjunction
with its capacity to be resilient, which can be generally be expressed as:
• Vulnerability = Exposure + Susceptibility - Resilience
II-Exposure –the predisposition of a system to be disrupted by a flooding
event due to its location in the same area of influence.
–the values (people, goods, infrastructure, cultivated land, etc.) that are
present in the location potentially threatened by floods occurrences
III-Susceptibility –the elements exposed within the system influencing
the probabilities of being harmed at times of flooding.
• awareness and preparedness
• existence of possible measures, for instance evacuation routes

Definition
IV-Resilience is defined as the capacity of a system to suffer any
perturbation, like floods, by maintaining significant levels of efficiency
in its social, economic, environmental, and physical components.
✓Coping capacity
✓Recovery capacity
Vulnerability indicator
❖An operational representation of a characteristic or quality of a
system able to provide information regarding the susceptibility,
coping capacity, and resilience of an element at risk to an impact of a
flood hazard (Birkmann 2006)
❖may help to characterize flood vulnerability so that certain mitigation
and reduction actions can be identified

Vulnerability indicators
I-Population
Vulnerable factors
i. •Density
ii. •Age
iii. •Demographic pressure
iv. •Unsafe settlements
v. •Access to basic services
vi. •Disability
Indicators

Vulnerable factors
II-Social indicators
i. Poverty level
IV-Environmental
ii. Literacy rate
Indicators
iii. Attitude i. Area under forest
iv. Decentralization ii. Degraded land
v. Community participation iii. Overused land
III-Economic Indicators
i. Local resource base
ii. Diversification
iii. Small businesses
iv. Accessibility
v.2/15/2024
Local gross domestic product
George Kimbowa 128
Flood Vulnerability Analysis

Flood risk mitigation options
• Consequences of exposure to flood hazard are commonly
explained through Source-Pathway-Receptor-Consequence
(SPRC)
i. The nature and probability of the hazard (i.e., the source);
ii. The degree of exposure of the receptor (the pathway);
iii. The susceptibility of the receptor to the hazard; and
iv. The value of receptor, or the element at risk. (the consequence)

Flood risk mitigation options

Frequency Analysis
❖Hydrologic systems are sometimes impacted by extreme
events such as severe storms, floods, and droughts.
❖The magnitude of extreme events occur less frequently
than more moderate events.
❖The objective of frequency analysis of hydrologic data is to
relate the magnitude of extreme events to their frequency of
occurrence through the use of probability distributions.

Flood Frequency Analysis
❖The results of flood flow frequency analysis can be used for many
engineering purposes; 1) for the design of dams, bridges, culvert, and flood
control structures. 2) to determine the economic value of flood control
projects. 3) to delineate flood plains. 4) to determine the effect of
encroachments on the flood plain.
❖The frequency of occurrence and probability of many climatological and
hydrological data sets can be analyzed using statistical probability
distributions
❖The distribution of a set of data can be analyzed either by graph paper or
mathematical computations .
❖Special graph paper (probability distribution papers) allows answering such
questions as: -
❖What is the probability of rainfall greater than the design capacity of my
drainage network?
❖If I want to design an embankment to hold backwater from a flood that
happens say an average once every 50 years, how large a flood do I need to
design for.
Flow Routing
❖Flow routing is a procedure to determine the time and magnitude
of flow at a point on a watercourse (River) from known or assumed
hydrographs at one or more points upstream.
❖A technique to compute the effect of system storage and system
dynamics on the shape and movement of flow hydrographs along
a watercourse.
❖Consider two sections of the river and analyse the flow between
the given reach (river length of interest)
❖When the flow is a flood, then this is flood routing.
❖Routing is used to predict the temporal and spatial distribution of
flood wave (or hydrograph) as it travels through various structures
along a water course.
Flow Routing What happens to a flood
wave as it travels down a
river reach or through a
dam?

Flood Routing Lagging and Attenuation
Predicts the temporal and spatial
variations of a flood wave as it
traverses a reach or a reservoir
A flood hydrograph is modified in two
ways as it flows downstream
The delayed time of the peak rate
of flow at the downstream point is
known as translation or lagging of
the flood hydrograph
The reduction in the magnitude of
the peak flow at downstream
points is known as attenuation of
the flood

Factors
Uses of Flood Routing
The magnitude of the i. Design of dam spillways
lag and attenuation ii. Design of retarding or detention basins in urban
depends on areas
i. the volume of the flood iii. Flow forecasting and warning systems,
relative to the volume of especially for floods
storage through which iv. Evaluation of flood reducing/protection
the flood passes, and schemes
ii. the physical design flood is routed through various schemes to test
characteristics of the their effectiveness
storage such as length, v. Runoff routing methods for flood estimation in
slope, shape and rural and urban catchments
hydraulic resistance vi. Transfer of a known flood to ungauged design
location
vii. Comprehensive water resources planning
Classifications of Flow Routing
a) By Spatial and Temporal Variation:
(a) Lumped Flow Routing – Flow is calculated as a function of time only at a
fixed location in space.
(b) Distributed Flow Routing – Flow is calculated as a function of time and
space in the system
b) By Governing Equations Used:
(a) Hydrologic Routing - Employs continuity equation, along with an
analytical or an assumed relationship between storage and discharge within a
system, in the calculation.
(b) Hydraulic Routing – Use both continuity and momentum equations to
describe unsteady, non-uniform flow in a flow system.
c) By Watercourse Type
(a) River Flow Routing
(b) Reservoir Routing
(c) Overland Flow Routing
Purpose of Flow Routing
(a) Flood prediction, warning

(b) Reservoir design
(c) Flood plain delineation
(d) Watershed simulation
(e) Others

Difference between River (Channel) Routing and
Reservoir Routing
• Storage in the reach of a • Water level is assumed to be level at
stream channel is not a all times
function of the stage or
• Storage in the reservoir and outflow
discharge only (Q,H)
are assumed to be unique functions
• Average free surface slope is of the depth of water behind the dam
higher than the bed slope
• That is, storage S and Outflow Q or O
during the stream rise but
are uniquely related
lower during the stream
recession

Hydraulic Routing
• Based on both
– the continuity equation as well as
– equations of motion, customarily the momentum equation
• Generally requires the solving of partial differential
equations for unsteady flow in open channels
• More accurate description of the flow dynamics than
hydrological routing

Hydrologic Routing
• Uses an analytic or assumed relationship

– between discharge and temporary storage of the excess
volume of water during the flood period as well as
– the solving of the continuity equation (conservation of mass)
• Commonly referred to as storage routing
• Temporary storage is the volume of water stored within
the reach at any given time and which is in transit to the
outlet

Hydrologic Routing
• Routing using Muskingum Method
✓ Muskingum method is a commonly used hydrologic routing
method for handling a variable discharge-storage relationship.
▪ Muskingum Method: Overview
-The Muskingum Method is a simple, approximate method to
calculate the outflow hydrograph at the downstream end of the
channel reach given the inflow hydrograph at the upstream
end.
• No lateral inflow into the channel reach is considered.

Types of flow routing
I-Lumped/hydrologic
– Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a particular
location
– Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage
relationship
II-Distributed/hydraulic
– Flow is calculated as a function of space and time throughout
the system
– Governed by continuity and momentum equations

Flow Routing Q
• Procedure to determine t
the flow hydrograph at a Q

point on a watershed
from a known
hydrograph upstream t
• As the hydrograph Q
travels, it
– attenuates
– gets delayed t
t
Why route flows?
t
• Account for changes in flow hydrograph as a flood wave passes
downstream
• This helps in
– Accounting for storages
– Studying the attenuation of flood peaks
Hydrologic Routing
Discharge I (t ) Discharge
Inflow Q (t )
Transfer
Function
Outflow
I (t ) = Inflow Q(t ) = Outflow

Upstream hydrograph Downstream hydrograph
Input, output, and storage are related by continuity equation:
dS
= I (t ) − Q (t ) Q and S are unknown
dt
Storage can be expressed as a function of I(t) or Q(t) or both
dI dQ
S = f (I , ,  , Q, , )
dt dt
2/15/2024 For a linear reservoir, S=kQ George Kimbowa 163
Lumped flow routing
• Three types
1. Level pool method (Modified Puls)
– Storage is nonlinear function of Q
2. Muskingum method
– Storage is linear function of I and Q
3. Series of reservoir models
– Storage is linear function of Q and its time derivatives

The Storage Equation
For a given reach, at any time instant, the

conservation of mass equation is
dS
= I−Q
dt
where
dS/dt = rate of change of storage
I = instantaneous inflow rate (m3.s-1)
Q = instantaneous outflow rate (m3.s-1)
S = channel or temporary storage (m3)

The Storage Equation
In finite difference format
I1 + I2 Q1 + Q2
S2 − S1 = ( ) t − ( ) t
2 2
where
Δt = routing interval
Selection of appropriate Δt
What is known and unknown ?
Two unknowns (S2 and Q2 or Sn+1 and Qn+1)
Need second equation!
Storage vs discharge relationship
calculated from physical characteristics of reservoirs
from hydrograph analysis for natural channels
Reservoir or Level Pool Routing

Flow over an unregulated spillway

Q = CYHx
where
Q = outflow rate
Y = length of spillway crest
H = depth of storage above spillway crest
C = discharge coefficient, theoretically = 3
x = exponent, theoretically = 3/2
S = f(H), determined from topographic maps

Q = f(H)
Therefore S = f (Q)
If S =K Q (linear reservoir)
I1 + I2 Q1 + Q2
S2 − S1 = ( ) t − ( ) t
2 2
I1 + I2 Q1 + Q2
S2 − S1 = ( ) t − ( ) t
2 2
2S2 2S1
+ Q2 = I1 + I2 + ( − Q1 )
t t
2Sn+1 2Sn
+ Qn+1 = I n + I n+1 + ( − Qn )
t t
Use S = f (Q) to solve

Set up storage indication curve

Storage Indication Curve
Q = CYH x
S = f(H), determined from topographic maps

Level Pool Routing
The data requirements for reservoir routing are
storage-discharge relationship (Q vs S)
storage-indication curve (2S/Δt vs Q)
inflow hydrograph
initial values of storage and outflow rate, and
the routing increment, Δt
2Sn+1 2S
+ Qn+1 = I n + I n+1 + ( n − Qn )
t t

Storage Indication (SI) Curve

Level Pool Routing
2S 2S
I n + I n+1 + ( n
− Qn ) = n+1
+ Qn+1
t t
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Time In In+In+1 2S/Δt-Q 2S/Δt+Q Q
(h) n (m3s-1) (m3s-1) (m3s-1) (m3s-1) (m3s-1)
0 1 0 0 0 0
0+30=30
1 2 30 30+0=30 5 from S-I Curve
30+60=90 30-2*5=20
2 3 60
60+90=150 110-2*18=74 90+20=110 18 from S-I curve
3 4 90 210 160 150+74=224 32 from S-I curve

4 5 120 270 284 370 43
5 6 150 330 450 554 52
6 7 180 315 664 780 58
7 8 135 225 853 979 63
8 9 90 135 948 1078 65
9 10 45 45 953 1085 65
10 11 0 0 870 998 64
11 12 0 0 746 870 62
12 13 0 0 630 746 58

River or Reach
Routing
In natural channels
S ≠ f(Q)
Prism and Wedge
storage

Muskingum Method
❖ Sometimes, K is vaguely interpreted as the travel time of

a flood wave along the channel reach.
❖ However, for the most part, K and X are treated as
calibration parameters into which the channel
characteristics are lumped.
Governing Equations
The method is based on the hydrologic storage equation for a
channel reach.
(i)
S = volume of water in storage in the channel reach

I = upstream inflow rate
Q = downstream outflow rate
t = Time
It is also assumed that the volume of water present in the channel reach
consists of a prism storage, KQ, and a wedge storage KX(I-Q), as shown
in the figure, and therefore:
K = travel time constant. (ii)

2/15/2024 X = weighting factor between 0 andGeorge
0.5. Kimbowa 176
Routing Equations
• To solve equations (i) and (ii) numerically, we discretize the time into finite time
increments of Δt. For any time increment, equation (i) is written in finite
difference form as:
(iii)
In which subscript 1 refers to the beginning of the time increment and 2 refers to
the end. Rewriting equation (ii) in terms of S1, I1, Q1, S2, I2, and Q2, substituting
into equation (iii), and simplifying we obtain:
(iv)
Where the Cn Values are equal to:
(Equation v) (Equation vi) (Equation vii)

Routing Equations
▪Note that C0+C1+C2 = 1.0.
▪Also for C0, C1, and C2 to be dimensionless, K and
Δt must have the same unit of time.
▪The only unknown in equation (iv) is Q2 for any time
increment since Q1 is known either from the initial
conditions or from the previous time step
computations
▪I1 and I2 are known from the given inflow hydrograph

Routing Equations
▪ The coefficients C0, C1, and C2 are first found from equations (v)
to (vii).
▪ Then, determine Q2 using equation (iv).
Various limits are suggested for the parameters used in the

Muskingum method.
▪ Cunge (1969) suggested that X be non-negative for equation (ii)
to be physically meaningful, and he also showed that X should
be equal to or less than 0.5 for the Muskingum method to be
stable. In other words:
(viii)
Estimating K and x
▪Need to know the I at upstream and Q at the downstream

▪For each value of x determine the the storage S using the S
equation and the Inflow and outflow values I and Q and take x
values between 0.2 and o.5
Estimating K and x
▪ The Muskingum K is usually estimated from the travel time for a flood
wave through the reach. This requires two flow gauges with frequent data
collection, one at the top and one at the bottom of single channel
reaches, and a big flood.
▪ If they are not available, remember X averages 0.2 to 0.3 for a natural
stream.
▪ If the two hydrographs are available , K and x can be better estimated.

▪ Storage S is plotted against the weighted discharge xI + (1-x)Q for
several values of x. Since Muskingum method assumes this is a straight
line, the straightest is x.
▪ Then K can be calculated from

Summary-Hydrologic river routing (Muskingum Method)
Wedge storage in reach

Advancing I
S Prism = KQ Flood
Q
Wave
S Wedge = KX ( I − Q) I>Q
I −Q
K = travel time of peak through the reach Q
X = weight on inflow versus outflow (0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5) Q
X = 0 ➔ Reservoir, storage depends on outflow, no wedge
X = 0.0 - 0.3 ➔ Natural stream
I Q
S = KQ + KX ( I − Q )
Receding
Flood
S = K [ XI + (1 − X )Q] Wave Q−I
Q>I
I I
Period Inflow
Muskingum - Example (hr) (cfs)
1 93
2 137
3 208
• Given: 4 320
– Inflow hydrograph 5 442
6 546
– K = 2.3 hr, X = 0.15, Dt = 1 hour, Initial Q = 85 cfs 7 630
• Find: 8 678
9 691
– Outflow hydrograph using Muskingum routing method 10 675
11 634
t − 2 KX 1 − 2 * 2.3 * 0.15
C1 = = = 0.0631 12 571
2 K (1 − X ) + t 2 * 2.3(1 − 0.15) + 1 13 477
t + 2 KX 1 + 2 * 2.3 * 0.15 14 390
C2 = = = 0.3442 15 329
2 K (1 − X ) + t 2 * 2.3(1 − 0.15) + 1
16 247
2 K (1 − X ) − t 2 * 2.3 * (1 − 0.15) − 1
C3 = = = 0.5927 17 184
2 K (1 − X ) + t 2 * 2.3(1 − 0.15) + 1 18 134
19 108
20 90
Muskingum – Example (Cont.)
Q j +1 = C1I j +1 + C2 I j + C3Q j
Period Inflow C1Ij+1 C2Ij C3Qj Outflow
(hr) (cfs) (cfs)
C1 = 0.0631, C2 = 0.3442, C3 = 0.5927 1
2
93
137
0
9
0
32
0
50
85
91
3 208 13 47 54 114
4 320 20 72 68 159
5 442 28 110 95 233
6 546 34 152 138 324
7 630 40 188 192 420
800 8 678 43 217 249 509
9 691 44 233 301 578
700 10 675 43 238 343 623
11 634 40 232 369 642
12 571 36 218 380 635
600 13 477 30 197 376 603
14 390 25 164 357 546
Discharge (cfs)
500 15 329 21 134 324 479

16 247 16 113 284 413
400 17 184 12 85 245 341
18 134 8 63 202 274
19 108 7 46 162 215
300 20 90 6 37 128 170
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (hr)

Level pool routing
• Procedure for calculating outflow hydrograph Q(t) from a
reservoir with horizontal water surface, given its inflow
hydrograph (t) and storage-outflow relationship
Hydrologic Reservoir Routing
• Purposes:
– To determine the outflow hydrograph as the inflow hydrograph
passes through a reservoir or a storage facility
– Reservoir routing allows investigating the effect of storage on
flood peak reduction (for uncontrolled reservoir outlets) or
operating rules for flood control (for reservoirs / controlled
outlets).
Level Pool Routing (or Modified Puls Method):
• A procedure to calculate outflow hydrograph from a

reservoir w/ horizontal water surface, given its inflow
hydrograph and storage-outflow characteristics
• Basic routing equation (from Continuity Eq.).
 2S t   2S t + 1 
 (I +I )+ −O  =  +O 
t + 1 t  t t   t t +1 
   
S −S I +I O +O
t +1 t = t +1 t − t +1 t
t 2 2
Reservoir Storage-Outflow Relation

Spillway Discharge Equations

Reservoir Routing Procedure
• Compute It + It+1, for t = 1, 2, …
 2S   2S 
• Compute  t + 1 +O  = (I + I )+  t − O  for t = 1, 2, …
 t t + 1 t t + 1  t t
   
 2S t 
• Normally, assume  − O  = 0 for t = 1 or any mandatory outflow.
 t t
 
2S
• From + O vs O curve, determine Ot+1
t
 2S t + 1   2S t + 1 
• Compute  −O  =  +O  − 2O
 t t + 1   t t + 1 t +1
   
• Go to step (1).

Example-1

Example-2

Determination of K and X
K is the wave travel time in the reach
Option 1: No observed data
Estimate average flow velocity (v) using Manning or Chezy equation
K=L/v
Approximate kinematic wave velocity using average velocity and factors in
Table 13.1 of notes
Use typical value of X for river reach

Manning’s Equation
2 1
1
v= R S 3 2
n
where
V = velocity (m.s-1)
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (=A/P) (m)
S = slope (m/m)
Application
Open channel (free surface)
Flow in river
2/15/2024 Partially full pipe George Kimbowa 198
Table 1.1 Geometric Properties of Some Common Prismatic Channel
02/15/2024 21:47 George Kimbowa 199

Manning Roughness Coefficient
(extracted from: Applied Hydrology – Chow, Maidment & Mays)
Concrete 0.012
Natural stream channels
Clean straight stream 0.030
Clean winding stream 0.040
Winding with weeds and pools 0.050
With heavy brush and timber 0.100
Flood plains
Pasture 0.035
Field crops 0.040
Light brush and weeds 0.050
Dense bush 0.070
Dense trees 0.100
Detemination of K and X
K is the approximate wave travel time in the reach

Option 2: Observed flow records available
Reverse routing procedure
S
K=
XI + (1 − X)Q

Reverse Routing Procedure
S
K=
XI + (1 − X)Q

Given:
120
100
80
Flow (m 3.s-1)
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (h)
Inflow Outflow

S
S2 = S1 + (I − Q)t K=
XI + (1 − X)Q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
X=0.3 X=0.4
T I Q I-Q S (0.3I+0.7Q) (0.4I+0.6Q)
-1
(h) (m3s-1) (m3s-1) (m3s ) (m3s-1.h) (m3s-1) (m3s-1)
0 22 22 22-22=0 0+(0)12=0 0.3*22+0.7*22=22 0.4*22+0.6*22=22

12 35 21 35-21=14 0+(14)*12=168 0.3*35+0.7*21=25 0.4*35+0.6*21=27
24 103 34 103-34=69 168+(69)*12=996 0.3*103+0.7*34=55 0.4*103+0.6*34=62
36 109 55 54 1644 71 77
48 86 75 11 1776 78 75
60 59 85 -26 1464 77 75
72 39 80 -41 972 68 64
84 28 64 -36 540 54 50
96 22 44 -22 276 37 35
108 20 30 -10 156 27 26
120 19 22 -3 120 21 21
132 18 20 -2 96 19 19
Select K=34 h and X = 0.4 and Δt = 12 h

− KX + 0.5 t KX + 0.5 t K − KX - 0.5 t
C0 = C1 = C2 =
K − KX + 0.5 t K − KX + 0.5 t K − KX + 0.5 t
C0 = -0.29 C1 = 0.74 C2 = 0.55

Check: -0.29 + 0.74 + 0.55 = 1
Q2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2Q1
Q2 = -0.29I2 + 0.74I1 + 0.55Q1
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T I CoI2 C1I1 C2Q1 COMPUTED

OUTFLOW
0 22 0 0 0
22 (assume steady state)
12 35 0.55*22=12.1 -10.2+16.3+12.1=18
-0.29*35=-10.2 0.74*22=16.3
24 103 0.55*18=10.0 -29.9=25.3+10.0=6

-0.29*103=-29.9 0.74*35=25.3
36 109
-0.29*109=-31.6 0.74*103=76.2 0.55*6=3.3 -31.6+72.6+3.3=47
48 86 -24.9 80.66 25.8 82
60 59 -17.1 63.6 45.1 92
72 39 -11.3 43.6 50.6 83
84 28 -8.1 28.9 45.6 66
96 22 -6.4 20.7 36.3 51
108 20 -5.8 16.28 28 38
120 19 -5.5 14.8 21 30
132 18 -5.2 14.0 16.5 25

Result
120
100
Flow (m3.s-1) 80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (minutes)
Inflow Outflow Routed Outflow

Distributed Modelling
Single Reach
Multiple Reach
Multiple Reach Varying Parameters
For numerical stability:

2KX ≤Δt<2K(1-X)

SUBCATCHMENT 1 NODE
LAYOUT
1
SUBCATCHMENT 2
3 3
RESERVOIR
2 2

Routing Hydrograph Through a Dam

What is a Spillway?

Elevation View

Spillway Design
What does “design of spillway” mean ?

a) Size
❑Dimensions
❑Cross-sectional shape
❑Longitudinal slope
b) Materials
c) Construction
d) Accommodate design flood (RDD/RDF) without damage
e) Freeboard
f) Check impact of SED/SEF
❑Some damage
❑No failure
Spillway Design
What factors should we take into account ?
a) Design flow
▪ Peak
▪ Volume
▪ Return Period
b) Design Checks (site specific conditions)
❑Recommended design flood – no damage
❑Safety evaluation flood – some damage, no
failure
c) Continuous or intermittent flow

Spillway Design
Scope
Small farm dam
Erodible channel
Vegetated/Grassed waterway design
Role of vegetation?
Dissipates energy
Reduces shear force
Reduces erosion
But also …
Reduces cross-sectional area
Causes deposition of sediment
Can increase roughness

Estimation of Velocity and
Discharge in a Channel
Manning’s Equation:
1 23 12
v= R S
n
where
V = velocity (m.s-1)
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (=A/P) (m)
S = slope (m/m)
Q=VA
where
Q = discharge (m3.s-1)
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
Calculation of A, R

Estimation of Roughness Coefficient (n)
2 1
1
v= R S 3 2
n

Manning Roughness Coefficient
(extracted from: Applied Hydrology – Chow, Maidment & Mays)
Concrete 0.012
Natural stream channels
Clean straight stream 0.030
Clean winding stream 0.040
Winding with weeds and pools 0.050
With heavy brush and timber 0.100
Flood plains
Pasture 0.035
Field crops 0.040
Light brush and weeds 0.050
Dense bush 0.070
Dense trees 0.100
Roughness Coefficient (n)
Is n a constant?
2 1
Factors 1
i. Depth of flow v= R S 3 2
❖n generally decreases with flow depth n
ii. Surface roughness
iii. Vegetation
❖Depends on type of vegetation
❖Generally n increases with height of vegetation
❖After vegetation submerged, n decreases
❖Can decrease during flood (bending)
iv. Degree of Meandering
❖Sharp curves can increase n by up 30%
v. Sediment
❖Water with sediment flows slower (energy for transport) and therefore effectively increases n
Estimating Roughness Values
Lined channels (non-erodible)

use published tables for range of n
Erodible, vegetated channels
Relationships to predict n as a function of
Type of vegetation
Height of vegetation

Very High
High
Medium
Low
Very Low

Estimating Roughness Values
n vs vR (from observations)
Five retardance classes
Very Low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
Enables flow velocity to be estimated for given retardance
class and depth of flow
Solve by iterations or use of nomographs relating R and S

(Gwinn and Ree, 1980)

Design Procedure
Design for Stability Design for Stability

Period of establishment
Low degree of retardance Given discharge (Q, m3.s-1)
Select/determine
Design for Maximum Capacity Slope
Grass established / fully developed Grass type
Higher degree of retardance Permissible velocity

Design for Stability
Given discharge (Q, m3.s-1)
Select/determine
Slope
Grass type
Permissible velocity, Vperm
Calculate area 1 23 12
A = Q / Vperm v= R S
n
Using Vperm and S, determine from nomograph the hydraulic radius (R) for
appropriate degree of retardance which represents the newly planted or mowed
vegetation
Use A and R to solve for channel dimensions

Stability Design: Example
Design a channel to discharge 1000 l.s-1
Where do we start?
Vegetation
Assume that Buffalo grass is suited to the climate
Short condition: 50 – 150 mm
Long condition: 250 – 600 mm
Slope
Choose 2% (this can be changed)
From Table 7.6 (Buffalo grass)
Vperm = 1.5 m.s-1
A = Q / v = 1.0 / 1.5 = 0.67 m2
From Table 7.7
Medium grass condition
Low retardance class
Use Figure 7.8
R=0.25

Stability Design: Example (cont)
A = 0.67 m2
V = 1.5 m.s-1 ; S = 2%
From Figure 7.8
R = 0.25 m
Know A and R
Solve 2 simultaneous equations
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Solve for homework!
Or Use Figure 7.10 (approximate)

Figure 7.10
R2 / A = (0.25)2 / 0.67 = 0.093
Trapezoidal channel: z = 2
Fig 7.10 => W/y = ?

W/y = 6.5

Figure 7.10
R2 / A = (0.25)2 / 0.67 = 0.093
Trapezoidal channel: z = 2
Fig 7.10 => W/y = 6.5
W = 6.5y

W = 6.5y …[1]
Table 7.2
W = b + 2zy
b = 6.5y – 4y
b= 2.5y … [2]
P = b + 2y(1+z2)0.5 and from [2]

P = 2.5y + y(4.47) for z=2
P = 6.972y … [3]
R = A/P => P = A/R

P = 0.67/0.25
P = 2.68 m ... [4]
From [3] and [4]

y = P/6.972
y = 2.68/6.972
y = 0.384 m
From [1]
W = 6.5y = 6.5 x 0.384 = 2.496 m
From [2]
b = 2.5y = 0.960 m
Check – homework!
A ≈ 0.67 m2 ; R ≈ .25 m
Design for Capacity
Design for vegetation in fully developed state

i.e. higher degree of retardance
Use same channel shape, width and slope
Increase depth to
Ensure channel can discharge required capacity
Check that velocity does not exceed Vperm
Usually an iterative process

Capacity Design: Example
From stability design
y= 0.384 m; W = 2.496 m; b = 0.960 m; S = 2%; z=2
Q = 1.0 m3.s-1
From Table 7.7:
Good grass condition (250 – 600 mm ): High resistance group

Capacity Design: Example
From stability design
y= 0.384 m; W = 2.496 m; b = 0.960 m; S = 2%; z=2
Q = 1.0 m3.s-1
From Table 7.7:
Good grass condition (250 – 600 mm ): High resistance group
Trial y A R V Q
(m) (m2) (m) (m.s-1) (m3.s-1)
Trial From Fig 7.6 (A x V)
1 0.40 0.704 0.256 0.40 0.28
2 0.60 1.296 0.356 1.06 1.36
3 0.55 1.133 0.331 0.85 0.96
4 0.58 1.230 0.346 0.95 1.17

Freeboard

Freeboard: Minimum Requirements
Catchment Area < 2.5 km2

Dry freeboard > 0.5 m
Dry + wet freeboard > 1.0 m
Catchment Area > 2.5 km2
Minimum dry freeboard: 0.6 – 0.8 m
Minimum dry + wet freeboard > 1.2 m
Fixed Width
What would happen if you fixed:

b=2.2 m ?
Calculation of A, R

Economic Aspects of Integrated Flood
Management
❖Economics is the application of reason to choice to
understand issue and to determine the best means of
managing floods and the risk of flooding.
❖Choices are difficult because they arise from conflict, and
are always about the future and so are set in uncertainty.
❖Economics, therefore, is concerned with the problems of
choice related to the use of resources.
❖As the application of reason to choice, economics involves
the development of a rigorous analytic framework with
which to compare the alternative courses of action open.
Economic analysis
❖The contribution of economic analysis to decision-making lies in
providing a set of fairly reliable tools for an objective evaluation of
the benefits and costs of specific flood management projects in
monetary terms so as to enable their comparison and judge the
economic viability of the proposed projects
❖Appraisal method
❖Cost-benefit analysis
❖Cost-benefit analysis examines whether the total benefits of a
project, evaluated in terms of money, exceed the costs of utilizing
resources.
❖Being a monetary-based analysis, CBA does not take into
account any moral issues, such as distributional equity..
Economic analysis
Multi-criteria analysis
• MCA involves judging the expected performance of each
development option against a number of criteria or objectives.
• This is particularly highlighted when the problem presents conflicting
objectives and when these objectives cannot be easily expressed in
monetary terms.
Public participation
• Since evaluation involves social values, it would be quite appropriate
to carry out CBA/MCA in conjunction and close consultation with and
participation of the public affected by the project.
• Public participation in decision-making and CBA/MCA is likely to
raise the level of their consciousness and to make them more
societally responsive.
Example 1
• The costs of construction of levees for flood protection for various
flood peaks are given below. From this and other data given, make
an economic analysis of the flood control project and determine the
flood peak for which the levees have to be designed.
Flood Peak Total Damage Recurrence Annual project
(m3/s) under the flood Interval of the cost up to the
peak in Million flood peak in flood peak
US$ years Million US$
10 0 2 0.2
15 2 10 0.4
20 5 20 0.6
25 8 30 0.8
30 12 42 1.0
35 20 60 1.3
40 32 80 1.6
50 46 150 1.8
60 70 300 2.0
70 98 600 2.4
Solution
The economic analysis is made as shown in Table 2 on the basis of benefit-cost ratio.
Total Increme
Increme Recurrence Annual Benefit Total Annual Annual Ratio of
Damage nt in
Flood nt of Interval of from Protection of Benefits from project cost Benefit
under the Recurren
Peak Damage the flood Incremental protection for up to the to Cost
flood peak ce
(m3/s) Million peak in Damage flood peak flood peak (Col
in Million Interval
US$ years (Col3/Col5) Million US$ Million US$ 7/Col8)
US$ in Years
(Col 1) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0 2 0 0.2 0.00
15 2 2 10 8 0.25 0.25 0.4 0.63
20 5 3 20 10 0.30 0.55 0.6 0.92
25 8 3 30 10 0.30 0.85 0.8 1.06
30 12 4 42 12 0.33 1.18 1 1.18
35 20 8 60 18 0.44 1.63 1.3 1.25
40 32 12 80 20 0.60 2.23 1.6 1.39
50 46 14 150 70 0.20 2.43 1.8 1.35
60 70 24 300 150 0.16 2.59 2 1.29
70 98 28 600 300 0.09 2.68 2.4 1.12
• The ratio of benefit to cost is a maximum of 1.39 when the levees are constructed
to safely pass a flood peak of 40 cumec. Hence, the levees designed for this
flood
2/15/2024peak will be most economical.
George Kimbowa 260
Flood Risk Mapping
• Mapping defines the area at risk and should be the basis for
all flood damage reduction programs and subsequent actions
• The mapping is normally based on a
• Frequency of flood event determined by public consultation
and reflected in policy,
• Vulnerability analysis that is site specific.
• Maps become the common element in terms of
• identification of flood-prone areas,
• identifying the risk to individuals and lending institutions,
• preparation of emergency response plans, and
• design of flood protection and flood proofing
Flood Risk Mapping

Flood Risk Mapping

Flood Risk Mapping


MID 8214 Flood Mitigation and Management Notes

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MID 8214: Flood Mitigation

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2010 –over 200 people killed by Landslides in Bududa

The cost of the damage caused by floods in Teso sub-

Water Level (m)

Water Levels at River Kapiri Monitoring station, the

Water overtopped the bridge and weakened it.

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The damaged bridge on River Kafu in Hoima District as seen in late

Kampala City Dealy floods, June 2019

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A flood is typically associated with a

Midwest flooding caused by rain storms, August 2007

Katrina, 2005: New Orleans, LA

Hurricane Katrina, 2005

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❑ Several factors contribute to flash flooding. The

Flash floods occur with intense

❑ Certain soil textures such as clay, and to

❑ Although sandy soils permit greater infiltration

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During flooding Sediment / nutrition

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Climate Variability Absolute safety from Changes in the decision

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• The cause of the risk of

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• When no space is available for the construction of levee or

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❑ “In the case of floods, the appropriate economic objective is

❖In developing countries with primarily agricultural economies, food

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❖ Linkages between upstream

❖ Land use plans & water management

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❑with a multidisciplinary approach