Earth Science Informatics

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-018-0343-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

Review of smartphone applications for geoscience: current status,

limitations, and future perspectives
Sangho Lee 1 & Jangwon Suh 2 & Yosoon Choi 3

Received: 2 July 2017 / Revised: 6 February 2018 / Accepted: 22 March 2018

# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Smartphones can be utilized in the field of geosciences for various purposes due to their multifaceted abilities that combine both
hard- and software features. The unique abilities of smartphones allow new methodologies for the collection and visualization of
data that rarely become available in traditional computing platforms. In this study, commercially available smartphone applica-
tions (apps) that have been released in geoscience (e.g., geology/soil, minerals and rocks, petroleum and gas) so far were
investigated. The apps were categorized based on the extent of smartphone feature usage into (a) basic, standard-feature apps;
(b) calculator and referencing apps; and (c) sensing and communication apps. Furthermore, each of these categories was divided
into several app groups based on specific features. Representative apps of each specific app group were selected and their
characteristics and applicability were examined. Lastly, major limitations regarding smartphone app development and imple-
mentation in geoscience and implications for future improvements were discussed.

Keywords Smartphone . Geoscience . Application . Sensor

Introduction Ever since their release, smartphones have been drawing

As of 2016, more than 3.9 billion people use smartphones. The
number accounts for 55% of all mobile subscriptions and is
anticipated to continue to grow in the future (Cerwall et al.
2016). Smartphones can be used for various purposes; their
versatility ranges from fast processing and portability to con-
nectivity with a number of networks to sensors allowing the
measurement of properties of the device itself and the external
environment. Furthermore, smartphones are equipped with in-
tuitive software (S/W) distribution systems and thus have sig-
nificant benefits associated with small costs when applications
are developed to replace existing methods or tools.
Communicated by: H. A. Babaie
* Yosoon Choi
energy@pknu.ac.kr
1
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM),
Daejeon 34132, South Korea
2
Department of Energy and Mineral Resources Engineering,
Kangwon National University, Samcheok 25913, South Korea
3
Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Pukyong National
University, Busan 48513, South Korea
attention with respect to scientific uses; the scope of their
applicability has rapidly expanded in recent years (Evanko
2010). Similarly, a number of smartphone applications
(apps) have been developed in the realm of geosciences for
purposes of collecting, storing, analyzing, and visualizing var-
ious sets of information and data. Especially, new attempts
that were impossible with preexisting single-platform solu-
tions have recently been made by utilizing the phones’ porta-
bility and sensing capability (Lee et al. 2013). As more geo-
science apps are expected to be released, it is required to
review the smartphone apps for geoscience in terms of current
status, limitations and future perspectives.
This paper reviews the status and characteristics of
smartphone apps developed in geosciences, to consider the
future directions of improvement. Apps for smartphones and
tablets that have been released on the Android and iOS plat-
forms and are available to users are focused on in this review.
The limited focus reflects the assumption that the analysis of
non-Android and non-iOS operating systems (OS) would
have no practical significance, given the >99% share of the
two OSs in the smartphone OS market (IDC 2016). The se-
lection of relevant apps was carried out via Google Play and
the Apple App Store, respectively, because these are the offi-
cial app markets for the two OSs.

Some smartphone apps are often functionally similar or
identical to the software available on the desktop. This is
due to the nature of the smartphone, which allows for overall
computing similar to desktop. In contrast, others that utilize
always-connected capacity and sensors such as accelerome-
ters, magnetic fields, etc., which are generally mounted on
smartphones, have unique functionality as being difficult or
impossible to use as desktops. Therefore, the apps reviewed in
this study were classified into several groups by considering
the functional use of smartphone. This classification can pro-
vide a glimpse of the prospect of geoscience apps that can be
used not only as computing devices that replace desktops but
also only on smartphones.
The sections of this paper are as follows, depending on the
extent to which built-in features of smartphones are utilized:
(a) Section 2 explains the cases in which smartphone default
abilities and applications, not 3rd party developer-created
apps, are put to use; (b) Section 3 investigates field-by-field
cases in which exclusive use is made of the smartphone com-
puting and storage capacity such as data entry, computation,
and analysis in particular fields or disciplines; (c) Section 4
examines apps that collect information and data using sensors
and/or utilize the data for visualization purposes, for example,
mapping or augmented reality (AR); and (d) Section 5 dis-
cusses limitations and challenge-posing problems in
smartphone app development in geoscience and seeks viable
solutions and alternatives.
General applications using built-in software
As smartphone is a type of mobile computing device;
smartphone manufacturers generally include pre-installed soft-
ware in their devices to provide essential primary functions for
general use. Software includes text editor, photo viewer, camera
software, and web browser. Many parts of plain tasks can be
handled by combinations of these utility programs with the aid
of the multitasking capability of the smartphone, while each of
them can conduct a few simple tasks.
For example, a smartphone can be a substitute for essential
equipment including writing instruments, compass, voice re-
corder, and digital camera. The combination of these features
is available within a single device through the multitasking
capability of smartphone platforms. Text recording can be
conducted using text editors based on different types of input
methods. A virtual keyboard or onscreen keyboard is general-
ly used to input text by touching each virtual key; however,
other methods are also available such as tracing, handwriting,
and voice input. Especially, the recent development of speech
recognition technology allows so-called voice dictation,
which enables fast text input by speaking (Smith and
Chaparro 2015). Document and photo viewers can also be
Earth Sci Inform
adopted as useful tools for acquiring geological information
of the area in the field.
The camera utility is an essential part of the smartphone
because it replaces a conventional small-sized digital camera,
which is widely used for field surveys. A complementary
metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) sensor is generally used
as an optical image sensor in modern smartphones. The sensor
can provide high-resolution images with enough quality con-
suming low power (Gove 2014). A user can observe detailed
geological features without using additional optical equipment
by using digital magnification of the camera software or by
zooming into a captured image as modern flagship
smartphone cameras are able to provide photos on the micro-
scopic level without additional attachment (Graff and Wu
2014), while the screen size of the has become larger in recent
years (Kim and Sundar 2016).
Web browsers are often used to collect information from
remote websites. The recent development of a dynamic web
environment provides numerous opportunities for the applica-
tion in the geosciences to both developers and users, especial-
ly for webmapping (Cayla 2014). Some websites such as the
British Geological Survey’s (BGS) GeoIndex (Smith 2013)
and Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources’s
(KIGAM) MGEO (Han and Yeon 2014) provide geologic
maps on a mobile-friendly interface. These web services also
provide their maps via standard protocol, including web map
service (de La Beaujardiere 2006), to maximize their compat-
ibility with different application software (Guo et al. 2012).
Therefore, the data visible on the smartphone can easily be
mounted on desktop browsers or applications (Fig. 1). This
type of plugin-free, web-based visualization is also applicable
to 3D models (De Paor 2016).
In addition, a website specially developed for mobile envi-
ronments is able to provide more functionality than a conven-
tional one. Without using native Application Program
Interfaces (APIs), which require a specific OS environment
to run them, several World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
standards enable developers to handle hardware sensors with-
in smartphones through different web browsers using com-
mon web APIs (Popescu 2016; Langel and Waldron 2017).
None of the geological web services adopted these technolo-
gies, yet; however a few studies indicated the possibility of
website-based smartphone utilization for geological purposes
(Sharakhov et al. 2013; Nguyen et al. 2015).
Field-specific calculation, analysis,
and logging software
Many applications do not use the functionalities that are avail-
able only on smartphones if wireless connectivity or physical
properties of the device are not required to fulfill the objective
of the software. In this case, the advantages of the smartphone
Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 1 Use of online geologic maps on built-in web browsers. (a) BGS GeoIndex, (b) KIGAM MGEO

are the small size of the device and programmable and user-
adjustable OS environments. These applications generally
collect data via manual input and provide computed results
using a variety of mathematical functions for specific engi-
neering purposes. Most of the geological applications belong
to this category because it does not involve complex program-
ming and developers can thus focus on the logical implemen-
tation of their engineering knowledge. Section 3 further di-
vides the mentioned applications into specific categories such
as engineering calculation, field survey, education and learn-
ing, and referencing.
Engineering calculator applications
Applications enabling engineering-related calculations on
smartphones, include a number of apps developed for pe-
troleum and gas engineering and engineering geology
(Table 1). Of the 57 apps studied in this paper, 17 apps
can be used only on the Android platform, 31 only on the
iOS platform, and 9 on either Android or iOS; iOS-only
apps occupy a relatively high proportion. Moreover, the 57
apps consist of 24 free apps and 34 paid apps, with the
latter claiming a slightly higher proportion.
A large number of apps developed in the field of petroleum
and gas engineering include mostly the ones that allow engi-
neering computations including drilling trajectory analysis,
casing design, nozzle design, drilling cost estimation, well
control, and petroleum fluid property calculation. A primary
example is iPBORE (iPMI-RMC 2014), which allows engi-
neers to analyze and simulate the stability of wells over time
during drilling operations (Fig. 2a). It provides several func-
tionalities for conventional elastic wellbore stability modeling
such as (a) failure analysis to evaluate the critical mudweight
for fracturing and collapse conditions, (b) estimation of critical
regions near the wellbore under a specified mudweight to
visualize regions prone to failure, (c) calculation of the safe
mudweight window as a function of hole inclination or azi-
muth, and (d) optimization for directional drilling by generat-
ing polar charts to evaluate critical mudweights for the entire
range of hole inclination and azimuth. This app can operate on
both Android and iOS platforms.
Another example of petroleum and gas engineering apps is
Oil PVT Properties (PetroSimple 2016). This Android-based
app allows mobile devices to calculate the pressure–volume–
temperature (PVT) properties of key fluids on the project sites
(Fig. 2b). This app computes the solution gas oil ratio, forma-
tion volume factor, density, viscosity, and compressibility at
the pressure range and temperature using user inputs and unit
configurations. The resulting properties are plotted against the
pressure on graphical interfaces. The results of the calcula-
tions can be exported into word processors, or sent via email
for sharing on other devices.
Earth Sci Inform
In engineering geology, relevant app development con-
cerns rock mass classification and slope safety factor calcula-
tion. Representative apps include RMR Calc (Terrasolum
2014a), an Android-based app that calculates rock mass rating
(RMR) values for rocks based on the rock mass classification.
For RMR value calculation, values of six factors (uniaxial
compressive strength of rock material; rock quality designa-
tion, RQD; spacing of discontinuities; condition of disconti-
nuities; groundwater conditions; and orientation of disconti-
nuities) are entered into the program via the user interface. The
resulting RMR values between 0 and 100 can be shared on
other devices or via email.
Field survey applications
Field survey-related applications have been developed mainly
for geological survey, with some apps in petroleum and gas
engineering (Table 2). For these apps, Android and iOS sys-
tems take up similar proportions; in terms of the pricing pol-
icy, free apps outweigh paid apps. The main utilities to be
performed by geological survey apps are: sampling location
selection, field survey information/data entry and control, geo-
logical profile preparation, soil boring logging, and stereo-
graphic projection (stereonet) preparation.
For example, iGeoLog (MangoCreations 2016), an applica-
tion for drawing geological cross sections, can be used to illus-
trate field observations directly in the field (Fig. 3a). Although
the software only can draw partial sections vertically, it provides
common textures, fossil icons, and an integrated interface en-
abling the quick drawing of observations. It implies the benefit
of a smartphone application for a specific geological purpose by
concentrating related functionalities in a single package.
A boring log is a suitable case for this type of application
because it is generally documented in standard formats com-
posed of fixed components. Similar to other desktop boring
log software, LogMATE (GME Systems 2014a, 2014b) and
PersonalGeo (CZL Solutions 2016) accept user input in a
predefined format and exports the data for further utilization
(Figs 3b, c). Although these applications do not export orga-
nized boring log documents, as desktop software do, they are
still useful for in situ recording rather than using heavy desk-
tops or laptops because of their portability.
Education and learning applications
Careful review of the purposes and utilities of the 34 mobile
apps related to education and learning in the field of
geosciences has revealed that the apps can be roughly divided
into four groups: (a) textbook; (b) lecture; (c) simulation; and
(d) game and quiz. These are, for the most part, more detailed
versions of the categorization of this study, indicated by de-
velopers on Google Play and App Store as Beducation,^
Bbooks,^ Breferences,^ and other categories. Some of the apps
Earth Sci Inform

Table 1 Engineering calculator

applications Field Name Platform Price Remark

PE 3D Drilling A Free AbsLab 2016

PE Alpha Petroleum Engineers App A $9.99 Ahonsi 2014
PE Bean Choke Tool I $0.99 Jonathon Gatewood 2014
PE Casing Setting I $9.99 Cafm 2016a
PE CemWell I $1.99 Yasi 2013
PE Directional Calculations I $4.99 Cafm 2015a
PE Directional Drilling I $19.99 Cafm 2015b
PE Directional Survey A Free Mikhailov 2016
PE Directional Survey Calculation I Free Cafm 2016b
Methods
PE Dr DE - Drilling Toolbox A Free Pegasus Vertex Inc. 2015
PE Drill Bit Nozzle Calculator A,I Free National Oilwell Varco 2016,
2017
PE DrillCalcs™ by Drilling I Free Chevron Phillips Chemical
Specialties Company LP 2015
PE Driller’s Method I $9.99 Cafm 2015d
PE Drilling Co$t I $9.99 Cafm 2017a
PE Drilling Engineering A,I Free Pertamina Drilling UTC 2014,
2017
PE Drilling Hydraulics I $14.99 Cafm 2014
PE Drilling Units I Free Cafm 2017b
PE Dynamic Volumetric Method I $9.99 Cafm 2015e
PE ECD Calculator A Free Oilfield Apps 2015a
PE FracAppz App I Free FracAppz Studios LLC, 2015
PE iPBORE A,I Free iPMI-RMC 2012, 2014
PE Kick Tolerance I $14.99 Cafm 2016f
PE Leak-Off Test I $9.99 Cafm 2016c
PE Mud & Cement Calculator (KOC) A $6.43 Saify Solutions 2014a
PE Mud Balance A Free Oilfield Apps 2015b
PE Oil Field Handy Calc A,I $8.66/$8.99 Saify Solutions 2014b,c
PE Oil PVT Properties A Free PetroSimple 2016
PE OilField & Drilling Mud Lab I $0.99 Uakanov 2015b
PE OilField Annular Volume Pro I $0.99 Uakanov 2014a
PE Oilfield Assistant - Formulas A $5.99 Synergetic S.A.S -Col 2016
PE Oilfield Calculator - Pump I Free Theta Oilfield Services 2015
Slippage
PE OilField Coiled Tubing Data I $0.99 Uakanov 2015a
PE OilField ECD Pro I $0.99 Uakanov 2014b
PE OilField Engineer I $3.99 Uakanov 2016b
PE Oilfield Essentials A,I $13.46/$14.29 Gaber 2014, 2015
PE OilField FIT & Leak-Off Test I $0.99 Uakanov 2014c
PE OilField Formulas for iHandy I $1.99 Uakanov 2016a
Calc.
PE OilField iHandbook I $1.99 Uakanov 2014d
PE OilfieldUnitConverter I Free Azorey 2013
PE PetroCalc A Free Persad 2017
PE PetroLeum Engineer I Free Salih 2016
PE Petroleum Measurement Calc A $3.17 mule-software.com 2012
PE Petroleum Volume Correction Pr A $3.99 Maldo 2012
PE PETROLEUM VOLUME I $14.99 MAAI 2010
CORRECTION TABLES
PE Phrikolat HDD Basics A,I Free Knopf 2016a,b
 Earth Sci Inform

Table 1 (continued)
Field Name Platform Price Remark

PE Pressure Calculator A Free Oilfield Apps 2015c

PE Quick Calc Hydraulics A,I Free Schlumberger Technology
Corporation 2012, 2014
PE ResToolbox Pro A,I $2.15/$3.29 MobileReservoir 2015a,b
PE SmartDriller A Free VenSoft 2017
PE Strokes Calculator A Free Oilfield Apps 2015d
PE Ton Miles Calculator I $19.99 Cafm 2016d
PE Ton Miles for Round Trip I $4.99 Cafm 2016e
PE Volumetric Method I $9.99 Cafm 2016g
PE Wait and Weight Method I $9.99 Cafm 2015c
PE WellHandbook A,I Free Ofsapps 2012a,b
EG RMR Calc A $1.92 Terrasolum 2014a
EG Simple Slope A Free Terrasolum 2014b

were found to fall in two or more categories (e.g., lecture and
game); however, they were included into a single category,
respectively, based on their major function.
The text apps are e-books, which contain text and illustra-
tions of traditional books or web-based documents. These apps
differentiate themselves from lecture apps in that their material
is exclusive of lectures in video format. The majority of the
apps reviewed in this study were confirmed to be free and
available on the Android OS system. Except for the e-book
format in which they are offered, the text apps have no other
particular features. Based on the discipline, they are available in
fields such as engineering geology (Appstube.in 2017a;

Fig. 2 Representative
smartphone applications for
oilfield calculations and analysis.
(a) iPBORE, (b) Oil PVT
Properties
Earth Sci Inform

Table 2 Smartphone apps for

field surveys Field Name Platform Price Remark

GS aFieldWork A Free Geus 2015

GS Geological Field Notes I $4.99 Zhang 2017
GS geoMapper - Surface Mapping for Field I Free rapidBizApps 2015
Geologists
GS iGeoLog I $1.99 MangoCreations 2016
GS Kapalo A Free Geological survey of Finland 2016
GS LogMATE A,I Free GME Systems 2014a,b
GS PersonalGeo A Free CZL Solutions 2016
GS StereoNet I $0.99 Tectonic Engineering Consultants
Co. Ltd. 2012
GS Stereonet Mobile I Free Allmendinger 2017
GS Strataledge A Free Endeeper 2017

Engineering Wale Baba 2016), principles of geology
(Appstube.in 2017b; Komakuro 2017a), and geological history
(Komakuro 2017b).
The lecture apps aim at learning by users. They function as
conveyor of knowledge using a variety of materials including
textbooks, glossaries, photos, animations, and videos. The
apps sometimes come with simple quiz questions for review
purposes. Price-wise, most apps range between $0 (free) to $3
and offering learning materials in various forms. So far, apps
representing vast areas have been released such as geology,
volcanology, minerals and rocks, engineering geology, and
mining engineering. Specifically, they include: (a)
Fundamentals of folds and faults (Tasa Graphic Arts Inc.
2013a); (b) Major issues in geosciences for elementary and
middle school students (Sprout Labs LLC 2015); (c)
Geological time table and period-specific characteristics
(glossary; Tasa Graphic Arts Inc. 2013b; Tengel 2016); (d)
Interactive visualization app for hands-on preparation of soil
profiles from 3D soil strata (RootMotion 2013); (e)
Description of plate tectonics and interactive visualization
apps allowing the dynamic representation on a 3D model
globe, disintegration of Pangaea, and location of the conti-
nents for the past 0.2 billion years (Tasa Graphic Arts Inc.
2015); (f) Glossary on Hawaiian volcanic sites (Fire Work

Fig. 3 Representative smartphone applications for field investigations. (a) iGeoLog, (b) LogMATE, (c) PersonalGeo

Media 2015); (g) Understanding and identification of minerals
and rocks (Davis 2012); (h) Apps that visualize and identify in
3D format the 3D crystal structure and configuration of min-
erals (Apopei 2016); (i) Apps that observe various optical
properties (e.g., refraction, birefringence, and pleochroism)
of thin rock section samples examined via virtual polarizing
microscopy (Fig. 4a, Open University 2010); and (j) Soil dy-
namics lecture apps that offer textbooks and glossary on video
(Engineering Apps 2017).
The simulation apps are used in the geosciences to (a)
analyze and solve problems regarding a question or scientific
phenomenon by creating a simplified version of a model and
(b) use the model to allow the entry of various factors/
variables and establishment of conditions/parameters and op-
tions for understanding the properties concerned by simula-
tion. The simulations then indicate or graphically/visually rep-
resent the calculated values (results) for the particular question
under investigation. All of the simulation apps reviewed in
this study were iPhone apps. Most of these iPhone apps ad-
dress drilling and other limited topics in petroleum and gas
engineering and are paid apps, with a price ranging between
$10 and $50. The majority of the apps offer graphic interfaces
and varieties of visualization features to live up to the expec-
tations when the entry of variables and establishment of
conditions/parameters and options are required for the simu-
lation processes. In terms of detailed features, the apps include
the (a) Leak Off Test Simulator (Fig. 4b, Cafm 2014) and Well
Control Simulator (Cafm 2015f, 2016a), which are usable in
well-control phases; and (b) Drilling Simulator (Cafm 2016b,
c) and MPD Simulator (Cafm 2017a, b, c) which can be used
during the course of drilling.
With respect to game and quiz apps, selections and catego-
rization were made of those materials that (a) do not aim at
Fig. 4 Representative smartphone applications for learning, education, and field references. (a) Virtual Microscope (Open University 2010), (b) Leak Off
Test Simulator (Cafm 2014), (c) Smart Geology – Mineral Guide (Chakraborty 2016b), (d) Rockd (UW Macrostrat 2017a, b)
Earth Sci Inform
conveying expert knowledge through lectures and simula-
tions; (b) require no previous exposure to the discipline; and
(c) are easy to understand and interestingly put together
(games and quizzes), so that children and laypeople can famil-
iarize themselves with the world of geosciences. Some of
these apps, however, offer learning-related features including
games and quizzes and documented background information
and descriptions of related phenomena. Ranging in price be-
tween $0 (free) and $5, the apps address a variety of subjects
such as geology, minerals, petroleum and gas, and volcanoes.
Specific examples are: (a) Quiz apps that simply evalu-
ate geological knowledge (Shoaib 2016); (b) Apps that
interactively visualize the structure of the Earth and
gravity-induced phenomena (Tinybop Inc. 2016); (c)
Card-game apps that investigate the physical properties
of minerals (Soaring Emu 2016); (d) Game apps that
utilize geological knowledge to increase the petroleum
resource development project profitability (Geonova
2015); (e) Apps dedicated to children that offer various
photos, videos, and puzzle-games about volcanoes
( E n cy cl op ae di a B r i t a nn i c a In c. 2 01 3) ; a nd ( f)
Geotourism apps designed to facilitate the users’ under-
standing of rocks that were used to build the
Barcelonan architecture (Universitat de Barcelona 2016).
Reference applications
Eighty-two mobile applications in form of various reference
materials dealing with geosciences were reviewed in terms of
their purpose and utility. The results indicate that the apps can
be roughly classified into four categories, namely dictionary,
handbook, map, and tour guide. These four categories repre-
sent the recategorization of app characteristics by the authors
Earth Sci Inform
of this paper based on their discussion and judgment of the
applications that were originally indicated as^ education,B^
books,^^ references,B^ productivity, BBbusiness,^
Bweather,^^ travel,^ and other categories on Google Play
and the Apple Store by their respective developers.
Based on headings, the dictionary apps refer to glossaries,
which compile various pieces of information, arrange them in
proper sequences, and provide explanations for each one of
them or descriptions of technical terms or jargon. The apps are
formatted similarly to conventional web-based dictionaries
available on the Internet; in fact, some of the apps require
access to the Internet to allow a search and view results. The
basic feature offered universally by all of the dictionary apps is
Bsearch and view^ using character/letter-based words (or no-
menclature). Additionally, some apps include images for the
terminology, depending on the subject matter being addressed
in the dictionaries. Extra features can be included such as
automatic search-history saving and tracking (words
searched), bookmarking to allow favorites, custom contents
to allow the user to add terminology and definition, word
quizzes; and features that allow users to share search words
and information obtained. The apps range in price from $0
(free) to $10. The categorization of the geoscience dictionary
apps by subject shows results for geology, minerals and rocks,
and oil and gas.
Basically, the most common form of geological dictionar-
ies offers text-based information about the terminology in-
cluding images or illustrations. Based on the feature, there
are various applications that (a) offer only very basic dictio-
nary features (Apps Artist 2016; Techhuw 2016; Best Mobile
Dictionary 2017; IM7 2017); (b) have added Bshare^ features
(Space-O Infoweb 2014); (c) come with bookmarking abilities
(American Geosciences Institute 2016a, 2016b; Putranto
2016a, 2016b; Sidorov, 2017); (d) offer both bookmarking
and custom content features (Eros Apps 2016; Hybrid
Dictionary 2016; Offline Dictionary Inc. 2016; Dener
2017a) and (e) have added bookmarking and share features
(LAQMED 2016; MobiSystems 2017a, 2017b).
In most cases, mineral and rock dictionaries list images,
describe the types of minerals and rocks, include chemical
formula information, and offer information on the rock-
forming minerals, colors, hardness, and other physical prop-
erties and text-based descriptions. Feature-specific categoriza-
tion of the mineral and rock dictionary apps reveals the avail-
ability of apps that: (a) offer basic features and bookmarking
abilities (Ng 2013; Jourist Verlags GmbH 2013; Excellentis
2014; EasyStreet Apps 2017); (b) provide both basic and
bookmarking features and 3D visualization of crystal forms
(Tasa Graphic Arts Inc. 2014; Grupo de Percepción
Computacional y Sistemas Int. 2015); (c) show the optical
microscopic images of minerals (Chakraborty 2016a;
Apopei 2017); (d) offer various criteria for mineral categori-
zation and related lists (Fig. 4c, Chakraborty 2016a, 2016b);
and (e) can identify particular minerals based on given prop-
erties or conditions (Adventuroo Apps 2013; Disigma
Publications 2017; Yakobo 2017).
The petroleum and gas dictionaries include glossaries for
the terminology used in the industry including wells and pro-
duction sites. This study identified dictionary apps that offer
text-based definitions and descriptions of terminology includ-
ing apps that (a) list only very basic features (Putranto 2016a,
2016b; Paprika Studio 2016; Schlumberger Technology
Corporation 2016); and (b) are glossaries offering
bookmarking or custom content features (Bazilikka 2014;
Akdas 2016; Dener 2017b). Additionally, some apps have
been released that offer texts and sufficient photos (Sand
Apps Inc. 2016a, b, c).
Handbook applications summarize the frequently used
information/data and complicated contents in certain specific
areas (geology, minerals and rocks, petroleum and gas) and
organize them into tables, equations, official statistics, and
diagrams and present them to users for easy access at job sites.
Such applications sometimes also offer guidelines or useful
tips. The foregoing characteristics distinguish handbook apps
from dictionary apps (mostly aiming at simple terminology
explanation) and textbook apps (aiming to convey compre-
hensive information on certain disciplines through a variety
of contents). No free apps were identified among those inves-
tigated in this study; instead, the apps range in price from
$1–$5. With the majority of the handbook apps addressing
the oil and gas industry, the lack of free offers is believed to
be due to vast numerical computations, programming, and
control work required during development and production
processes. For instance, there have been reports about the
availability of apps that: (a) offer pipe engineers various envi-
ronmental data and parameter-related information that must be
considered for ensuring appropriate pipe selection and control
when natural gas weight and volume computations or natural
gas development is under way (FPC Ltd. 2017); (b) allow
engineers to easily identify all dimensional data on drill pip-
ing, casing, and tubing using the pipe outside diameter and
weight (Uakanov 2014a); (c) provide information on various
pipes that are used frequently at oil drilling and production
sites (tubing properties and drill pipe properties depending on
the size of casing) (Oil WellApps 2015); and (d) compile
many equations that are used in oil and gas engineering
(Munro 2013). The released apps in geology include a color
chart app (Scott 2016) that allows color comparisons during
geological field surveys for understanding and identifying var-
ious Earth materials such as soil and rocks.
The map applications entail simplifications of all or parts of
the Earth’s surface and represent the information on planes
according to certain scales. The apps are categorized into var-
ious types of maps depending on the subject they try to con-
vey. Map applications generally offer visualized information
on each subject/topic using Google Maps or satellite images as
 Earth Sci Inform

the basis for such visualizations. The map apps examined in including texts, photos, videos, illustrations, and maps (Tasa
this study have prices ranging from $0 (free) to $10. Some of Graphic Arts Inc. 2016). The geological tour guide application
the examined apps offer: (a) earthquake maps including real (Jeju Tourism Organization 2015) offered by the Jeju Island in
time-based updates on and alerts for worldwide earthquake the Republic of Korea, that is, a UNESCO-designated world
events (e.g., time, location, and scale) (Ackermann 2016; geopark, familiarizes visitors with the island’s geological at-
Barouline 2016a, 2016b; Artisan Global LLC 2017; Blue tractions and tourist sights, major attractions, and hands-on
Rocket Inc. 2017); (b) soil maps that display surface-soil prop- geo tour information programs that include geo trails
erties and allow users to enter the data and transmit them to the (courses) of the island.
databases (British Geological Survey 2013a, 2013b); (c) geo-
logic maps that indicate national-scale or state-wide bedrock
geology information, stratum information, soil boring logs,
Applications using built-in sensors
bore hole locations, or geological elements such as faults
and rocks (Fig. 4d, Integrity Logic 2009a, b, c, d, e; 2010a,
More recent editions of smartphones have built-in sensors that
b, c, d, e; British Geological Survey 2013c, 2016; Itacasoft
allow: (a) the rotation of the screen view depending on the
2014; British Geological Survey 2015; Geobyte Europe S.L.
position of the viewer; (b) the rotation of the map-screen ori-
2015; Geological Survey of NSW 2015; Gerardini 2015; SGU
entation; and (c) other similar convenient features (Lane et al.
2015; Civil Engineering and Development Department
2010). These sensors are capable of detecting properties relat-
2016a, 2016b; Hunt Mountain Software 2016; Regents of
ed to each axis (x, y, z) and can measure the electromagnetic
the University of Minnesota, 2017; Washington State
field at the spot, where the smartphone is located, and the
Geological Survey 2016a, 2016b; UW Macrostrat 2017a,
acceleration upon the device. Table 3 summarizes sensors that
2017b); (d) mineral maps that show mine distributions,
are built into smartphones.
mine-specific key mineral types, soil quality, and mining-
Using these sensors will allow the user to acquire physical
related information (Barouline 2016c, 2017a; Doss 2016);
property information on the device itself and various environ-
(e) sinkhole maps that list the information on the sinkhole
mental factors; unified or multifaceted applications of the sen-
status in the U.S. state of Florida (e.g., location,
sors allow the collection and visualization of data that rarely
characteristics; Femmer 2011); and (f) volcano maps that offer
become available in traditional desktop computer software
volcanic site status information (e.g., location, history) and
(Lee et al. 2013). Section 4 examines the cases in which such
issue alerts when volcanic activities are detected (British
built-in sensors have been implemented for geosciences.
Geological Survey 2017; Barouline 2017b).
Related applications are roughly divided into two categories:
Tour guide applications provide wide ranges of geotourism
data collection and visualization. This section also examines
information that will help with the introduction and tours of
the characteristics of commercially available representative
geological attractions with geological significance. The main
applications (cases). Other cases with new attempts made
targets of these apps are parks that are designated as such by
through sensing, although never released for commercial uses,
the state in recognition of their geological value. The informa-
include: (a) Measurement of the groundwater table depth
tion offered through the apps include: (a) maps (general maps,
using proximity sensors (Dong and Li 2014); and (b)
geologic maps) of each attraction, locations, and how to reach
Visualization of the 3D geological structure using AR
them; (b) sufficient description of geological characteristics,
(Mathiesen et al. 2012).
principles of origin and history along with photos, illustra-
tions, and videos (guides); and sometimes (c) other tourism-
related information based on the location of the user such as Data collection software
the nearest geological tour sites and trail tracking courses. The
specificity of such information distinguishes the tour apps Table 4 presents various sensors that are data collection tools
from other more general tour guide applications, which do available on smartphones. The sensors used in geosciences
not focus on geological attractions. The geotourism apps in- include a number of geological structure measuring applica-
vestigated in this study have prices ranging from $0 (free) to tions that make comprehensive use of, especially, accelerom-
$5. The application of the Arches National Park in Utah in the eters and digital compasses among others (Table 4).
United States includes navigation features that allow users to Accelerometers measure the physical acceleration that
quickly and easily locate the geo tour hiking courses and at- operates on the device; hence, they are able to measure the
tractions; users can see the world’s widest variation of natural gravitational acceleration as well. Digital compasses, on the
arches and rock peculiarities in the park (GuideMe Travel other hand, are capable of measuring geomagnetism. Using
LLC 2013). Moreover, information regarding the park’s geol- both of these gadgets will therefore allow users to calculate the
ogy and topography (origin and uniqueness) and major tourist position of the smartphone on coordinates using real world
attractions (e.g., arches) is offered in form of various content information and to detect the ground behavior and vibrations.
Earth Sci Inform
Table 3 Built-in hardware
sensors of smartphones (Apple Sensor
2017; Google 2017a).
Accelerometer
Magnetometer
Gyroscope
Proximity sensor
Ambient light sensor a)
Optical image sensor
Temperature sensor b)
Ambient temperature
sensor a)
Microphone
Barometer c)
Humidity sensor a)
Notes
a)
Not compatible with iOS platform.
b)
Can be used only for OS-internal purposes and not by developers.
c)
Only relative altitude change to be read on iOS platforms, no pressure reading available.
Moreover, the mentioned sensors are digital sensors and
thus are capable of extremely rapid individual measurements
compared with more general-purpose analogue sensors by
calibrating the measurement intervals to be extremely small
when sensing properties. However, the noise generated by
digital sensors will alter the output of the sensors, even when
the physical conditions of the device or its environment do not
change. Because the OSs don’t always offer correction tool for
such noise, users can apply a proper tool in parallel that can
eliminate the changes (Ozcan et al. 2011).
The mentioned measurement applications are beneficial in
that they incorporate the tools existing in physical form into
the smartphone programs as apps, that is, a virtual form, thus
retaining their functionality, yet increasing their measurement
convenience or speed. Moreover, plenty of apps empower
users to tap into extra features available on smartphones, such
as communication, to ensure multifaceted usage and to carry
out tasks on job sites that go beyond the realm of mere
measurement.
App for orientation measurement of geological structures
All geological structure measurement or surveying applica-
tions available for smartphones have built-in sensors upon
they operate. Most of such applications work by the principle
of convenience, instead of using a separate, independent cal-
ibration scheme or any other particular measurement method-
ology. Such applications regard the position of their
smartphone that is superposed upon the structure to be
measured/surveyed by the phone as the orientation of the
structure concerned and accordingly carry out the
Functionalities Units of measure
Measures acceleration force m/s2
Measures the ambient magnetic field μT
Measures a device’s rate of rotation rad/s
Measures or determines the proximity of any object cm, or Boolean
values
Measures the ambient light level Lx
Acquires optical imagery –
Measures the temperature of the device or specific internal °C
component
Measures the ambient temperature °C
Converts sound wave into electric signal –
Measures the ambient air pressure hPa or mbar
Measures the relative ambient humidity %
measurement/survey task. With a geological structure typical-
ly being a static structure, superposing the phone on such a
structure would turn the smartphone-sensed acceleration into
gravitational acceleration due to the lack of movement of the
device. Furthermore, when there is no artificial or natural
structure generating magnetism or localized magnetic fields
on the surface concerned, the magnetism that is measured at
the same spot will equal the sum of the smartphone’s own
magnetism generated by its operation and geomagnetism.
Ordinary smartphone OSs, such as Android and iOS, have
correction algorithms in place to neutralize the interference
by their own electromagnetic fields and can even require the
user for correction based on the necessity for such neutraliza-
tion. Provided that the correction of such interference is com-
plete, the results of the measurement obtained under static
conditions should be equal to the geomagnetism. Hence, the
smartphone position in real terms becomes computable.
The type of geological structure that is the target of mea-
surements in geology or engineering geology could be planar,
such as faults and joints, or linear such as folds or schistosity.
Just as there are differences between the measurement/survey
techniques using conventional equipment, measurement/
survey or calculation methods using smartphones will be dif-
ferent as well, depending on the geological structure.
Therefore, many applications allow users to predesignate their
measurement target or select the type of measurement target.
A total of 17 apps applying sensors for geological structure
measurements/surveys were investigated in this study. They
range widely in price, from $0 (free) to $101, depending on
offered features (Table 4). Based on the platform type, the 17
apps are divided into: (a) 9 Android-exclusive apps; (b) 5 iOS-
 Earth Sci Inform

Table 4 Data collection

applications Field Name Platform Price Remark

G eGEO Compass Pro by A $7 Foi 2016

IntGeoMod
G FieldMove A,I $29.99 Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. 2016a
G FieldMove Clino A,I Free Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. 2016b
G GeoClino for iPhone I Free Geological Survey of Japan, AIST
2016
G Geocompass A Free Innocenti 2012
G GeoCompass 2 - Geologist’s I $2.99 Lin, 2015
Compass
EG GeoID I $5.99 Engineering Geology & GIS Lab.,
SNU. 2014
G Geological Compass Full A $6.72 ThSoft Co., Ltd. 2015
G Geology Sample Collector A Free Major Forms, 2015a
EG Geostation A $101 Terrasolum. 2014c
G Lambert I $2.99 Appel 2017
G PocketTransit A,I Free / R&W Scientific 2016
$4.99
G Rocklogger A Free RockGekko 2017
G Strike and dip A Free Major Forms 2015b
G Strike and Dip I $4.99 Hunt Mountain Software 2017
G Structural Compass A Free Apps Medion 2017

exclusive apps; and (c) 3 apps compatible with both platform
types, 2 of which are apps (Midland Valley Exploration Ltd
2016b; Vaughan et al. 2014) that have removed only some of
the features (e.g., measurement) from paid applications
(FieldMove). Hence, only 2 applications (FieldMove,
PocketTransit) are operable on both platforms. A vast range
of available features were observed, ranging from the most
basic and essential feature (orientation measurement) to its
application in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
tracking to photographing and recording features to automatic
field mapping and stereographic projection. Moreover, some
applications were found to be able to assist in field surveys
and analysis through engineering analysis features.
FieldMove is an integrative application for field mapping.
In addition to the mentioned measurement features, the app
has built-in features such as (a) mapping of measurement re-
sults for each geological structure; (b) drafting features to
indicate the surface soil survey results for each area; and (c)
stereographic projection features used mainly for abbreviation
in 2D and indicating the results of geostructural measurement
results (Fig. 5a). Because this app selects its measurement
target from preestablished group categories, there is no need
to reclassify the measurement results afterwards. For measure-
ment targets, the app allows the predesignation of the typically
used types of structures (e.g., linear, planar) and more detailed
designation of particular excess head or rock mass types to be
observed at the job sites later on. Furthermore, the app allows
the mounting/inclusion of any geologic maps and diagrams
needed for field surveys, thus eliminating the need to carry
around separate mapping S/W and geologic maps. Each mea-
surement or survey location can be automatically mapped
using the built-in GNSS function. When needed, the mapped
information can be selected to enter images and notes.
The functions of GeoStation, whilst being a versatile
measurement/survey-based application similar to FieldMove,
focus mainly on geotechnical engineering purposes (Fig. 5b).
The measurement/survey features of GeoStation are similar to
those of other applications. The targets to be measured/
surveyed are limited to discontinuities including bedding,
joints, and faults. Each of the measured/surveyed data points
on the orientation of the discontinuity, length, separation, and
roughness are required to be recorded separately. Based on the
data inputs, the RMR and Quality Index (QI) can be deter-
mined. Additionally, the saved measurement/survey data and
records, including extra photos and memos, are controlled by
the project. Each of the survey data points is transmitted in
container format, such as comma-separated values (CSV), or
can be printed out as report in portable document format
(PDF).
GeoID, although similar to FieldMove in terms of function-
ality (measurement, stereographic projection,) and construct-
ed overall as an ordinary geological survey tool, has an added
feature of engineering geology analysis (Fig. 5c). GeoID can
designate its targets as either planar or linear structure only
and is configured such that it changes the measurement meth-
odology for each target to be measured/surveyed. The data
Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 5 Representative smartphone applications for field investigations using built-in sensors. (a) FieldMove, (b) GeoStation, (c) GeoID

entry methods offered are either direct or through sensors; the
app comprises simple structural calculations such as that of a
planar structure including two linear structures. The project-
specific measurement results are indicated in the stereographic
projection unit. Instability analysis to be performed from this
display will assume the planar structures to be discontinuities
and thus allow analysis of stability against the slope with a
particular angle and direction of inclination.
Earthquake sensing
Normally, observations of surface/grid vibrations, such as
earthquakes, are carried out at the observation posts located
across the globe. Nevertheless, it is not feasible for users to
know the vibrations that are detected in a region that is not in
any close proximity to the concerned observation post. In
realistic terms, given such difficulties with respect to universal
observation and detection, using smartphones to identify the
magnitude of seismic events could be a promising tool, not
only in terms of personal interest but also in terms of universal
data collection.
For such smartphone-based measurements of seismic mag-
nitudes to have a practical significance, the measured values
must be provided in numerical terms, for example, accelera-
tion in time (m/s2) or seismic magnitude, and the smartphone
must have corresponding features such as the storage and
transmission of measured data. Table 5 summarizes the corre-
sponding applications; only those with academic significance
are introduced in this paper.
MyShake (Kong et al. 2016) is an application developed by
the Berkeley Seismology Lab. The application was conceived
based on the observations that smartphone sensors can detect
earthquakes and that smartphones are concentrated with a
high penetration ratio in almost all locations populated by
people. Based on these observations, each smartphone unit
is used as a portable seismometer that is connected to the
network. In the event of an earthquake, the seismic waves start
to travel from the epicenter outward. Hence, the seismic
source (origin) and magnitude can be traced back from the
acceleration and seismic wave arrival time that are sensed at
each location. Although smartphones are now an everyday
mobile device, their sensitivity and accuracy cannot surpass
those of seismometers and the device can only detect seismic
Table 5 Seismometer
applications Name
iShindo – Seismic Intensity
myShake
myVibrometer
Seismo Cloud
Seismometer
Earth Sci Inform
events with a magnitude at or above certain levels. The sig-
nificance of using smartphones for this purpose, however, lies
in the fact that crowdsourcing-based data collection can lead
anonymous masses to participate in the collection of quake-
induced vibrations and volcanic eruptions that do not require
specific measurements or monitoring by a small number of
experts. Based on the collected data, high-density, massive
databases can be established.
Seismo Cloud is a similar example. This application per-
forms crowdsourced earthquake detection in a similar manner
as MyShake but is operable on platforms such as Raspberry Pi
and Arduino in addition to smartphones. While handheld de-
vices such as smartphones typically have difficulties in
predicting vibrations such as earthquakes, Seismo Cloud al-
lows the use of non-smartphone and economized embedded
devices as fixed platform and hence the creation of highly
reliable low-cost seismometer networks.
Data visualization software
Various sensors mounted on smartphones not only allow data
collection through measurements/surveys but can be applied
to visualization. Utilizing the fact that the position of a
smartphone can be measured, AR is used, providing informa-
tion on the phone’s current position in combination with in-
formation on the real world. The AR technique can intuitively
visualize the location or structural information concerning the
mass. As geoscientific information and data include many sets
of such information (grid geology, geological structure), visu-
alization based on AR can be effectively applied to wide
ranges of endeavors such as field geological surveys and
education.
In general, AR can be categorized into three types: (a)
Using a camera to capture the image of a unit having a partic-
ular configuration (e.g., marker, object) and recognizing the
information via pattern recognition technology to indicate a
particular piece of information near the location in question;
(b) using the device’s location information, the target’s relative
location information, and other sensor-detected information to
indicate information on the surroundings; and (c) combining
the aforementioned types (Daponte et al. 2014). The first
method has merits because the actual target can be substituted
or additional information/data on the target can be indicated;
Platform Price Remark
I Free Hakusan Corporation 2017
A Free UC Berkeley Seismological Laboratory 2017
I $1.99 Natalini 2013
A,I Free Informatica@sapienza 2017
I $1.99 FFFF00 Agents AB 2013
Earth Sci Inform
however, the actual target must always be recorded/
photographed. The second option allows the calculation and
indication of the relative locations of other sites once the cur-
rent location of the device is established/entered; however, it is
significantly affected by the GPS-based location accuracy,
angle of direction via digital compass, and other sensor-
related factors (Lee et al. 2015).
The AR technology has started to be noticed only recently
and is now expanding the scope of its application, with focus
in the entertainment industry. Hence, not too many case stud-
ies exist. However, three recently released geoscience studies
provide good examples of the applicability of AR that utilizes
different specific technologies.
Unearthing 3D modeling (ARANZ Geo, Ltd 2016) is an
AR app that utilizes a marker. From the viewpoint of AR
technology, this application executes only very basic roles.
When the app is activated, the recorded image is shown using
the camera in real time; when the producing company’s par-
ticular marker is projected onto the screen or is printed and
shown on the marker, the geological model is established on
the marker. The model allows shifting of the phone’s perspec-
tive as if the real object was there at the location; the modeling
can be selected and rotated on the screen. Divided into several
parts, the model allows 3D viewing by eliminating or marking
a particular section. This technique is widely applicable in
many fields (e.g., education) because it offers experiences that
are different from the typical 3D modeling projected onto a 2D
screen through real-world perspectives of a 3D object.
The app iGeology3D (British Geological Survey 2012) is
an application of 3D AR technology to the generic geologic
map application iGeology (British Geological Survey 2013c,
2016). With geologic maps with clearly established coordi-
nates, the coordinates are converted to the relative location
using the smartphone’s location and then projected in 3D.
The result is information visualized on geologic maps, with
the smartphone’s face direction serving as the reference. Using
such an approach, this app combines geologic maps built-in
the camera’s focus, thus offering a visual, where the current
location is superimposed with the corresponding geologic
map. Through the scheme, personnel can intuitively check
the geological information of a certain area or region without
having to separately refer to the geologic map at the job site.
Considering that the existing geologic maps are ultimately 2D
information, despite the convenience with which the informa-
tion is obtained on the app, the researcher who wishes to refer
to the information would have to perform a comparison to
ensure the use; iGeology3D, however, has abbreviated these
cumbersome steps, providing greater convenience to field sur-
vey crews.
BoreholeAR (Lee et al. 2015) is an AR-based app that
displays boring log information that is used as reference infor-
mation for underground geological data. Technically speak-
ing, this app uses the same location-based AR as iGeology3D.
The boring log information, unlike geologic maps, is repre-
sented in form of dots in a number of locations; hence, visu-
alizing such difficult-to-locate information at sites through AR
will expedite the search for drill holes using concentrated vi-
sualization of the virtual location to the users’ advantage. Note
that the boring log data are presented in a particular format and
as such, it is difficult to treat the data as individual document
when a number of bore log data are present in certain areas or
regions. In contrast, the new method benefits the site’s field
surveyors by either visualizing the log information in concen-
trated form or allowing analysis of the target.
UMineAR (Suh et al. 2017) is a mobile tablet app that
enables users to rapidly identify underground mine objects
(drifts, entrances, boreholes, hazards) and intuitively visualize
them in 3D using a mobile AR technique (Fig. 6). UMineAR
consists of search, AR, map, and database modules. The
search module provides data retrieval and visualization op-
tions/functions. A case study showed that UMineAR applica-
tion is suitable for onsite visualization of high-volume mine
GIS data based on geolocations; no specialized equipment or
skills are required to understand the underground mine
environment.
Limitations and future perspectives
Hardware limitations
Limited capacity
In relation to the improvement made with respect to the
smartphone penetration ratio, advances in the hardware tech-
nology have endowed new ordinary editions of smartphones
with merits such as, most of all, smaller thickness and smaller
weight (physical indicators, hardware-wise), longer battery
duration, and lower price. The smaller hardware and longer
battery life are trade-offs, whilst the lower-price factor is in
conflict with all other factors. Satisfying all of the factors,
therefore, would necessitate the adoption of smaller, lighter,
lower-voltage, and cheaper parts (Middlemiss et al. 2016),
ultimately limiting the phone’s processing performance and
storage capabilities.
The majority of the latest versions of smartphones have an
built-in low-voltage processors and flash memory-based stor-
age (Daponte et al. 2013), which are in most cases relatively
less competent in speed and capacity than the parts that are
mounted in desktop or notebook computers. Considering the
characteristics of geosciences that handle 3D spatial data and
fast-processed data regarding vast spans of areas, such limita-
tions of smartphones will lead to limitations in the utility be-
cause of the device’s failure to perform computations and
reception of necessary analysis data that are being handled
by desktop computer hardware, although the same challenges

Fig. 6 Abandoned mine hazard
site investigation using
UMineAR
are being noted in the existing computing environment using
desktop computers. As reviewed in Sections 3 and 4, the ma-
jority of apps that have been released so far can only carry out
simple equation applications, search, and one-time analyses;
apps capable of handling or analyzing large-volume data are
yet to be released.
Although the processing speed of smartphone processors is
rapidly improving (Lin et al. 2016), there still remain limita-
tions in the device’s capacity for handling desktop-level tasks.
Technologies to compensate such limitations are being devel-
oped. Note in particular that a number of solutions, such as the
commercially available S/W ArcGIS Server and the open
source-based MapServer and GeoServer programs, have been
developed to divide the task into two levels: the server is in
charge of primary data processing and storage, while the
smartphone takes care of low-load tasks, such as giving in-
structions and visualizing pre-rendered data, thus together
making the application more client-oriented (Esri 2017;
Earth Sci Inform
Open Source Geospatial Foundation 2017a, b). Such an ap-
proach would be appropriate for scenarios, where large-
volume data need to be processed continuously by a number
of users because this scheme would allow most analysis and
processing that are implementable in existing manners and yet
incorporate the merits of smartphones. Furthermore, this ap-
proach would allow the smartphone applications to be created
web-based by transferring the massive processing load and
functioning to the server. An appropriate example would be
the visualization of geologic maps as introduced in Section 2.
Note that a multifaceted solution such as cloud computing
might be a beneficial for geological surveys for which access
to data by multiple users and the handling of bulk data are
necessary (Wu et al. 2015). In these server-based schemes,
where the original data and their handling platforms are all
within the server, the role of smartphones is diminished.
However, smartphones can still execute their original roles
such as sensor-based data collection and crowdsourcing;
Earth Sci Inform
hence, their importance remains. Moreover, during those more
original tasks, the device can help to reduce the consumption
of energy that is needed for computation and other tasks
(Altamimi et al. 2012). To sum up, the mentioned apps could
be appropriate models for field survey during which users
cannot rely on outside power supply.
Sensor quality
Collecting information/data on physical properties from real-
world sources, that is, one of the most critical tasks in geosci-
ence, can only rely on sensors unless it is otherwise achievable
through researchers’ direct, first-hand observations. The sen-
sors play a pivotal role in field property surveys, alongside the
smartphone’s mobility, internal data-processing capability,
and data transmission features. Hence, it is indispensable that
the device’s hard- and software technology is further devel-
oped to enhance the measurement precision and accuracy and
ensure the scope of its utility/applicability.
Built-in sensors of smartphones are sensors that are based
on the microelectromechanical system (MEMS); hence, the
device can be smaller and lighter. However, the sensors are
characterized by a relatively lower accuracy, precision, and
sensitivity because they are incorporated into the device to
provide convenience for users (Syed et al. 2013). The ratio-
nale notwithstanding, the sensors that are built into the more
recent models of smartphones are powerful enough to be uti-
lized for measurement/survey purposes. As mentioned in
Section 4, the calibration of the noise and skewness errors of
sensor-produced output values are somewhat of a burden to
the developers. Moreover, because the majority of electronic
parts that make up the device are placed on the small main
board due to the hardware characteristics, the digital compass
(magnetometer) becomes particularly vulnerable to the effects
of such parts, to varying degrees (Ozyagcilar 2015). Hence,
using the measured data would inevitably make prior calibra-
tion necessary. Normally, the OS carries out the calibration,
providing corrected values.
As for the hardware aspect of the sensor issue, sensors are
continuously improved, just as the processing speed and stor-
age capacity. For instance, the latest developed MEMS has a
sensitivity so powerful that it allows the device to measure
even Earth tides (Middlemiss et al. 2016). However, prob-
lems, such as internal interference, are inherent to the device’s
internal construction and as such cannot be solved with im-
provements in the sensing capability alone. The development
of calibration algorithms and selection of appropriate
measurement/survey methodologies must therefore accompa-
ny sensor-improving endeavors (Syed et al. 2013). An alter-
native should also be considered, where key sensors are
placed into separate external hardware and then connected to
the smartphone.
Device fragmentation
Smartphones with many types of hardware packages are avail-
able, which could vary in terms of size, performance, extra
features, and other characteristics, even when the same plat-
form is used. Such diversity satisfies the purpose, taste, and
preferred pricing of smartphone users who represent vast
ranges of clientele. Sensors, which only recently are being
built into the phone as pressure meters, are included based
on the type of hardware concerned. Hence, there are differ-
ences in terms of which particular function(s) can be fulfilled
by which sensors. Each hardware type comes with different
sensor types, locations within the device, and the degree of
impact on other parts. Even the size and form of chassis vary
depending on the model.
Substituting the conventional measurement/survey equip-
ment used in geoscience by smartphones would require to
consistently simulate the output delivery system of the equip-
ment and their characteristics such as accuracy, precision, and
sensitivity. However, as mentioned before, measuring the data
using the same algorithm would still not guarantee outputs
with consistent quality, implying the inevitable problem that
all smartphones (models) would need to be tested to accom-
plish accurate measurements of the specification of the devel-
oped applications. For instance, the seismometer application
introduced in Section 4 uses sensors that come in only one
type, that is, an accelerometer, implying a relatively smaller
impact of the sensors. However, if the hardware is not
completely fixed onto the vibrating surface, the degree of
the phone’s movement induced by vibrations, such as those
during an earthquake, would vary depending on the weight,
surface material, and orientation. Hence, calibration would be
necessary for each type of hardware. Some of the seismometer
applications are trying to solve this problem to a certain degree
by offering calibration methodology (Smart Tools Co. 2017).
An accelerometer, compared with a digital compass, re-
quires less calibration by the user or developer (Lee et al.
2013) and hence less changes to the outputs due to differences
in hardware, even when the built-in sensors are used. In case
of a digital compass or gyroscope that detect electromagnetic
fields, the outputs can be significantly affected by differences
in the internal layout of parts. Such impact could be mini-
mized by offering equipment-specific appropriate calibration
methodologies or using external hardware with independent
built-in sensors.
Software-related issues
Difficulties caused by various OS environments
The values sensed by sensors built into smartphones will be
provided via the respective OS’s API. The developers can use
these values to execute calculations such as that of the phone’s

position information. Using the same type of sensor, however,
would still require care and caution because the output-
delivering method or pre-processing steps differ. For instance,
the unit of measurement used by the Android-based acceler-
ometer indicating the outputs is m/s2, whereas the unit adopted
by iOS is g (9.81 m/s2). Moreover, despite the same orienta-
tion of the 3D perpendicular coordinates based on the device
as reference, the output orientations are opposite due to the
difference in the acceleration concept (Apple 2017; Google
2017b). Programs executing the same role would therefore
still need to process the sensed values differently depending
on the type of each platform.
The disclosed details, such as the sensed values, can be
addressed by simple modification of algorithms. However,
the undisclosed items, such as pre-processing and correction
methodologies for sensed outputs, would need to be identified
against the software’s outputs through additional testing for
each hardware type or internally corrected algorithms would
need to be built into the application instead of using the
corrected values. The differences between different OS-
based data outputs could be minimized because each OS of-
fers sensed values that are not precorrected.
Each OS, such as Android and iOS, uses different native
programming languages for development purposes; their
equipment and S/W programs also differ. Hence, the applica-
tion development for each OS would require skills that allow
the use of each environment and development language
(Goadrich and Rogers 2011). This becomes a factor that will
increase the personnel developing applications that operate on
each OS and development and maintenance costs. In cases,
where the process of application operations does not require
the use of a native API or very little of it, the majority of the
contents, except for the most integral part, could be employed
as OS-common applications (e.g., web app or hybrid app;
Godwin-Jones 2011). Additionally, using multi-OS-operable
languages, such as C++, that operate on Android and iOS
could be a viable alternative to avoid overlapping work with
respect to the development of the same content in different
languages.
Fast-changing APIs
Smartphone OSs undergo faster API updates than PC OSs due
to the active development and expansion of features. An up-
date in the key version of a certain OS would also require an
update of corresponding applications. For instance, Android
undergoes approximately more than 100 API updates each
month, thus requiring rapid modifications of hardware, user
interface, and web-related items (McDonnell et al. 2013).
Considering the characteristics of current smartphone models,
with increasingly larger numbers of sensors being built in,
problems likely occur when the timely response to such
Earth Sci Inform
updates is not in place, compromising the core functions such
as measurements/surveys and visualization using the sensors.
Failing to modify the altered orders could lead to the failure
of the program in operating as intended or executing the func-
tions all together. These problems could make the use, main-
tenance, and repair of applications difficult in combination
with fragmentation problems mentioned in Section 5.1.3 be-
cause not all equipment can be updated to the latest OS ver-
sion nor do all applications operate on the latest OS version.
From the viewpoint of users, the discontinuation of OS up-
dates by the manufacturer of their smartphone would mean
that they cannot use the latest OS version. Hence, if the appli-
cations that they are using develop applications by using the
OS version required by the latest API, the users cannot use
their applications. Furthermore, the developers face difficul-
ties in manufacturing applications capable of accommodating
the largest possible number of devices such that their clients
who use varieties of OS versions can be satisfied. The devel-
opers would need the continued involvement of maintenance
personnel and might experience continued mobilization of
relevant costs and expenditures.
Application sandbox
The Android OS and iOS implement limited authorization
areas called sandbox to ensure security. With this implemen-
tation, data storage space accessible from each application is
strictly allocated and any violation of such limits by access
attempts are either prohibited or special authorization is re-
quired (Ahmad et al. 2013). Hence, even those applications
that are built into the same device would still undergo relative-
ly more complicated processes of data sharing or transferring
when compared with the desktop S/W environment. Note that
bulk data that require the preservation in single storage and the
sharing thereof could particularly be vulnerable to such a
problem. This very problem can be an obstacle for geoscience
endeavors that use many maps, videos, and other spatial
datasets. If large-volume data need to be entered and retrieved
in a series of steps, users might experience difficulties such as
having to create applications by combining all related features
to avoid problems with respect to security and inconvenience
in use during data sharing.
The aforementioned problems might not be so serious
when the data size is small because then a safe and user-
friendly method can be used such as transferring the entirety
of data between applications. However, when considering the
use of smartphones as a versatile scientific tool, appropriate
solutions are necessary. A viable solution would be, sharing
data by using external storage, such as cloud storage, or as
mentioned in Section 5.1.1, using server-computing to avoid
problems associated with storage space, data redundancy, and
security issues.
Earth Sci Inform
Conclusions
In this paper, a large number of commercial applications avail-
able in the field of geosciences were investigated and the areas
of use and major features of those applications were exam-
ined. The results of the review revealed many cases in which
the existing recording, analysis, and measurement methodol-
ogies and tools could be improved to a certain extent or re-
placed by utilizing the device’s computing capacity, mobility,
sensors, and other strengths. Commercially available applica-
tions have been developed for various purposes and a number
of different disciplines. Although a great number of apps have
been developed for mere information conveyance, computing,
and other similar purposes, the results also identified many
apps that can be used for complex purposes, such as sensor-
based measurements, analysis, and field survey execution.
The mentioned apps have multifaceted functionality, depend-
ing on the extent of use of each built-in feature of
smartphones. Hence, the current status of the apps implies
the advancement in hardware engineering for smartphones
that are equipped with increasingly larger numbers of sensors
and the future of the application might be determined. At
present, the majority of applications of sensor-applied soft-
ware programs are capable of simple measurements or visu-
alizations only. However, convergence between the software
capability and other analysis and simulation features, as men-
tioned in Section 3, could allow the realization of applications
with a greater variety and usefulness.
The background of such app development and implemen-
tation is characterized by many limitations with respect to
hard- and software aspects of smartphones, reflecting their^
mobile-device^ characteristics and differences that set them
apart from PCs. The major problems of hardware include the
low capacity, sensor quality, and fragmentation due to vari-
ous hardware gadgets, whereas the problems of software are
related to the OS characteristics that create development or
maintenance and repair-related cost issues and differences
between OSs. Despite the weaknesses, both hard- and soft-
ware aspects of smartphones are rapidly advancing, resulting
in increasingly more variations in the type; even more ap-
plications are anticipated to be implemented in the future.
Note in particular that the field of geosciences is divided into
a large number of specific fields, with each of the fields
demanding corresponding applicable functionality and
strengths. Utilizing particular strengths that are applicable
to each specific field could therefore increase the applicabil-
ity of smartphones.
Funding This research was supported by (1) Basic Science Research
Program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by
the Ministry of Education of Korea (2015R1D1A1A01061290) and (2)
Basic Research Project of the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral
resources (KIGAM) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future
Planning of Korea.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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