UNIT – II

Disasters classification

Topics :Disasters - Disasters classification; natural disasters (floods, draught, cyclones,

volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, coastal erosion, soil erosion, forest fires etc.);
manmade disasters (industrial pollution, artificial flooding in urban areas, nuclear radiation,
chemical spills, transportation accidents, terrorist strikes, etc.); hazard and vulnerability profile
of India, mountain and coastal areas, ecological fragility.

Disaster : Disaster is a serious, dangerous and intolerable phenomena frequently occurring on the
planet earth. Thousands of people die in a moment. Thousands of people may become homeless
and parentless within a day. Huge infrastructures get damaged within a few seconds or minutes.
Disasters are the catastrophic events shocking the whole world and making the humanity to feel
very sad and depressed.
All life and life-support systems are also affected by these unexpected
incidences. What is required, ultimately, is to minimize the effects of these disaster by the
application of certain disaster management practices. The subject of disaster management is a
compulsory part of learning by all students and the public at large.
Disasters classification :Disaters can be classified into two types.
1.Natural Disaters
2.man –made Disaters.

1.Natural disasters : Natural Disasters are catastrophic events that result from any of the Earth’s
natural phenomena. A major event brought about by the natural processes of the Earth that
causes widespread destruction to the environment and loss of life. Natural disasters are
1. Floods
2. Draught
3. Cyclones
4. Volcanoes
5. Earthquake
6. Tsunami
7. Landslides
8. Coastal erosion
9. Soil erosion
10. Forest fires

Floods : What is flooding?

Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. Floods can happen during
heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when snow melts quickly, or when dams or
levees break. Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may
cover a house to the rooftop. Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may
last days, weeks, or longer. Floods are the most common and widespread of all weather-
related natural disasters.

Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods, because they combine the destructive
power of a flood with incredible speed. Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the
ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or
streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of
water in a short amount of time. They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall,
limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
Where and when do floods occur?
Flooding occurs in every U.S. state and territory, and is a threat experienced anywhere in the
world that receives rain. In the U.S. floods kill more people each year than tornadoes,
hurricanes or lightning.
What areas are at risk from flash floods?
Densely populated areas are at a high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings,
highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain
absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.

Sometimes, streams through cities and towns are routed underground into storm drains.
During heavy rain, the storm drains can become overwhelmed or plugged by debris and flood
the roads and buildings nearby. Low spots, such as underpasses, underground parking
garages, basements, and low water crossings can become death traps.

Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built
along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land. In 1993, many
levees failed along the Mississippi River, resulting in devastating floods. The city of New
Orleans experienced massive devastating flooding days after Hurricane Katrina came onshore
in 2005 due to the failure of levees designed to protect the city.

Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream. In 1889 a dam break
upstream from Johnstown, Pennsylvania, released a 30-40 foot wall of water that killed 2200
people within minutes.

Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly. Rocks
and shallow, clayey soils do not allow much water to infiltrate into the ground. Saturated soils
can also lead to rapid flash flooding. Camping or recreating along streams or rivers can be
a risk if there are thunderstorms in the area. A creek only 6 inches deep in mountainous areas
can swell to a 10-foot deep raging river in less than an hour if a thunderstorm lingers over an
area for an extended period of time. Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce the heavy
rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a
dangerous situation.

Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil. In the West, most canyons, small
streams and dry arroyos are not easily recognizable as a source of danger. The causative
rainfall can occur upstream of the canyon, and hikers can be trapped by rapidly rising water.
Floodwaters can carry fast-moving debris that pose significant risks to life.

Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains, and urban areas from
pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.

Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff
produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpack can produce flash
flooding. Melting snowpack may also contribute to floods produced by ice jams on creeks and
rivers. Thick layers of ice often form on streams and rivers during the winter. Melting snow
and/or warm rain running into the streams may lift and break this ice, allowing large chunks
of ice to jam against bridges or other structures. This causes the water to rapidly rise behind
the ice jam. If the water is suddenly released, serious flash flooding could occur downstream.
Huge chunks of ice can be pushed onto the shore and through houses and buildings.
 Primary Effects
Again, the primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the flood waters. 
As seen in the video last lecture, water velocities tend to be high in floods.  As discharge
increases velocity increases. 

 With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles as suspended
load.  Such large particles include not only rocks and sediment, but, during a flood,
could include such large objects as automobiles, houses and bridges. 
 Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters. Such erosion can
undermine bridge structures, levees, and buildings causing their collapse.
 Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with minor
flooding of homes, furniture is ruined, floors and walls are damaged, and anything
that comes in contact with the water is likely to be damaged or lost.   Flooding of
automobiles usually results in damage that cannot easily be repaired.
 The high velocity of flood waters allows the water to carry more sediment as
suspended load.  When the flood waters retreat, velocity is generally much lower
and sediment is deposited.  After retreat of the floodwaters everything is usually
covered with a thick layer of stream deposited mud, including the interior of
buildings.
 Flooding of farmland usually results in crop loss.  Livestock, pets, and other animals
are often carried away and drown.
 Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters are often drowned by the
water.
 Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris, and toxic pollutants that can cause the
secondary effects of health hazards.
 

Secondary and Tertiary Effects

Remember that secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects and tertiary
effects are the long term changes that take place.  Among the secondary effects of a flood are:

 Disruption of services -
o Drinking water supplies may become polluted, especially if sewerage treatment plants are flooded. 
This may result in disease and other health effects, especially in under developed countries.
o Gas and electrical service may be disrupted.
o Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food and clean-up supplies.  In
under developed countries food shortages often lead to starvation.
 Long - term effects (tertiary effects)-
o Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding, new channels develop, leaving the
old channels dry.

Sediment deposited by flooding may destroy farm land (although silt deposited by floodwaters could also
help to increase agricultural productivity).

 Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of business, etc. (although jobs may be gained
in the construction industry to help rebuild or repair flood damage).
 Insurance rates may increase.
 Corruption may result from misuse of relief funds.
 Destruction of wildlife habitat.
Flood Management:
 Flood management : After the unprecedented floods in the country in 1954, the Govt. of India announced
a National Policy on Floods comprising three phases
The immediate
The short term and

The long term measures

The flood control activities in Assam started mainly after the announcement of National Water Policy.
Subsequently, "outlined plan for flood control in Assam" along with various comprehensive plans were
prepared and the priority areas, which need immediate and urgent attention were identified.
Till date, the Water Resources Department has taken up works primarily for the general development of the
rural sector and for the protection of major townships in both the Brahmaputra and Barak valley. Schemes
have also been taken up to relieve the drainage congestion in the cities and other important areas.
1. Construction of Embankments and Flood walls

2. River training and bank protection works

3. Anti erosion and town protection works
4. River channelization with pro siltation device
5. Drainage improvement/ Sluices

6. Raised Platform
7.Flood forecasting and warning
 8.Flood zoning

The Water Resources Department, Assam has been implementing the above mentioned flood management
schemes from the beginning of 2nd Five Year Plan and is continuing till now. The up to date physical
achievement is as follows:
Length of Embankment … 4473.82 Km.

Raising & Strengthening of … 655.502 Km

Embankment

Anti-Erosion and town protection works … 911 Nos.

Drainage schemes … 874.966 Km

Sluices (Major) … 94 Nos.

Sluices (Minor) … 545 s.

No long-term measures have been implemented so far to mitigate the flood and erosion problems of the state. Till
date only Immediate and short-term measures are implemented by the state Water Resources Deptt. as stated above.

Example: Kedarnath incident

Between June 13 and 17, the state of Uttarakhand had received an unusual amount of rainfall. This led to the
melting of the Chorabari glacier and the eruption of the Mandakini river. The floods affected large parts of
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Western Nepal. The heavy rainfall caused massive flash floods and
landslides resulting in the death of residents and tourists as well as extensive damage to property. Reportedly
the worst hit was the Kedarnath valley popular for the 8th century temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. The flood
left behind a death toll of more than 5000. Ecologist Chandra Prakash Kala notes in a report that “the
approximate cost of damaged bridges and roads was $285 million, dam projects worth $ 30 million and loss to
state tourism worth $195 million.”

Draught :

A draught is a damage of a ground usually caused by the dry weather.

Causes of Draught :

 Draughts occur there is no rainfall for a long period of time.

 It usually happens in summer, because in summer weather gets hot and ground evaporate water.
 So, ground need more water but it can’t get water so draughts occurs.

PREVENTION :

 First of all,we cannot prevent draught but we should try to prevent draughts as it causes huge damage.
 To prevent draughts we should preserve as much water as we can,we should use water in limit.
 We should save rain water in proper ways, and protect under ground water.
 We should plant as much trees as we can.
 We shouldn’t cut down trees for economic purpose or for any other purpose or for any other purpose.

Cyclones :
Types of cyclones :

The term ‘cyclone’ actually refers to several different types of storm. There are three types of cyclones.

1.Tropical cyclones

2. Polar cyclones

3.Mesocyclones
Causes of cyclones:
Examples :

1 1970 (Nov. Bay of 300,000-

Great Bhola Cyclone, Bangladesh
. 12) Bengal 500,000

2 Hooghly River Cyclone, India and Bay of

1737 300,000
. Bangladesh Bengal

3
Haiphong Typhoon, Vietnam 1881 West Pacific 300,000
.

4 Bay of
Coringa, India 1839 300,000
. Bengal

Volcanoes: A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust that allows molten rock, gases and debris to escape
to the surface. During a volcanic eruption, lava and other debris can flow at speeds of up to 100 mph,
destroying everything in their path. Volcanic ash can travel hundreds of miles and cause severe health
problems.

A volcanic eruption can:

 Contaminate water supplies.

 Damage machinery.
 Reduce visibility through smog and harmful gases that may threaten low-lying areas.
 Make it hard to breathe and irritate the skin, eyes, nose and throat.

IF YOU ARE UNDER A VOLCANO WARNING:

 Listen for emergency information and alerts.

 Follow evacuation or shelter orders. If advised to evacuate, do so early.
 Reduce your ash exposure by doing the following:
o Limit your time outdoors and use a dust mask or cloth mask as a last resort if you
must be outside.
o Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano.
o Take temporary shelter from volcanic ash in the location where you are.
o Cover ventilation openings and seal doors and windows.
o Avoid driving in heavy ash. If you must drive, keep the windows up and do not use
the air conditioning system.
o Do not get on your roof to remove ash.
o Stay indoors until authorities say it is safe to go outside.

Earthquake:
Earthquake:Earthquake any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic
waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in
Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another
 suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones
where rock masses move in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at
the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust. (See the table of major
earthquakes.)

Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence of seismology at the beginning of the
20th century. Seismology, which involves the scientific study of all aspects of earthquakes, has
yielded answers to such long-standing questions as why and how earthquakes occur.

San Francisco earthquake of 1906

About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the aid of instruments occur annually
over the entire Earth. Of these, approximately 100 are of sufficient size to produce substantial
damage if their centres are near areas of habitation. Very great earthquakes occur on average about
once per year. Over the centuries they have been responsible for millions of deaths and an
incalculable amount of damage to property.
The nature of earthquakes Causes of earthquakes
Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates. This
has long been apparent from early catalogs of felt earthquakes and is even more readily discernible
in modern seismicity maps, which show instrumentally determined epicentres.

The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated
coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan,
the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America.

It is estimated that 80 percent of the energy presently released in earthquakes comes from those
whose epicentres are in this belt. The seismic activity is by no means uniform throughout the belt,
and there are a number of branches at various points. Because at many places the Circum-Pacific
Belt is associated with volcanic activity, it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.”

Tsunami :

The tsunami definition states that “A series of waves triggered by the movement of a large amount of water
in a water body, typically an ocean or a large lake”.The tsunami definition tells us that these are waves so
tsunamis are also known as tidal waves. Tsunamis and tides both create inland water waves, but the inland
movement of water in the case of a tsunami can be much greater, giving the appearance of an extremely
high and strong tide called a tsunami wave.
In this article on tsunamis, we will learn about the causes and effects of tsunamis, types of tsunamis, and
more tsunami information.
What is the Spelling of the Tsunami?
Tsunami is derived from the Japanese word “soo-NAH-mee”. The tsunami meaning in Japanese is “harbour
wave”. Since in Japanese words, there is no ‘T’. So when spelt the initial 'T' is often silent which fits with
the phonological rules of English.
So, the correct spelling of Tsunami is “Tsunami” with ‘T’ a silent letter.
How Tsunami Occurs?
Tsunamis may be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other underwater explosions such as
detonations, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts, and other man-made disruptions above or
below water.The movement of a large amount of water or the perturbation of the sea is the primary cause of
a tsunami. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, ice calvings, and, more rarely, meteorites and
nuclear tests are all accounted for the water displacement. 
Earthquakes are the major cause of tsunamis that occur worldwide.Let us look into a detailed explanation of
tsunami causes.

1. The Tsunami Caused By Earthquake

 When the seafloor suddenly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water, tsunamis may
occur.
 Tectonic earthquakes are a type of earthquake that is related to the deformation of the Earth's crust.
When these earthquakes happen under the sea, the water above the deformed region is displaced
from its equilibrium state.
 Because of the vertical component of movement involved, a tsunami can bproduced when thrust
faults associated with convergent or destructive plate boundaries move suddenly, resulting in water
displacement.
 Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore and a long wavelength, which is why they go unnoticed
at sea, creating just a small swell about 300 mm (12 in) above the normal sea level. 
 When they enter shallow water, they rise in height, a process known as wave shoaling. A tsunami
can occur at any tidal state, and coastal areas can be inundated even at low tide.
 Examples of tsunamis caused by earthquakes are the Aleutian Islands earthquake in 1946, the
Valdivia earthquake in 1960, the Alaska earthquake in 1964, the Indian Ocean earthquake in 2004,
the Tōhoku earthquake in 2011.

2. The Tsunami Caused By Landslides

Landslides cause displacements mostly along the shallower sections of the coastline, and the extent of large
landslides that hit the water is uncertain. Water in enclosed bays and lakes has been shown to be disturbed
as a result, but no landslide large enough to cause a transoceanic tsunami has ever occurred in recorded
history.
3. The Tsunami Caused By Meteorological Conditions

 The tsunami caused due to Meteorological changes is called a Meteotsunami.

 Rapid changes in barometric pressure, such as those seen when a front passes through, can displace
bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves with wavelengths similar to seismic tsunamis, but
with lower energies.
These are basically dynamically similar to seismic tsunamis, with the exception that Meteotsunami
lacks the transoceanic scope of substantial seismic tsunamis and that the force that displaces the
water is maintained over time, preventing Meteotsunami from being modelled as occurring
instantly.
 Despite their lower energies, they can be strong enough to cause localised damage and loss of life on
shorelines where they can be intensified by resonance.

Types of Tsunami
There are three basic types of tsunami that occur worldwide. Let us discuss in detail the types of
tsunamis in this article on tsunami.

Local Tsunami
 A local tsunami is one that causes damage in close proximity to the event that triggered the tsunami.
 The underwater occurrence, which is typically an earthquake that triggers a local tsunami, occurs
within 100 kilometres (just over 60 miles) of the land damage that results.
  Since the time between the underwater occurrence and the arrival of the tsunami can be less than an
hour, and even less than 10 minutes, these tsunamis can be catastrophic.
 There is insufficient time to perform a thorough evacuation.

Regional Tsunami
 A regional tsunami is described as one that causes damage between 100 and 1,000
kilometres from the source of the tsunami. Outside the 1,000-kilometer perimeter, more contained
damages will occur in some cases.
 Regional tsunamis have a significantly longer warning time than local tsunamis, arriving
between one and three hours after the triggering incident.
 Within a 1,000-kilometer radius, one to three hours might not be enough time for people to
safely evacuate.

Distant Tsunami
 A distant tsunami, also known as a Teletsunami or ocean-wide tsunami, is caused by a strong and
devastating occurrence that occurs more than 1,000 kilometres away from landfall.
 A distant tsunami may appear to be a local tsunami at first, but it spreads through vast swaths of the
ocean basin.
 A distant tsunami allows more time to evacuate and flee, but it also occupies a wider area of land
and is more likely to cause extensive and widespread damage.

Effects of Tsunami
 Till now we have learned about what is a Tsunami and the types of the tsunami. So in this section, we
will learn about the effects of the tsunami.
 A tsunami's impact on a coastline can vary from mild to catastrophic. The characteristics of the seismic
event that caused the tsunami, its distance from its point of origin, its duration, and, finally, the
structure of the depth of water in oceans along the coast that the tsunami is approaching, all influence
the effects of the tsunami.
 Here let us discuss a few of the catastrophic effects on nature, animals, and humans.

Destruction
When a massive tsunami hits land, the amount of energy and water stored in it will cause massive damage.
Tsunamis inflict damage by two mechanisms: the slamming force of a fast-moving wall of water, and the
destructive strength of a large volume of water draining off the ground and bringing a large amount of
debris with it, even with small waves.
The initial wave of a large tsunami is extremely high, but it does not cause the majority of the damage.
The vast mass of water behind the initial wavefront causes the majority of the damage, as the sea level
continues to rise rapidly and floods the coastal region. 
The strength of the waves, the never-ending crashing water, is what causes destruction and death. A
tsunami's huge breaking waves will kill everything in their way as they pound the shoreline.
Tsunami waves wreck everything in their path: boats, houses, bridges, vehicles, trees, telephone lines,
power lines, and just about everything else. 
If the tsunami waves have swept away the shoreline's infrastructure, they will proceed inland for several
miles, sweeping away more trees, houses, vehicles, and other man-made objects. 
Some tsunamis have also made some of the small islands unrecognisable.

Death
The cost of human life is one of the most significant and destructive consequences of a tsunami since
surviving a tsunami is virtually impossible. Tsunamis claim the lives of hundreds of thousands of people.
Before a tsunami hits the ground, there is very little warning. When the water flows toward the shore,
there is no time to plot an escape path.
 People who live in coastal areas, cities, and villages do not have the luxury of time to flee. The tsunami's
strong force causes instant death, most usually from drowning. Another cause of death is buildings
collapse, electrocution, and fires from gas, broken tanks, and floating debris.

Disease
In tsunami-affected areas, the disease could spread due to flooding and polluted drinking water. When
water is stagnant and polluted, illnesses like malaria will spread.
Since it is difficult for people to remain healthy and diseases to be treated in these environments,
infections and illnesses will spread rapidly, resulting in more deaths.

Environmental Impacts
 Tsunamis not only kill humans, but also wipe out insects, livestock, plants, and natural resources.
 The landscape is changed by a tsunami. It uproots trees and plants, as well as animal habitats
including bird nesting sites.
 Drowning kills land animals, and waste kills sea animals when toxic substances are washed into the
sea, poisoning marine life.
 The environmental impacts of a tsunami include not just the landscape and animal life, but also the
man-made elements of the climate.

More Facts About the Tsunami

 The most dangerous tsunami recorded till now is the Boxing day tsunami, also known as the Indian
Ocean tsunami with at least 2,30,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian
Ocean, it was one of the worst natural disasters in human history.
 The most recent tsunami is the tsunami 2020 which occurred on the island of Samos (Greece) and
the Aegean coast of the Izmir region (Turkey) on 30 October 2020. This significant tsunami was
triggered by an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 Mw.
 Some zoologists claim that some animals can detect subsonic Rayleigh waves generated by an
earthquake or tsunami. Monitoring their actions, if done correctly, may provide an early warning of
earthquakes and tsunamis. The proof, on the other hand, is debatable and not generally accepted.
 About 80% of Tsunami occur in the Pacific Ocean, “Rings of Fire”.
 The first wave of Tsunami is not the strongest. However, the successive waves are stronger and
bigger. 
 Tsunamis can travel up to the speed of 805 km/hrs or 500 miles almost as fast as a jet plane.
 The US states like Hawaii, Alaska, Oregon, California, and Washington are at the highest risk of
Tsunami.
 If anyone is caught by a Tsunami wave, it’s better to not swim, instead, he must grab an object and
let the wave carry him.
 Tsunamis can travel throughout the ocean with minimum energy loss.
 Hawaii is always at risk of a Tsunami- It gets hit by one each year and seven in every seven years.
In 1946, Hawaii got hit by the biggest tsunami wave at Hilo Island. The reported height of the wave was
30ft and the speed was 500mph.
 In 2004, an earthquake caused a tsunami in the Indian Ocean with the energy of 23000 atomic
bombs. After the earthquake, 11 countries were slammed by the radiation emitted from the epicentre.
The total death toll was 283000.
 
Tsunami Safety
A Tsunami becomes dangerous when itapproaches land.Its speed decreases from 30mph to 20mph when it
enters shallow water near coastlines. The height increases, wavelength decreases, and the currents intensify.
Tsunami warnings come in various forms. Tsunami warning centres broadcast warnings through local radio
and television, weather radios, wireless emergency alerts, and social media. They may also be received by
outdoor sirens, text message alerts, local officials, and telephone notifications.
It is better to recognize natural tsunami warnings instead of waiting for an official warning. These include
long and strong earthquakes, a loud sound (similar to train or aeroplane) coming from the ocean, a sudden
rise or fall in the sea level not related to the tide. Both natural and official warnings are equally important.
One should be prepared to respond quickly to these warnings.
One can move to a safe place by following the evacuation signs. If an individual is unable to do so, then he
must go to high ground or far away from the coastlines.
When tsunamis strike land, their height is less than 10 feet, but in some cases, it can exceed 100 feet near
their source.
A tsunami can come to the shore like a wall of turbulent water or a fast-rising flood. Moreover, a huge
tsunami wave can destroy low-lying coastal areas to a large extent.
Rushing water from floods, waves, and rivers is highly powerful. It can wash off everything coming on
their way.
Tsunamis are destructive due to their volume and speed. They become more dangerous when they return
from the sea carrying people, objects, and debris with them. Therefore, people are advised to stay out of
the tsunami hazard zones until the conditions come under control.

Landslides: Landslides are more widespread than any other geological event, and can occur anywhere in the
world. They occur when large masses of soil, rocks or debris move down a slope due to a natural
phenomenon or human activity. Mudslides or debris flows are also a common type of fast-moving
landslide.

Landslides can accompany heavy rains or follow droughts, earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Areas most
vulnerable to landslides include:

 steep terrain, including areas at the bottom of canyons;

 land previously burned by wildfires;
 land that has been modified due to human activity, such as deforestation or construction;
 channels along a stream or river;
 any area were surface runoff is directed or land is heavily saturated.

Between 1998-2017, landslides affected an estimated 4.8 million people and cause more than 18 000
deaths. Climate change and rising temperatures are expected to trigger more landslides, especially in
mountainous areas with snow and ice. As permafrost melts, rocky slopes can become more unstable
resulting in a landslide.

Impacts : Landslides can cause high mortality and injuries from rapidly flowing water and debris. The most
common cause of death in a landslide is trauma or suffocation by entrapment.

Broken power, water, gas or sewage pipes can also result in injury or illness in the population affected, such
as water-borne diseases, electrocution or lacerations from falling debris. People affected by landslides can
also have short- and long-term mental health effects due to loss of family, property, livestock or crops.

Landslides can also greatly impact the health system and essential services, such as water, electricity or
communication lines.

Coastal areas:  Coastal areas are local administrative units (LAUs) that are bordering or close to
a coastline. A coastline is defined as the line where land and water surfaces meet (border each
other). Due to the existence of several measures (for example, the mean or median tides, high- or
low-tides), the European Commission has adopted the harmonized use of the mean high tide
(EC, 1999) in order to delineate EU coastlines. All other municipalities are non-coastal.
Coastal areas are a classification based on the following two categories:
  coastal areas: LAUs that border the coastline or LAUs that have at least 50 % of their
surface area within a distance of 10 km from the coastline;
 non-coastal areas: LAUs that are not ‘coastal areas’; in other words, LAUs that do not
border the coastline and have less than 50 % of their surface area within a distance of
10 km from the coastline.
 Coastal environments are among the most complex regions of the world's oceans. They
are the transition zone between the open ocean and terrestrial watersheds with important
and disparate spatial and temporal scales occurring in the physical as well as
biogeochemical processes. Coastal oceans have three major components, the estuarine
and nearshore areas, the continental shelf, and the continental slope. The water column
depth ranges from areas where flooding and drying of topography occurs over a tidal
cycle at the landward boundary, to depths of thousands of meters seaward of the shelf
break. The offshore extent of coastal environments can range from a few kilometers (off
the Peru/Chile coast), to hundreds of kilometers (over the European or Patagonian shelf).
The topography in coastal oceans can be relatively featureless, or it can be complex and
include river deltas, canyons, submerged banks, and sand ridges.
 Coastlines and coastal oceans span the globe, from near the North Pole to the Antarctic,
and thus are subject to a full range of climatic conditions. Circulation in coastal regions is
forced locally (e.g., by winds, freshwater discharges, formation of ice) or remotely
(through interactions with the neighboring deep ocean, terrestrial watersheds, or large-
scale atmospheric disturbances). Resulting motions include tides, waves, mean currents,
jets, plumes, eddies, fronts, instabilities, and mixing events. Vertical and horizontal
spatial scales of motion range from centimeters to hundreds of kilometers, and timescales
range from seconds to interannual and longer.
 Coastal regions can be very productive biologically and they support the world's largest
fisheries. These regions are also preferred as recreational and dwelling sites for our
increasing human population. There is evidence suggesting that changes in the coastal
environment, such as degradation in habitat, water quality, as well as changes in the structure
and abundance of fisheries have resulted from increases in commercial and residential
development, agriculture, livestock, soil, and sediment loss. Therefore, although natural
phenomena shaped the coastal environment in the past, in the future it will be defined jointly
by natural and anthropogenic processes. To understand the coastal oceans, predict their future
states, and reduce the human impact on the region through management strategies, it is
necessary to develop a quantitative understanding of the processes that define the state of the
coastal ocean. Coastal circulation models are tools rooted in mathematical and computational
science formalism that allow the integration of measurements, theory and computational
capability in our attempt to quantify the above processes.
Formation of crack, cave, arch, stack, stamp :
 Weathering and erosion can create caves, arches, stacks and stumps along a headland. Caves
occur when waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The stack will be attacked at
the base in the same way that a wave-cut notch is formed. This weakens the structure and it
will eventually collapse to form a stump.
Caves occur when waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The water contains
sand and other materials that grind away at the rock until the cracks become a cave.
Hydraulic action is the predominant process. If the cave is formed in a headland, it may
eventually break through to the other side forming an arch. The arch will gradually become
bigger until it can no longer support the top of the arch. When the arch collapses, it leaves the
headland on one side and a stack (a tall column of rock) on the other. The stack will be
attacked at the base in the same way that a wave-cut notch is formed. This weakens the
structure and it will eventually collapse to form a stump.
Soil erosion :
Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of a field is carried away by physical
sources such as wind and water.
In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers,
streams or far away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture
and deforestation.
Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a
continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.
Forest fires :
Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through
carelessness of people (human neglect) and. Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Effects of Forest Fire :

 Forest fires can impact the economy as many families and communities depend on the
forest for food, fodder and fuel.
 It burns down the small shrubs and grasses, leading to landslides and soil erosion.
 Burning of forests causes smoke and poisonous gas emissions that result in significant
health issues in humans.
 Loss of trees can disrupt the climatic conditions and break down the carbon chain.
 Wildfires damage the habitat of animals, causing them to wander in cities. Many die in
the fires, unable to escape.
 These fires destroy the vegetation, soil quality and overall flora and fauna.

MANMADE DISASTERS :

Man-made disasters have an element of human intent, negligence, or error involving a failure of
a man-made system, as opposed to natural disasters resulting from natural hazards. Such man-
made disasters are crime, arson, civil unrest, terrorism, war, biological/chemical threat ,Industrial
Accidents, Transportation Accidents, Nuclear Incidents ,Disrupt Social Order, Pychological
effects.
Characteristics of Man-Made Disasters:-
Industrial Pollution:-
Industrial Pollution refers to the Contamination of the environment ,Including air ,water, soil, as
a result of Industrial activities Such as Manufacturing ,Mining, and construction
This type of pollution can occur due to the release of hazardous Chemicals, gases or waste
products into the environment often in large quantities.
Industrial Pollution can have significant environmental and health Impacts, Including air and
water pollution, Soil degradation, negative effects on Ecosystems and wildlife, It can also Pose a
serious threat to human health, Leading to respiratory problems, Cancers &other health Issues
The Disaster Preparedness and Planning Management can play a crucial role in Mitigating the
Impact of Industrial Pollution This can Involve developing Emergency Response Plans Setting
up early warning Systems
Artificial Flooding in Urban Areas:-
Artificial Flooding in urban areas refers to the Intentional and controlled release of water into an
area to manage water levels and prevent or Mitigate Flooding during Extreme Weather events or
other Disasters.
It Involves the use of various Techniques, Such as the construction of Flood barriers or leaves,
the creation of retention ponds, and the controlled release of water from Dams or Reservoirs, In
Disaster Preparedness and Planning Management, artificial Flooding is an Important Strategy to
reduce the risk of Damage and loss of life from Flooding ,it is often used in Conjunction with
other Measures, Such as early warning Systems, evacuation Planning & the establishment of
Emergency Shelters
The Effective Management of artificial flooding requires careful Planning, Coordination
&communication among various Stakeholders, Including local authorities, Emergency
Responders & public
Nuclear Radiation:-
The Nuclear Radiation refers to the energy that is released from the Nucleus of an Atom during a
nuclear reaction or decay
This energy can take various forms, Including Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays
&neutrons
Exposure to Nuclear radiation can have harmful effects on living organisms, Including Damage
to cells, tissues &DNA and can cause acute and long term health effects, Such as Radiation
Sickness, Cancer,& Genetic mutations
To manage the risks associated with nuclear radiation, Disaster Preparedness&Planning
Management may Include Measures Such as Evacuation of affected areas, Sheltering in place,
providing medical treatment to those Exposed & Monitoring and Decontaminating affected areas
Emergency response teams may also be trained and equipped to deal with Nuclear Emergencies,
Including the use of Specialized Protective Clothing and Equipment.
Chemical Spills:-
Chemical spills refer to the accidental or Intentional release of hazardous Chemicals into the
Environment.
These spills can occur during transportation Storage, handling, or use of chemicals and can have
Serious health and Environmental Consequences
Chemical Spills can occur in a variety of settings, Including Industrial facilities, transportation
routes and Residential areas, the chemical spills are a significant concern as they can lead to
significant health and environmental hazards
The effective management of chemical spills require a comprehensive approach that includes
measures to prevent spills from occurring, as well as procedures for responding to spills
promptly and effectively
Prevention measures can include implementing safety protocols and procedures in industrial
settings, providing training to workers and conducting regular inspections and maintenance of
equipment.
Transportation:-
The Transportation accidents refer to incidents that occur during the transportation of people,
goods or materials from one place to another, These accidents can occur on various modes of
transportation such as rail, air, or water
In the context of Disaster preparedness and planning Management , transportation accidents can
pose a significant threat to public safety and property, They can occur unexpectedly, leading to
Injuries fatalities,& significant economic losses
As Such disaster preparedness and planning management strategies must include measures to
prevent transportation accidents and to mitigate their impact in case they do occur.
These measures may include regular maintenance of transportation Infrastructure and vehicles
Implementation of safety regulations.
Heat waves: India experiences frequent heat waves, particularly during the summer months. The
northern and central regions of the country are particularly vulnerable, with temperatures
reaching as high as 50°C in some areas like Jammu &Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Uttarakhand, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan &Uttar Pradesh
Terrorist Strikes:-
Terrorist Strikes refer to Intentional acts of violence carried out by individuals or groups with the
aim of causing harm, fear, or Destruction.
These acts can include bombings, shootings and other forms of Violent attacks on people,
buildings, or Infrastructure
In Disaster preparedness and planning management, the threat of terrorist strikes is an Important
consideration emergency management officials must develop strategies and plans for responding
to Such attacks, including measures to prevent or mitigate their effects as ell as procedures for
evacuating and providing medical care to those affected.
The effective disaster preparedness and planning management for terrorist strikes typically
involves collaboration among multiple agencies, including law enforcement, emergency medical
services &public health officials.
These agencies must work together to develop and implement strategies for
preventing ,responding to, and recovering from Terrorist Strikes.

Hazard and Vulnerability Profile of India:-

Hazard Profile of India:-
India is a diverse country with varying hazard profiles across different regions. Here are some of
the hazard profiles of India with their characteristics:
Earthquakes: India is prone to earthquakes, with the Himalayan region being the most
vulnerable. The seismic hazard is also high in the northeastern states(Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalya) of India. The country is divided into four seismic zones, and the
intensity and frequency of earthquakes vary across these zones.
Floods: Floods are a common hazard in India, with the annual monsoon season bringing heavy
rainfall and causing floods in several parts of the country. The states of Assam, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, and West Bengal are particularly vulnerable to floods.
Cyclones: India's coastal areas are prone to cyclones, particularly on the east coast. The Bay of
Bengal is one of the most cyclone-prone regions in the world, and states such as Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, and West Bengal are frequently affected by cyclones.
Landslides: India's hilly regions are susceptible to landslides, particularly during the monsoon
season. The Himalayan region, including the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
and Uttarakhand, is particularly vulnerable to landslides.
Droughts: Droughts are a recurring hazard in several parts of India, particularly in the western
and central regions(Maharashtra, Gujarat &Madhya Pradesh) of the country. These regions are
known to experience long periods of dry spells, leading to crop failure and water scarcity.
Forest fires: Forest fires are a hazard in several parts of India, particularly during the dry season.
The states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir are particularly
vulnerable to forest fires.
Main Hazards with examples:-
• Floods: About 30 million people are affected annually. Floods in the Indo–Gangetic–
Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions
are rendered homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year. Nearly 75% of the
total rainfall occurs over a short monsoon season (June – September). 40 million hectares, or
12% of Indian land, is considered prone to floods. Floods are a perennial phenomenon in at least
5 states – Assam, Bihar, Orissa , Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The floods in June 2013 in
Rudraprayag, Uttarkashi and Chamoli districts was devastating.

• Landslides: The young age of the region's hills result in labile rock formations, which are
susceptible to slippages. Some recent events of tragedies are reported as Varnavat landslide,
Uttarkashi District, Malpha landslide Pithoragarh district, Okhimath landslide in Chamoli
district, UK and Paglajhora in Darjeeling district as well as Sikkim, Aizawl sports complex,
Mizoram.
• Drought : About 50 million people are affected annually by drought. Of approximately 90
million hectares of rain-fed areas, about 40 million hectares are prone to scanty or no rain

• Cyclone : The Indian continent is considered to be the worst cyclone-affected part of the world,
as a result of low-depth ocean bed topography and coastal configuration. About 10% of the land
is vulnerable to cyclones. Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the
ratio is approximately 4:1. Cyclones occur frequently on both the coasts (the West coast -
Arabian Sea; and the East coast - Bay of Bengal. Currently Southern tip of India is in the wake of
Ockhi cyclone.

Vulnerability Profile of India:-

Mountain &Coastal Areas:-
A Mountain is a large landform that rises Steeply above the Surrounding Terrain, Usually in the
form of a Peak ridge or Chain of peaks
Mountains can be Classified into Different types based on their origin, Composition and Shape
Here are Some of the Common Types of Mountains with their Characteristics and Examples in
Disaster Preparedness &Planning Management
Fold Mountains:-
These are formed by the folding of Sedimentary rocks due to Tectonic Forces, They have a Liner
Shape &Often found in Long Chains or Ranges
Ex:-
Include the Himalayas, Andes &Rocky Mountains These Mountains are Prone to EarthQuakes,
Landslides &Avalanches which can cause Significant damage to Infrastructure &Human
Settlements in the area
 fault-Block Mountains :-
These are formed by the up lifting of large blocks of rock along a fault line
They have steep Slopes on one Side &gentle Slopes on the other
Example:-
The Include the Sierra Nevada &Tetons in the United States
These Mountains are Prone to earthquakes, rockfalls, and Landslides which can damage
Infrastructure &caused loss of Life
Dome Mountains:-
These are formed by the uplift of a large dome-shaped Structure of Magma or Molten rock
beneath the earths Surface
Examples:-
Include the Black Hills in South Dakota USA
These Mountains are generally not prone to Disasters but can be affected by wild fires or other
natural hazards
Volcanic Mountains:-
These are formed by the eruption of Molten rock or lava from a Volcanic Vent
They have a Conical Shape and can be found near Volcanic hotspots or long Tectonic Plate
Boundaries it is releasing as Fire on Lava on Volcanic Montains
Examples:-
Helens in the united States these mountains are prone to Volcanic eruptions, landslides, and
lahars that can cause widespread Damage & loss of Life
Coastal Areas:-
The Coastal Areas are regions that a lie a long the border between land and sea and are
characterized by the Dynamic Interactions between Land, Water &Air
Coastal Areas are Important for Many reasons, Including their Ecological, Economic &Cultural
value as well as their role in Shipping &Transportation

Characteristics of Coastal Areas:-

 The Vulnerability to natural Disasters Such as Floods, Storms &Tsunamis

 Exposure to Erosion &Coastal Processes Such as Sea Level rise
 High Bio-Diversity &Productivity, Including Mangroves &wetlands
The presence of Coastal Areas Business as Exports and Imports
 The Heavy Reliance on Marine Resources &Tourism Examples of Coastal Areas
 The Developing early warning Systems for Tsunamis &Storms Ensuring that Residents are
aware of Evacuation Procedures &routes
 The Building Coastal Infrastructure that can withstand Natural Disasters, Such as Seawalls,
Breakwaters, &Dikes
 The Promoting Sustainable Coastal Management Practices Including the protection
&Restoration of Mangroves &wetlands
 Developing Community based Disaster risk Reduction Programs that Involve Local Residents
in Disaster Preparedness &Planning
 Providing access to Financial Resources, Insurance, &other forms of Support to help
Communities recover from Disasters