Biblical

❖ Jesus Christ (1123)

➢ Birth and Early Life:
■ Born in Bethlehem, Judea, around 4-6 BCE.
■ Conceived by the Virgin Mary through the Holy Spirit.
■ Raised in Nazareth by Mary and her husband Joseph.
➢ Ministry:
■ Started his public ministry around the age of 30.
■ Baptized by John the Baptist in the Jordan River.
■ Preached about the Kingdom of God, repentance, and love.
■ Performed miracles, including healing the sick, feeding the hungry, and
raising the dead.
■ Chose twelve disciples to follow him closely.
➢ Teachings:
■ Delivered the Sermon on the Mount, presenting the Beatitudes and ethical
teachings.
■ Taught in parables to convey moral and spiritual lessons.
■ Emphasized love, forgiveness, and compassion.
➢ Crucifixion and Resurrection:
■ Betrayed by Judas Iscariot and arrested.
■ Tried, convicted, and sentenced to death by crucifixion.
■ Crucified on a cross at Golgotha outside Jerusalem.
■ Died and was buried in a tomb.
■ Rose from the dead three days later, known as the Resurrection.
■ Appeared to his disciples and followers in a resurrected form.
➢ Ascension:
■ Spent 40 days with his disciples after the Resurrection.
■ Ascended into heaven in their presence.
➢ Impact and Legacy:
■ Founding figure of Christianity.
■ His teachings form the basis of the New Testament in the Christian Bible.
■ Believed by Christians to be the Son of God and the savior of humanity.
■ His death is seen as atonement for human sin.
■ His life and teachings have had a profound influence on Western civilization.

Classical / Mythical
❖ Midas (957)
➢ Birth and Background:
■ King Midas was a legendary figure in Greek mythology.
■ Son of Gordias and Cybele, king and queen of Phrygia.
■ Ruled over the kingdom of Phrygia in Asia Minor.
➢ The Golden Touch:
■ Midas encountered the drunken Silenus, a companion of the god Dionysus.
■ Treated Silenus with kindness and returned him to Dionysus.
■ In gratitude, Dionysus offered Midas a wish, and Midas asked that everything
he touched turn to gold.
■ Initially delighted, Midas soon realized the downside when he couldn't eat,
drink, or touch his loved ones without turning them to gold.
➢ The Wish Reversed:
■ Midas begged Dionysus to undo the wish.
■ Dionysus instructed him to bathe in the Pactolus River to reverse the golden
touch.
■ Midas followed the instructions, and the golden touch was lifted.
➢ Other Myths and Stories:
■ Involved in myths beyond the golden touch, including the judgment of the
musical contest between Apollo and Pan.
■ Apollo awarded Midas with donkey ears as punishment for disagreeing with
his judgment.
➢ Legacy:
■ The story of King Midas is often cited as a cautionary tale about the perils of
excessive desire for wealth.
■ The phrase "the Midas touch" is commonly used to describe someone with
the ability to turn everything they touch into success or wealth.
❖ Ovid (958, 989)
➢ Introduction of Midas:
 ■ Midas is introduced as the king of Phrygia, a region in Asia Minor.
➢ Pan and Apollo Contest:
■ Midas judges a musical contest between the god Pan (half-goat, half-human)
and the god Apollo. Despite Pan's skill with the panpipes, Midas favors Pan
over Apollo.
➢ Apollo's Wrath:
■ Apollo is offended by Midas's judgment and punishes him by giving him
donkey ears. This is meant to expose Midas's lack of musical judgment.
➢ Embarrassment:
■ Midas tries to conceal his donkey ears, but his barber discovers the secret.
To ensure the secret isn't revealed, Midas swears him to secrecy.
➢ Burden of Secret:
■ Unable to bear the burden of the secret, Midas eventually reveals it by
whispering into a hole in the ground. Reeds grow in that spot, and when the
wind blows through them, it reveals Midas's secret.
➢ Transformation of Ears:
■ The story highlights Midas's foolishness, his inability to appreciate true
beauty, and the consequences of his poor judgment. The donkey ears
become a symbol of his lack of discernment.
➢ Regret and Humility:
■ Midas, regretful and humbled, realizes the error of his ways. He prays to
Apollo, asking for forgiveness and to be freed from his donkey ears.
➢ Cleansing in the River Pactolus:
■ Apollo, in a merciful response, advises Midas to bathe in the River Pactolus
to cleanse himself of the donkey ears. The river's sands turn to gold,
explaining why the river is associated with wealth.
➢ Lesson Learned:
■ Midas learns a valuable lesson about the consequences of his judgments,
the importance of humility, and the folly of favoring material wealth over true
artistic and divine merit.
➢ Ovid's Narrative Style:
■ Ovid uses humor, irony, and transformation to convey moral lessons in his
storytelling, making the myth of Midas a memorable and instructive tale in his
larger work, "Metamorphoses."
❖ Seneca (1174)
➢ Lucius Annaeus Seneca:
■ Seneca, a Roman philosopher, statesman, and playwright, lived in the first
century AD.
➢ Philosophy and Writings:
■ Seneca was known for his Stoic philosophy, and he wrote numerous essays
and letters on topics such as ethics, morality, and the pursuit of wisdom.
➢ Tragedies:
■ Seneca also wrote tragedies, including plays like "Phaedra" and "Thyestes,"
known for their intense emotions and dramatic themes.
➢ Political Career:
■ Seneca served as an advisor to Emperor Nero but fell out of favor, leading to
his forced suicide in 65 AD.
➢ Philosophical Suicide:
■ Seneca's approach to death, as reflected in his writings, was often
philosophical, advocating for a rational acceptance of fate.
➢ Allusion in the Wife of Bath's Tale
■ The Wife of Bath alludes to Seneca's views on marriage and the question of
whether it is better to marry multiple times or remain celibate.
■ She quotes Seneca to support her argument, stating that Seneca, with his
wisdom, believed that marrying multiple times is permissible.
■ The Wife of Bath strategically uses Seneca's authority as a respected
philosopher to validate her own views on marriage, reinforcing her argument
with a classical reference.
■ Chaucer's use of Seneca in the Wife of Bath's tale adds depth to the
character, showcasing her intelligence and the clever manipulation of
classical authorities to suit her narrative.
■ The allusion to Seneca contributes to the broader theme of the Canterbury
Tales, where characters draw on various sources to justify their perspectives,
reflecting the intellectual and cultural milieu of the time.
❖ Boethius (1174)
 ➢ Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius:
■ A Roman philosopher, statesman, and scholar who lived from 480 to 524 AD.
➢ Philosophical Works:
■ Boethius wrote "The Consolation of Philosophy" while imprisoned, exploring
themes of fate, free will, and the nature of happiness.
➢ Political Career:
■ Boethius served as a high-ranking official under King Theodoric, the
Ostrogothic ruler of Italy.
➢ Accusations and Imprisonment:
■ Boethius was accused of treason and imprisoned, leading to his writing of
"The Consolation of Philosophy."
➢ Dialogues with Lady Philosophy:
■ In his work, Boethius engages in philosophical dialogues with Lady
Philosophy, seeking solace and understanding in the face of his unjust
suffering.
➢ Themes:
■ The book addresses the transitory nature of wealth and power, the role of
Providence in human affairs, and the importance of cultivating inner virtues.
➢ Allusion in the Wife of Bath's Tale
■ The Wife of Bath alludes to Boethius's "Consolation of Philosophy" to defend
her own views on marriage and the sovereignty of women.
■ The Wife of Bath quotes Boethius to argue that women should have control in
marriage, just as Lady Philosophy consoles Boethius in his suffering.
■ By referencing Boethius, the Wife of Bath adds weight to her argument, using
a respected philosopher to support her position on the rightful place of
women in marriage.
■ Chaucer's use of Boethius in the Wife of Bath's tale showcases the
character's intellectual prowess and her ability to selectively use classical
authorities to validate her perspective.
■ The allusion to Boethius contributes to the broader theme of the Canterbury
Tales, where characters draw on various sources to justify their perspectives,
reflecting the intellectual and cultural context of the time.

Historical References
❖ King Arthur (863)
➢ Legendary King:
■ King Arthur is a legendary figure in medieval literature and folklore, often
associated with the Arthurian legends.
➢ Excalibur:
■ Arthur is known for his possession of the magical sword Excalibur, which he
pulls from a stone, proving his rightful claim to the throne.
➢ Round Table:
■ Arthur establishes the Knights of the Round Table, a group of noble knights
committed to justice and unity.
➢ Quest for the Holy Grail:
■ One of the significant Arthurian tales involves the knights embarking on a
quest to find the Holy Grail, the cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper.
➢ Camelot:
■ Arthur rules from the legendary city of Camelot, symbolizing a utopian and
chivalric society.
➢ Tragic Betrayal:
■ Arthur experiences the betrayal of Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere,
leading to the downfall of the Round Table.
➢ Death:
■ Arthur meets his end in the Battle of Camlann, and his body is said to be
taken to Avalon for healing, with the promise to return.
➢ Allusion in the Wife of Bath's Tale
■ The Wife of Bath alludes to the story of King Arthur in her prologue to
emphasize her experience with marital relationships.
■ The Wife of Bath references the legendary King Arthur to support her
argument that women should have control in marriage.
 ■ The Wife of Bath describes her ideal of a relationship where the woman holds
authority, much like the idyllic Camelot envisioned by Arthurian legends.
■ Chaucer's use of the King Arthur allusion showcases the Wife of Bath's skill
in manipulating references to classical and legendary figures to support her
views on marriage.
■ The allusion contributes to the Wife of Bath's broader argument for feminine
sovereignty and control within the marital relationship, aligning her desires
with the legendary figure of King Arthur.
■ The Wife of Bath's ideal of marital control is ironic given the tragic outcomes
in Arthurian legends, adding depth and nuance to her character.
❖ Valerius (1171, 1172)

❖ Tullius Hostillius (1172)

➢ Reign and Succession:
■ Third legendary king of Rome.
■ Succeeded Numa Pompilius.
■ Reigned from around 673 BC to 642 BC.
➢ Characteristics:
■ Viewed as warlike and aggressive, contrasting with the peaceful rule of his
predecessor.
➢ Notable Actions:
■ Destroyed Alba Longa, a rival city to Rome.
■ Settled a dispute through combat between triplets from Rome and Alba
Longa (Horatii and Curiatii).
■ After Rome's victory, razed Alba Longa and resettled its inhabitants in Rome.
➢ Reforms:
■ Instituted religious and civic reforms.
■ Established the office of Curio Maximus for leading religious ceremonies.
■ Promoted the worship of the god Jupiter.
■ Organized Roman society into military units called "centuries."
➢ Tragic End:
■ Met a tragic end according to tradition.
■ Struck by lightning as a punishment for neglecting religious duties.
■ His death serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of maintaining
reverence for the gods.

Biblical References
❖ John 2 (Wedding at Cana) (10-11)
➢ Location and Occasion:
■ The event takes place in the village of Cana in Galilee.
■ A wedding celebration is underway.
➢ Presence of Jesus and Disciples:
■ Jesus and his disciples are invited to the wedding.
■ Mary, Jesus' mother, is also present.
➢ Wine Shortage:
■ During the celebration, the hosts run out of wine, which would have been a
social embarrassment.
➢ Mary's Request:
■ Mary informs Jesus of the wine shortage.
■ Mary says to the servants, "Do whatever he tells you."
➢ Miracle of Water into Wine:
■ Jesus instructs the servants to fill six stone jars with water.
■ The water miraculously transforms into wine.
■ The headwaiter, unaware of the miracle, praises the quality of the new wine.
➢ Symbolism:
■ The miracle at Cana is the first public miracle of Jesus.
■ It symbolizes Jesus' divine authority over nature and his ability to provide
abundantly.
➢ Revelation and Faith:
■ This miracle reveals Jesus' glory, and the disciples start to believe in him.
■ It marks the beginning of Jesus' public ministry.
➢ Significance:
■ The story emphasizes Jesus' compassion and responsiveness to human
 needs.
■ It highlights the theme of abundance and the concept of the new covenant.
➢ Outcome:
■ The hosts are unaware of the miracle, but the quality of the wine astonishes
them.
■ The story becomes a notable moment in the Gospel of John, illustrating
Jesus' power and divine identity
❖ John 4 (Jesus rebukes multiply married Samaritan woman) (16)
➢ Location:
■ Takes place near the well in Sychar, a Samaritan town.
➢ Encounter at the Well:
■ Jesus and his disciples arrive at Jacob's well.
■ A Samaritan woman comes to draw water at noon, an unusual time.
➢ Conversation:
■ Jesus asks the woman for a drink, breaking societal norms as Jews and
Samaritans usually avoided each other.
■ Jesus engages in a spiritual conversation, revealing his knowledge about her
multiple marriages.
➢ Rebuke and Revelation:
■ Jesus tells the woman about living water that brings eternal life.
■ The woman expresses interest but is puzzled about the source of this water.
■ Jesus points out her five previous husbands and her current relationship,
revealing supernatural knowledge.
➢ Worship and Truth:
■ The conversation shifts to the proper place of worship (Jerusalem for Jews,
Mount Gerizim for Samaritans).
■ Jesus emphasizes true worship in spirit and truth, transcending physical
locations.
➢ Messiah Revealed:
■ The woman acknowledges Jesus as a prophet.
■ Jesus declares himself as the Messiah, revealing his identity to her.
➢ Disciples' Return:
■ Disciples return, surprised to find Jesus talking to a Samaritan woman.
■ The woman leaves her water jar and goes into the town to tell others about
Jesus.
➢ Significance:
■ Highlights Jesus' ability to reveal hidden truths.
■ Challenges cultural norms regarding interaction between Jews and
Samaritans.
■ Emphasizes spiritual worship and the universal availability of salvation.
➢ Impact:
■ Many Samaritans believe in Jesus based on the woman's testimony.
■ Jesus stays in the town for two days, further impacting the community.
➢ Teaching on Harvest:
■ Jesus uses the metaphor of harvest to explain the spiritual awakening among
the Samaritans.
■ The fields are ripe for harvest, symbolizing the readiness of hearts for the
Gospel.
❖ Genesis 1:9 (Be fruitful and multiply) (28)
➢ Creation Context:
■ Genesis 1 describes the creation of the world by God in six days.
➢ Separation of Waters:
■ Genesis 1:6-8 describes the creation of the expanse (sky) to separate the
waters below (on the earth) from the waters above (in the sky).
➢ Creation of Dry Land:
■ Genesis 1:9 focuses on God's command for the waters under the sky to be
gathered into one place, revealing dry land.
➢ Naming and Observation:
■ God names the dry land Earth and the gathered waters Seas.
■ God observes His creation and sees that it is good.
➢ Fruitfulness and Multiplication:
■ The command to "be fruitful and multiply" is not explicitly stated in Genesis
1:9 but is part of the broader command given to living creatures, including
humans, in Genesis 1:22.
➢ General Blessing:
 ■The concept of being fruitful and multiplying is reiterated throughout the
Genesis creation account, emphasizing God's blessing on living beings.
➢ Creation Order:
■ This verse contributes to the orderly progression of creation, demonstrating
God's intentional design.
➢ Overall Message:
■ Genesis 1:9 underscores God's sovereignty over creation, the separation of
elements, the establishment of Earth's features, and the divine blessing for
life to thrive and multiply.
❖ Mark 10:7 (Leave father and mother and cleave to wife) (30-31)
➢ Quoting Genesis:
■ Jesus references the creation account in Genesis 2:24.
■ "For this reason, a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his
wife."
➢ Context:
■ In Mark 10, the Pharisees question Jesus about divorce.
■ Jesus responds by emphasizing the divine intention for marriage.
➢ Leaving and Cleaving:
■ "Leave his father and mother": Implies a separation from the parental home
and authority.
■ "Cleave to his wife": Signifies a strong and committed union with one's
spouse.
➢ Divine Design:
■ Jesus points to the original design of marriage by God in the Garden of Eden.
■ The union between a man and a woman is intended to be a profound and
lasting connection.
➢ Unity and Oneness:
■ The verse emphasizes the concept of leaving and cleaving as a way to
signify the establishment of a new family unit.
■ This union is described as a profound oneness.
➢ Challenges Cultural Norms:
■ In the cultural context of Jesus' time, the emphasis on leaving and cleaving
challenged societal expectations where strong familial ties were common.
➢ Reflection of Christ and the Church:
■ This verse is later referenced in the New Testament, including Ephesians
5:31-32, to illustrate the relationship between Christ and the Church.
➢ Teaching on Divorce:
■ In the broader context of Mark 10, Jesus uses this verse to emphasize the
sacredness and permanence of marriage, discouraging divorce except in
cases of adultery.
➢ Spiritual and Emotional Unity:
■ "Leave and cleave" extends beyond physical relocation; it denotes a deep
spiritual and emotional unity between spouses.
➢ Moral and Spiritual Guidance:
■ This verse provides moral and spiritual guidance on the nature and purpose
of marriage according to Jesus' teachings.
❖ Solomon (35, 685)
➢ Background:
■ Son of King David and Bathsheba.
■ Became the third king of Israel after David.
➢ Wisdom Request:
■ God appeared to Solomon in a dream and offered to grant him anything.
Solomon asked for wisdom to govern the people justly.
➢ Wisdom Displayed:
■ Famous for his wisdom, displayed in the judgment of the two women claiming
to be the mother of the same child.
➢ Building the Temple:
■ Commissioned the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem, known as
Solomon's Temple.
■ Used materials gathered by his father, David.
➢ Wealth and Prosperity:
■ Under Solomon's rule, Israel experienced a period of unparalleled wealth and
prosperity.
■ Engaged in lucrative trade and alliances with neighboring nations.
➢ Construction Projects:
 ■ Apart from the temple, Solomon undertook the construction of palaces,
fortifications, and infrastructure.
➢ Building the City of Jerusalem:
■ Expanded and fortified Jerusalem, making it a significant and glorious city.
➢ Famous Judgment:
■ Known for the judgment where two women claimed to be the mother of the
same baby. Solomon proposed to divide the baby, but the real mother
revealed herself by offering to give up her claim to save the child.
➢ Foreign Alliances:
■ Formed alliances through marriages with foreign princesses, including the
famous marriage to the daughter of Pharaoh.
➢ Wisdom Literature:
■ Credited with authoring several biblical books, including Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon.
➢ Downfall:
■ Despite his wisdom, Solomon's later years were marked by a decline in
faithfulness to God.
■ The construction projects and alliances strained the kingdom's resources and
loyalty to God.
➢ Idolatry:
■ Solomon's foreign wives led him to adopt their religious practices, including
idolatry, which angered God.
➢ Divided Kingdom:
■ After Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided into the northern kingdom of
Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah.
➢ Legacy:
■ Despite his flaws, Solomon's reign left a lasting impact on Israel, and his
wisdom is remembered in biblical and historical traditions.
❖ St Paul, a.k.a. 'The Apostle' (55, 70, 79)
➢ Early Life and Name:
■ Born as Saul in Tarsus, a Roman city in modern-day Turkey.
■ Raised as a Pharisee, a Jewish religious leader.
➢ Conversion on the Road to Damascus:
■ Saul persecuted early Christians.
■ Experienced a transformative encounter with the resurrected Jesus on the
road to Damascus.
■ Struck blind for three days.
➢ Conversion and Name Change:
■ Ananias, a disciple, healed Saul's blindness.
■ Saul became Paul and converted to Christianity.
➢ Missionary Journeys:
■ Conducted several missionary journeys, spreading Christianity in Asia Minor,
Greece, and Rome.
■ Established Christian communities and churches.
➢ Epistles (Letters):
■ Authored many letters (epistles) to various Christian communities, providing
theological teachings and guidance.
■ These letters form a significant portion of the New Testament.
➢ Theological Contributions:
■ Emphasized salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, not just adherence to the
Jewish law.
■ Developed key Christian doctrines, such as justification by faith and the role
of grace.
➢ Conflict with Judaizers:
■ Faced opposition from Judaizers, who insisted on adherence to Jewish laws
for Christians.
■ Attended the Council of Jerusalem to address these issues.
➢ Arrest and Imprisonment:
■ Arrested in Jerusalem due to accusations of violating Jewish customs.
■ Spent several years in prison, both in Jerusalem and later in Rome.
➢ Shipwreck and Journey to Rome:
■ Experienced a shipwreck during a journey to Rome, as narrated in Acts.
■ Arrived in Rome and continued spreading the Gospel, even while under
house arrest.
➢ Martyrdom:
 ■ Tradition suggests that Paul was eventually martyred in Rome, beheaded
under Emperor Nero.
■ His legacy lives on through his writings and teachings.
➢ Legacy:
■ Considered one of the most influential figures in the development of early
Christianity.
■ His writings form a substantial part of the New Testament.
■ Contributed significantly to the theological foundations of Christianity.
❖ Lamech (60)
➢ Lineage:
■ Descendant of Cain, the son of Adam and Eve.
■ Lamech is the seventh generation from Adam.
➢ Polygamy and Family:
■ Notable for practicing polygamy, having two wives: Adah and Zillah.
■ Adah bore him children who became associated with specific skills and
accomplishments.
➢ Song of Lamech:
■ Lamech is recorded as having a poetic song or boast in Genesis 4:23-24,
where he boasts about avenging himself more violently than Cain.
➢ Vengeance:
■ Lamech claims to have killed a man for injuring him and a young man for
merely striking him.
■ His actions suggest a continuation of the violent tendencies seen in earlier
generations.
➢ Significance:
■ Lamech's story is often viewed as a representation of the increasing
wickedness and violence in the descendants of Cain.
■ His boast reflects a departure from God's original intent for human
relationships and justice.
➢ Genealogy:
■ Lamech is part of the genealogy presented in Genesis, connecting the early
human generations from Adam to Noah.
➢ Noah's Lineage:
■ Lamech is not to be confused with the Lamech who is the father of Noah
(descendant of Seth), who plays a crucial role in the biblical flood narrative.
➢ Biblical Reference:
■ Lamech's story is primarily found in Genesis 4:18-24.
■ He is mentioned in the genealogy of Cain and is distinct from other biblical
figures with the same name.
❖ Abraham (61)
➢ Birth and Early Life:
■ Born Abram in Ur of the Chaldeans (Mesopotamia).
■ Married to Sarai (later renamed Sarah).
➢ Call of God:
■ God calls Abram to leave his homeland and go to a land that God will show
him.
■ Promises to make him a great nation.
➢ Covenant with God:
■ God establishes a covenant with Abram, promising numerous descendants
and the land of Canaan.
■ Circumcision instituted as a sign of the covenant.
➢ Hagar and Ishmael:
■ Sarai, unable to bear children, offers her maidservant Hagar to Abram.
■ Hagar conceives and gives birth to Ishmael.
➢ Name Change to Abraham and Sarah:
■ God changes Abram's name to Abraham, meaning "father of a multitude."
■ Sarai becomes Sarah, and God promises her a son.
➢ The Three Visitors:
■ Three angels, or the Lord in human form, visit Abraham and Sarah.
■ Promise the birth of Isaac within a year.
➢ Sacrifice of Isaac:
■ God tests Abraham's faith by commanding him to sacrifice Isaac, his son.
■ At the last moment, God provides a ram for the sacrifice.
➢ Purchase of Burial Site:
■ Abraham purchases the cave of Machpelah as a burial site for Sarah.
 ➢ Isaac's Marriage:
■ Abraham arranges a marriage for Isaac with Rebekah, ensuring the
continuity of the covenant.
➢ Death and Burial:
■ Abraham dies at the age of 175.
■ Isaac and Ishmael bury him alongside Sarah in the cave of Machpelah.
➢ Legacy:
■ Abraham is considered the father of three major monotheistic religions:
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
■ Revered as a model of faith and obedience in religious traditions.
➢ Significance in the Bible:
■ Abraham is a central figure in the book of Genesis and is often referenced in
subsequent biblical texts, including the New Testament.
❖ Jacob (62)
➢ Birth and Early Life:
■ Second-born twin of Isaac and Rebekah, with Esau being the elder.
■ Tricked Esau into selling his birthright for a bowl of stew.
➢ Deception of Isaac:
■ With his mother's guidance, Jacob deceives his blind father Isaac, receiving
Esau's blessing intended for the firstborn.
➢ Fleeing to Haran:
■ Fears Esau's revenge and flees to Haran, the homeland of his mother.
■ Rests at Bethel, where he has a dream of a ladder reaching heaven, and
God reaffirms the covenant.
➢ Marriages and Children:
■ Marries Leah and Rachel, daughters of Laban, his uncle.
■ Fathers twelve sons, who later become the twelve tribes of Israel.
➢ Work for Laban:
■ Works for Laban for fourteen years in exchange for marrying Rachel.
■ Engages in a breeding strategy for sheep and goats, leading to prosperity.
➢ Struggle with Laban:
■ Laban changes Jacob's wages multiple times, causing tension.
■ Jacob, guided by God, outsmarts Laban and amasses wealth.
➢ Wrestling with the Angel:
■ Wrestles with a mysterious angel at Peniel.
■ Receives the name Israel, meaning "he who struggles with God."
➢ Reconciliation with Esau:
■ Prepares to meet Esau after years of separation.
■ Esau forgives Jacob, leading to a reconciliation.
➢ Joseph's Coat of Many Colors:
■ Jacob shows favoritism to Joseph, his son with Rachel, by giving him a coat
of many colors.
■ This causes jealousy among Joseph's brothers.
➢ Joseph Sold into Slavery:
■ Joseph's brothers sell him into slavery after throwing him into a pit.
■ Jacob mourns Joseph, believing him to be dead.
➢ Reunion with Joseph:
■ During a famine, Jacob's sons go to Egypt to buy grain.
■ Discovers Joseph, now a high-ranking official, is alive.
■ Reunites with Joseph and the family settles in Egypt.
➢ Death in Egypt:
■ Jacob and his sons move to Egypt during the famine.
■ Blesses his sons before his death.
■ Dies and is embalmed in Egypt.
➢ Legacy:
■ Father of the twelve tribes of Israel.
■ The story of Jacob is foundational to the narrative of the Israelites in the
Bible.
❖ Mark (152)
❖ Miracle of the Loaves and fishes (153)
➢ Setting:
■ Jesus is in a desolate place, and a large crowd gathers to hear him teach.
➢ Compassion for the Crowd:
■ Jesus feels compassion for the multitude, recognizing their hunger.
➢ Limited Resources:
 ■The disciples inform Jesus that they only have five loaves of bread and two
fish.
➢ Blessing and Distribution:
■ Jesus takes the loaves and fish, looks up to heaven, blesses them, and
breaks them.
■ The disciples distribute the food to the crowd.
➢ Abundance from Scarcity:
■ Miraculously, the small amount of food multiplies, and everyone eats their fill.
➢ Leftovers:
■ After everyone is satisfied, the disciples gather twelve baskets full of
leftovers.
➢ Symbolism and Teaching:
■ Symbolizes the abundance of God's provision.
■ Jesus uses the miracle to teach about faith, sharing, and God's ability to
provide abundantly.
➢ Connection to Eucharist:
■ The miracle of the loaves and fishes is often seen as a precursor to the Last
Supper and the Eucharist, where Jesus uses bread and wine to symbolize
his body and blood.
➢ Impact on Disciples:
■ Strengthens the disciples' faith as they witness Jesus' power over physical
limitations.
➢ Recognition of Jesus as Prophet:
■ The crowd recognizes Jesus as a prophet and desires to make him king.
➢ Withdrawal of Jesus:
■ Jesus withdraws from the crowd to avoid being made king by force.
➢ Teaching on Spiritual Bread:
■ Following the miracle, Jesus teaches about himself as the "bread of life" in
the discourse recorded in John 6:22-59.
➢ Miracle in All Four Gospels:
■ The miracle of the loaves and fishes is one of the few events that appear in
all four Gospels, underscoring its significance in the ministry of Jesus.
❖ Saint James (318)
➢ Brother of John:
■ Saint James, also known as James the Greater, was one of the twelve
apostles.
■ Brother of John, both sons of Zebedee.
➢ Fishermen Disciples:
■ James and John were fishermen by trade before being called by Jesus.
➢ Called by Jesus:
■ Jesus calls James and John while they are mending their nets by the Sea of
Galilee.
■ They immediately leave their fishing business to follow Jesus.
➢ Witness to Key Events:
■ James is among the inner circle of disciples, witnessing key events like the
Transfiguration and the raising of Jairus' daughter.
➢ Sons of Thunder:
■ Jesus nicknames James and John the "Sons of Thunder" for their zeal and
fiery temperament.
➢ Request for Prominence:
■ James and John, through their mother, request positions of honor in Jesus'
kingdom.
■ Jesus responds by teaching about servanthood and drinking from his cup.
➢ Martyrdom:
■ James becomes the first apostle to be martyred. King Herod Agrippa I
executes him with the sword.
➢ Preaching in Spain (Tradition):
■ According to tradition, James is believed to have preached in Spain, and the
pilgrimage site of Santiago de Compostela is associated with his relics.
➢ Role in the Early Church:
■ James played a significant role in the early Christian community, especially in
Jerusalem.
➢ Death and Symbolism:
■ Tradition holds that James was beheaded in AD 44.
■ His death symbolizes the cost of discipleship and commitment to Christ.
 ➢ Feast Day:
■ Celebrated on July 25th, his feast day is an important pilgrimage date at
Santiago de Compostela.
➢ Legacy:
■ James' legacy endures through the veneration of Saint James in Christianity.
■ He is considered the patron saint of Spain and pilgrims.
➢ New Testament Writings:
■ James is not the author of the Gospel of James but is traditionally credited
with the New Testament epistle of James, a letter emphasizing faith, works,
and practical Christian living.
❖ Job (442)
➢ Introduction:
■ Job is a wealthy and upright man in the land of Uz.
■ Devout and blameless, he fears God and shuns evil.
➢ Satan's Challenge:
■ Satan questions Job's faithfulness, suggesting it is based on his prosperity.
■ God permits Satan to test Job but prohibits harming him.
➢ Losses and Suffering:
■ Job loses his livestock, servants, and all his children in a series of calamities.
■ Despite his losses, Job remains steadfast in his faith.
➢ Physical Affliction:
■ Satan challenges Job's faith again, suggesting that physical suffering would
break him.
■ God allows Satan to afflict Job with painful sores.
➢ Wife's Counsel:
■ Job's wife advises him to curse God and die, but Job remains faithful.
➢ Friends' Arrival:
■ Job's three friends—Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar—come to console him.
■ Initially, they sit with him in silence for seven days.
➢ Job's Lament:
■ Job curses the day of his birth and expresses deep despair.
■ Questions the meaning of his suffering.
➢ Dialogues with Friends:
■ The friends offer explanations for Job's suffering, attributing it to sin.
■ Job maintains his innocence and questions God's justice.
➢ Elihu's Speech:
■ Elihu, a younger friend, speaks and emphasizes God's righteousness and the
purpose of suffering as discipline.
➢ God's Response:
■ God speaks from a whirlwind, questioning Job about the mysteries of
creation.
■ Emphasizes His sovereignty and wisdom.
➢ Job's Humility:
■ Job acknowledges his limited understanding and repents in dust and ashes.
■ God restores Job's fortunes, blessing him with twice what he had before.
➢ Conclusion:
■ Job's friends are rebuked for their false assumptions.
■ Job's restoration signifies the triumph of faith, patience, and God's justice.
➢ Key Themes:
■ The nature of suffering, the sovereignty of God, and the limits of human
understanding.
■ The importance of faith and trust in God amidst trials.
➢ Literary Style:
■ The Book of Job is a poetic and philosophical exploration of the human
experience of suffering and God's response.
❖ Ecclesiastes (656)
➢ Authorship:
■ Traditionally attributed to King Solomon, the son of David.
➢ Theme of Vanity:
■ Ecclesiastes explores the theme of the vanity or meaninglessness of human
endeavors.
➢ Introduction:
■ Begins with the famous phrase "Vanity of vanities, says the Preacher, vanity
of vanities! All is vanity."
➢ Search for Meaning:
 ■The author, known as the Preacher or Teacher, embarks on a quest to find
meaning and purpose in life.
➢ Wealth and Pleasure:
■ The author examines the pursuit of wealth, pleasure, and worldly success.
■ Concludes that these pursuits are ultimately unsatisfying and transient.
➢ Observation of Nature:
■ The Preacher reflects on the cycles of nature and human life.
■ Notes the repetitive and often unpredictable nature of existence.
➢ Time and Seasons:
■ Famous passage in Ecclesiastes 3:1-8 describes the seasons of life and the
appointed time for every activity.
➢ Divine Perspective:
■ The Preacher acknowledges the divine order and God's sovereignty over
human affairs.
■ Advises embracing joy and gratitude in life, recognizing it as a gift from God.
➢ Wisdom and Folly:
■ Explores the themes of wisdom and folly, noting the limitations of human
understanding.
■ Wisdom, though valuable, does not shield one from the uncertainties of life.
➢ Death and Mortality:
■ Contemplates the inevitability of death and the equalizing factor it brings to
all.
➢ Fear God and Keep His Commandments:
■ The concluding message emphasizes the importance of fearing God and
keeping His commandments.
■ Asserts that this is the whole duty of humankind.
➢ Reflection on Life's Journey:
■ Ecclesiastes provides a reflective journey, grappling with the challenges and
paradoxes of human existence.
➢ Literary Style:
■ Ecclesiastes is a philosophical and reflective work, rich in poetic language
and metaphor.
➢ Purpose of the Book:
■ Serves as a meditation on the meaning of life, the pursuit of wisdom, and the
recognition of God's role in the human experience.
❖ Samson and Delilah (726 – 728)
➢ Birth and Nazirite Vow:
■ Samson is born to a childless couple after an angelic announcement.
■ Set apart as a Nazirite from birth, consecrated to God with specific vows,
including avoiding wine and not cutting his hair.
➢ Physical Strength:
■ Samson grows into a man of extraordinary physical strength, empowered by
the Spirit of God.
➢ Marriage to a Philistine Woman:
■ Samson desires to marry a Philistine woman against his parents' objections.
■ During the wedding feast, Samson poses a riddle to the Philistine guests.
➢ Betrayal by his Wife:
■ Samson's wife pressures him to reveal the riddle's answer.
■ Samson discovers that his wife has betrayed him, leading to a violent
confrontation.
➢ Feats of Strength and Conflict:
■ Samson kills thirty Philistines to settle a bet over the riddle.
■ Engages in various feats of strength and battles with the Philistines, including
using a jawbone of a donkey as a weapon.
➢ Judgeship:
■ Samson becomes a Judge in Israel, leading and judging the people for
twenty years.
➢ Delilah's Betrayal:
■ Delilah, a Philistine woman, is enticed by Philistine leaders to discover the
source of Samson's strength.
■ Delilah persistently asks Samson the secret of his strength.
➢ Deception and Capture:
■ Samson deceives Delilah three times with false explanations.
■ Eventually, he reveals that his strength lies in his uncut hair.
■ Delilah cuts Samson's hair while he sleeps, betraying him to the Philistines.
 ➢ Capture and Blinding:
■ Samson loses his strength after his hair is cut.
■ The Philistines capture and blind him, making him a prisoner.
➢ Tragic End:
■ Samson is brought to a Philistine temple for their entertainment.
■ In a final act of strength, Samson prays to God for strength and pulls down
the temple pillars, killing himself and many Philistines.
➢ Symbolism:
■ Samson's story illustrates the consequences of disobedience to God's
commands and the misuse of divine gifts.
■ It also highlights God's ability to use flawed individuals to achieve His
purposes.
➢ Legacy:
■ Samson is remembered as a Judge of Israel and a symbol of both physical
strength and moral weakness.

Classical / Mythical References

❖ Ptolemy, Almagest (330)
➢ Ptolemy:
■ Claudius Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian astronomer, mathematician, and
geographer.
■ Lived around the 2nd century AD in Alexandria, part of the Roman Empire.
➢ Almagest:
■ Ptolemy's most influential work is "Mathematike Syntaxis," commonly known
as "Almagest" in Arabic.
■ Completed around 150 AD.
➢ Geocentric Model:
■ Almagest presents a comprehensive geocentric model of the universe, with
Earth at the center.
■ Includes detailed observations and mathematical calculations for the motion
of celestial bodies.
➢ Epicycles and Eccentrics:
■ Ptolemy introduces the use of epicycles and eccentrics to explain the
apparent retrograde motion of planets in the night sky.
➢ Star Catalog:
■ Almagest includes a star catalog with the positions and magnitudes of over a
thousand stars.
■ Remained a standard reference for many centuries.
➢ Coordinate System:
■ Ptolemy develops a coordinate system based on longitude and latitude.
■ Influences later cartography and geography.
➢ Influence on Medieval Astronomy:
■ During the Middle Ages, Almagest serves as the primary source of
astronomical knowledge in the Western world.
■ Shapes the understanding of planetary motion and the cosmos.
➢ Challenges Copernican Revolution:
■ Ptolemy's geocentric model faces challenges with the advent of the
Copernican Revolution in the 16th century, which proposed a heliocentric
model.
➢ Legacy:
■ Ptolemy's work, particularly Almagest, contributes significantly to the history
of astronomy and mathematics.
■ Demonstrates the complex and intricate nature of early astronomical models.
➢ Translations:
■ Almagest is translated into Arabic and Latin, ensuring its transmission and
influence across cultures.
■ Later translated into various languages and studied by scholars in different
parts of the world.
➢ Historical Context:
■ Ptolemy's contributions occur in the context of the Hellenistic period and the
decline of ancient Greek civilization, but his work endures as a foundation for
future astronomical thought.
❖ Argus (mythical Greek monster with 100 eyes) (364)
➢ Origin:
■ Argus Panoptes, often known as Argus, is a figure from Greek mythology.
 ■ A giant with many eyes, sometimes depicted as having a hundred eyes.
➢ Parentage:
■ Argus is the son of Arestor and the nymph Gaia, making him a primordial
being.
➢ Guardian of Io:
■ Hera assigns Argus the task of guarding the nymph Io, whom Zeus
transformed into a cow to conceal his affair.
➢ Hundred Eyes:
■ Argus has a vast number of eyes, with some accounts stating he has a
hundred eyes covering his body.
➢ Sleeping with Open Eyes:
■ Argus is known for being able to sleep with some of his eyes open while
others remain vigilant, making him an ever-watchful guardian.
➢ Death by Hermes:
■ To free Io, Hermes is sent by Zeus to slay Argus.
■ Hermes uses his lyre to lull Argus to sleep before killing him.
➢ Creation of the Peacock's Tail:
■ In some versions, Hera places Argus' eyes on the tail of the peacock as a
tribute to his loyal service.
➢ Hera's Grief:
■ Hera mourns the death of Argus and places his eyes on the tail of the
peacock as a sign of her perpetual grief.
➢ Symbol of Vigilance:
■ Argus becomes a symbol of vigilance and is often referenced in literature and
art as a watchful figure.
➢ Epithet:
■ Argus is often referred to as "All-seeing" due to his many eyes.
➢ Connection to Io's Story:
■ Argus' role in the story of Io highlights the theme of divine interference,
transformation, and the consequences of Zeus' amorous pursuits.
➢ Mythological Context:
■ Argus is part of the broader tapestry of Greek mythology, contributing to the
complex narratives involving the gods, their actions, and the consequences
for mortal and immortal beings.
❖ Metellius (466)
➢ Metellus Celer (Praetor):
■ A Roman politician and military commander.
■ Served as a praetor in 63 BC.
■ Known for his involvement in the Catilinarian Conspiracy.
➢ Metellus Celer (Consul):
■ Another Roman politician and military figure.
■ Served as consul in 60 BC.
■ Associated with the political conflicts leading up to the First Triumvirate.
➢ Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius:
■ A prominent Roman general during the late Roman Republic.
■ Fought in the Social War and the civil wars against supporters of Sulla.
■ Known for his loyalty to the Roman state, earning him the surname "Pius."
➢ Metellus Scipio:
■ Also known as Metellus Scipio Africanus.
■ Son-in-law of Scipio Africanus.
■ Fought in the Roman civil wars, including battles against Julius Caesar and
later served under Augustus.
❖ Venus (610)
➢ Origin:
■ Born from the sea foam after the castration of Uranus (Sky) and the fall of his
genitals into the sea.
➢ Parentage:
■ Daughter of Uranus and possibly Gaia (Earth) in some versions.
➢ Attributes:
■ Goddess of love, beauty, desire, fertility, and victory.
➢ Symbols:
■ Often depicted with symbols like doves, roses, and the myrtle tree.
■ The dove is her sacred bird.
➢ Consorts:
■ Married to Hephaestus (Vulcan), the god of fire and blacksmithing, but had
 affairs with other gods and mortals.
➢ Affairs and Offspring:
■ Notable affairs include relationships with Ares (Mars), Hermes (Mercury), and
Adonis.
■ Offspring include Eros (Cupid), Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and Aeneas,
among others.
➢ Judgment of Paris:
■ A central event leading to the Trojan War.
■ Paris, a Trojan prince, is tasked with choosing the most beautiful goddess.
Aphrodite promises him the love of the most beautiful mortal, Helen.
➢ Trojan War Influence:
■ Plays a significant role in the events leading to and during the Trojan War.
■ Supports Paris and the Trojans due to the judgment.
➢ Love and Beauty:
■ Aphrodite embodies the concepts of love and beauty in both divine and
mortal realms.
■ Inspires desire and passion among gods and humans.
➢ Adonis Myth:
■ In the Adonis myth, Aphrodite falls in love with the mortal Adonis, leading to
tragic events.
➢ Cults and Worship:
■ Revered in various cults and festivals throughout the ancient Greek world.
■ Temples dedicated to Aphrodite, including the famous Aphrodite of Knidos.
➢ Equivalent in Roman Mythology:
■ Identified with the Roman goddess Venus, sharing similar attributes and
mythology.
➢ Literary and Artistic Influence:
■ A frequent subject in literature, art, and sculpture, portraying the idealized
form of beauty and love.
➢ Symbolic Representations:
■ Represents the complex aspects of love, ranging from divine, passionate,
and sometimes capricious.
➢ Cultural Impact:
■ Continues to be a symbol of love and beauty in Western culture and art
❖ Mars (616)
➢ Origin:
■ Son of Zeus and Hera in Greek mythology.
■ Considered the god of war.
➢ Attributes:
■ God of war, violence, and bloodshed.
■ Often depicted as a powerful and fearsome warrior.
➢ Symbols:
■ Symbols include a spear and a helmet.
■ The chariot, drawn by four horses, is associated with his warlike nature.
➢ Personality:
■ Known for his aggressive and impulsive nature.
■ Revered as a force that instigates conflict and battle.
➢ Consorts and Offspring:
■ Married to Aphrodite (Venus) in some myths.
■ Offspring include Phobos (Fear), Deimos (Terror), and Eros (Cupid).
➢ Role in the Trojan War:
■ Participates actively in the Trojan War, supporting the Trojans.
■ Engages in battles with various Greek heroes, such as Diomedes.
➢ Ares' Capture by Hephaestus:
■ Caught in an illicit affair with Aphrodite by her husband Hephaestus.
■ Trapped in a magical net devised by Hephaestus during their affair.
➢ Cults and Worship:
■ Cults dedicated to Ares were not as widespread as those of other gods.
■ The Spartans revered Ares and considered him a patron deity.
➢ Equivalents in Roman Mythology:
■ Identified with the Roman god Mars, who was also associated with war and
the military.
➢ Literary and Artistic Influence:
■ Featured in various myths, literature, and artworks, portraying the brutality
and chaos of war.
 ■ Considered a less noble figure compared to Athena, the goddess of strategic
warfare.
➢ Symbolic Representation:
■ Represents the destructive and brutal aspects of war, contrasting with
Athena, who symbolizes strategic and just warfare.
➢ Cultural Impact:
■ A recurring figure in classical literature, influencing the portrayal of war and
conflict in Western culture.
➢ Mythological Conflicts:
■ Often involved in conflicts with other gods, particularly Athena, due to their
differing approaches to warfare.
➢ Role in the Olympian Pantheon:
■ Although a major god, Ares did not hold as much prominence or respect as
some other Olympian deities.
❖ Walter Map, Letter of Valerius (677)
❖ Theophrastus, On Marriage (677)
➢ Early Life:
■ Born around 371 or 372 BCE in Eresos, on the island of Lesbos in Ancient
Greece.
➢ Student of Aristotle:
■ Studied under Aristotle at the Lyceum in Athens.
■ Became Aristotle's close associate and eventual successor.
➢ Contributions to Botany:
■ Often referred to as the "Father of Botany."
■ Authored "Enquiry into Plants" and "On the Causes of Plants," pioneering
works in botanical studies.
■ Classified and described numerous plants, contributing to the understanding
of their characteristics and uses.
➢ Interest in Natural Sciences:
■ Extended his studies to other branches of natural science, including physics,
meteorology, and mineralogy.
➢ Philosophical Works:
■ Wrote extensively on ethics and philosophy.
■ Authored works like "Characters" (or "Ethics") and "Metaphysics," which
explored ethical and metaphysical topics.
➢ Political Involvement:
■ Involved in politics, serving as a tutor to the future King Cassander of
Macedon.
➢ Literary Style:
■ Known for his clear and systematic writing style.
■ Influenced later philosophers and scholars.
➢ Successor to Aristotle:
■ Succeeded Aristotle as the head of the Lyceum after Aristotle's death in 322
BCE.
➢ Death:
■ Died around 287 BCE.
➢ Legacy:
■ Significant influence on the development of botanical science and early
natural philosophy.
■ His works were preserved and studied throughout the Hellenistic and Roman
periods.
■ The term "Theophrastan characters" refers to his collection of character
sketches in ethics.
➢ Marriage and Family:
■ Married but had no known children.
➢ Views on Ethics:
■ Explored various ethical topics in his philosophical works, including virtues,
vices, and character traits.
■ Emphasized the importance of moral character and habits in ethical behavior.
➢ Comprehensive Scholar:
■ Demonstrated a wide range of intellectual interests, making contributions to
diverse fields, including literature, ethics, and natural sciences.
❖ Jerome, Against Jovinian (681)
➢ Context:
■ Written by Saint Jerome (c. 347–420 AD), a Christian scholar and translator.
 ■ Addresses the teachings of Jovinian, a monk who challenged traditional
Christian views on celibacy and fasting.
➢ Attack on Jovinian's Teachings:
■ Jerome vehemently opposes Jovinian's ideas on celibacy, fasting, and the
spiritual equality of virgins and married individuals.
➢ Celibacy and Virginity:
■ Jerome defends the superiority of celibacy and virginity over marriage.
■ Argues that virgins and celibates are more spiritually elevated than married
individuals.
➢ Fasting and Asceticism:
■ Upholds the importance of fasting and ascetic practices as a means of
spiritual discipline.
■ Criticizes Jovinian's more lenient stance on fasting.
➢ Quoting Scriptures:
■ Jerome extensively quotes biblical passages to support his arguments,
emphasizing the scriptural foundation of his beliefs.
➢ Contrast Between Mary and Martha:
■ Jerome draws a contrast between Mary, who chose the contemplative life,
and Martha, who represents the active life.
■ Argues in favor of the contemplative life embraced by virgins and celibates.
➢ Allegorical Interpretations:
■ Utilizes allegorical interpretations of biblical stories to support the superiority
of celibacy.
■ Interprets certain passages to emphasize the virtues of virginity.
➢ Attack on Jovinian's Character:
■ Besides addressing theological differences, Jerome criticizes Jovinian
personally, questioning his character and commitment to Christian virtues.
➢ Appeal to the Authority of the Church Fathers:
■ Jerome invokes the authority of earlier Church Fathers, such as Ambrose
and Augustine, to bolster his arguments and condemn Jovinian.
➢ Impact:
■ "Against Jovinian" is considered a significant work in the debate over celibacy
and the ascetic life in early Christian theology.
■ Reflects broader discussions within Christianity regarding the ideal Christian
life, celibacy, and the value of virginity.
➢ Orthodox Christian Position:
■ Jerome's treatise aligns with the orthodox Christian position of his time, which
valued celibacy and ascetic practices as higher forms of Christian devotion.
❖ Tertullian (682)
➢ Early Life:
■ Born around 155–160 AD in Carthage, North Africa (modern Tunisia).
➢ Educational Background:
■ Well-educated in Roman literature, philosophy, and law.
■ Converted to Christianity around 197 AD.
➢ Prolific Writer:
■ Produced numerous theological writings, becoming one of the earliest
Christian Latin authors.
■ Wrote in a vivid and passionate style.
➢ Legal Career:
■ Worked as a lawyer before converting to Christianity.
■ Known for his legal expertise, which is reflected in his later apologetic works.
➢ Montanism:
■ Embraced Montanism, a Christian movement emphasizing prophetic
revelations and strict moral discipline.
■ Became a prominent Montanist leader, advocating for its distinctive
teachings.
➢ Apologetic Works:
■ Composed apologetic works defending Christianity against pagan
accusations.
■ Wrote "Apologeticus" (Apology) to address misunderstandings and prejudices
against Christians.
➢ Trinitarian Theology:
■ Explored theological concepts, including an early formulation of Trinitarian
ideas.
■ Coined the term "Trinity" (Trinitas) in Latin, although his views on the Trinity
 were not fully orthodox.
➢ Ecclesiastical Practices:
■ Advocated for strict moral standards and disciplined ecclesiastical practices.
■ Opposed laxity in church discipline and moral behavior.
➢ Controversies:
■ Engaged in theological controversies, including debates on the nature of
Christ and the relationship between the Father and the Son.
■ His views on the nature of Christ became associated with early forms of what
would later be deemed as heresies.
➢ Later Separation from the Church:
■ Became disenchanted with the emerging orthodox Christian Church.
■ Associated with the Montanist movement, which was viewed with suspicion
by mainstream Christianity.
➢ Death:
■ The exact circumstances of his death are unclear, but it is believed he died
around 220 AD.
➢ Legacy:
■ Tertullian's writings significantly influenced Latin Christian literature.
■ His contributions to theology, particularly on issues like the Trinity, have left a
lasting impact.
■ Despite his later association with unorthodox movements, his works continue
to be studied for their historical and theological insights.
❖ Crisippus (682)
➢ Early Life:
■ Born around 279 BCE in Soli, Cilicia (modern-day Mersin, Turkey).
➢ Philosophical School:
■ Became a leading figure in the Stoic school of philosophy.
➢ Stoic Contributions:
■ Expanded and systematized Stoic philosophy, building on the teachings of
Zeno of Citium.
■ Contributed to logic, ethics, and physics.
➢ Logical System:
■ Developed an elaborate system of propositional logic.
■ Contributed to the Stoic understanding of the theory of knowledge.
➢ Ethics:
■ Emphasized the Stoic virtues of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance.
■ Advocated for living in accordance with nature and accepting external events
with equanimity.
➢ Physics:
■ Contributed to Stoic physics, discussing the interrelation of matter and the
concept of fate.
➢ Prolific Writer:
■ Wrote extensively, but the majority of his works have been lost over time.
■ His ideas are primarily known through references in the works of later
philosophers.
➢ Death:
■ Died around 206 BCE.
➢ Influence:
■ Highly regarded within the Stoic tradition.
■ His writings and teachings influenced later Stoic philosophers, including
Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.
➢ Legacy:
■ Although many of his works are lost, Chrysippus' contributions shaped the
development of Stoicism and left a lasting impact on Western philosophy.
■ His logical system influenced later developments in ancient and medieval
philosophy.
❖ Trotula (682)
➢ Historical Context:
■ Trotula is a name associated with a group of medieval physicians, often
believed to be a woman.
■ Active in the 11th or 12th century in Salerno, a center of medieval medical
learning in Italy.
➢ Medical Works:
■ Attributed to Trotula are several medical texts, collectively known as the
"Trotula ensemble."
 ■ Notable works include "De passionibus mulierum," focusing on women's
health and gynecology.
➢ Pioneering Women's Medicine:
■ Trotula's works were groundbreaking in the field of women's medicine during
a time when few women were recognized in the medical profession.
■ Addressed various aspects of women's health, including pregnancy,
childbirth, and gynecological disorders.
➢ Gynecological Treatments:
■ Provided remedies and treatments for gynecological issues, emphasizing a
holistic approach to women's well-being.
➢ Authorship Debate:
■ The actual identity of Trotula is debated among scholars, and some argue
that Trotula might have been a collective name for a group of physicians
rather than an individual woman.
➢ Contributions to Medieval Medicine:
■ Regardless of authorship, Trotula's works played a significant role in shaping
medieval medical knowledge and practices.
■ Reflected the medical theories and practices of the time, blending classical
knowledge with Arab and Persian influences.
➢ Influence on Later Medicine:
■ Trotula's texts continued to be influential in the centuries following their
composition.
■ Translated into various languages, they contributed to the evolving
understanding of women's health in medieval and early modern Europe.
➢ Recognition and Legacy:
■ Trotula, whether an individual or a group, represents a notable figure in the
history of medieval medicine.
■ Demonstrated the existence of women actively contributing to medical
knowledge during a predominantly male-dominated era.
➢ Contemporary Perspectives:
■ Trotula is often remembered as a symbol of early women's involvement in
medicine and a pioneer in the field of gynecology.
■ Her legacy continues to be explored in contemporary discussions on the
history of medicine and women's contributions to the field.
❖ Ovid, Art of Love (686)
➢ Author:
■ Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), a Roman poet who lived from 43 BCE to 17/18
CE.
➢ Genre and Purpose:
■ "Ars Amatoria" is a didactic poem, part of Ovid's elegiac works.
■ Intended as a guide to love and seduction, addressing both men and women.
➢ Three Books:
■ The poem is divided into three books, each focusing on different aspects of
love and relationships.
➢ Book I - Love and Seduction for Men:
■ Provides advice to men on how to find, attract, and seduce women.
■ Discusses locations, clothing, and behaviors conducive to successful
courtship.
➢ Book II - Love and Seduction for Women:
■ Shifts focus to advising women on attracting and maintaining the attention of
men.
■ Explores various tactics and strategies for women in the pursuit of love.
➢ Book III - Handling Love Affairs:
■ Addresses issues related to maintaining love affairs, managing jealousy, and
navigating extramarital relationships.
➢ Elegiac Couplets:
■ Written in elegiac couplets, a poetic form consisting of alternating lines of
dactylic hexameter and pentameter.
➢ Mythological Allusions:
■ Incorporates various mythological references and anecdotes to illustrate
points about love and desire.
➢ Controversial Reputation:
■ "Ars Amatoria" stirred controversy in Rome due to its explicit and
unconventional advice on love and sexuality.
■ Ovid's work, along with his other poems, led to his eventual exile from Rome
 by Emperor Augustus in 8 CE.
➢ Narrative Style:
■ Ovid's narrative style is characterized by wit, humor, and a playful approach
to the subject matter.
■ Utilizes a conversational tone to engage the reader.
➢ Influence:
■ Despite its controversial nature, "Ars Amatoria" has had a lasting influence on
later literature, particularly in the realm of love poetry.
■ Has been both praised for its literary qualities and criticized for its perceived
immorality.
➢ Other Works by Ovid:
■ Ovid is also known for his epic poem "Metamorphoses" and his exile poetry,
"Tristia" and "Epistulae ex Ponto."
➢ Legacy:
■ Considered a significant work in the tradition of Latin elegy and remains a
subject of scholarly study and interpretation.
❖ Avianus (698)
➢ Author:
■ Avianus is a Latin writer, believed to have lived in the 4th century AD.
➢ Work:
■ Best known for his collection of fables titled "Fabulae," written in elegiac
couplets.
➢ Fables:
■ "Fabulae" consists of 42 fables, many of which are adaptations of Aesop's
fables.
■ Each fable typically conveys a moral lesson or ethical insight.
➢ Moral Lessons:
■ The fables often contain allegorical elements, using animal characters to
represent human traits and behaviors.
■ Emphasizes moral virtues and the consequences of vices.
➢ Literary Style:
■ Avianus' fables are written in a concise and straightforward style.
■ Reflects the influence of classical Latin literature and the tradition of fable
writing.
➢ Educational Purpose:
■ The fables were likely intended for educational purposes, serving as moral
lessons for readers, especially students.
➢ Sources of Inspiration:
■ Many of Avianus' fables are adaptations of Aesop's fables, showcasing the
enduring influence of Aesop's storytelling tradition.
➢ Manuscripts and Transmission:
■ Avianus' work has survived in various medieval manuscripts, indicating its
continued popularity and circulation in the Middle Ages.
➢ Classical Tradition:
■ Avianus contributes to the continuation of the classical tradition of fable
writing in Latin literature.
■ His work serves as a bridge between the ancient world and medieval Latin
literature.
➢ Influence on Later Writers:
■ Avianus' fables influenced later medieval writers and poets who continued the
tradition of writing fables with moral lessons.
➢ Reception:
■ While not as well-known as Aesop's fables, Avianus' "Fabulae" remains a
notable contribution to the genre of Latin fable literature.
➢ Survival:
■ Avianus' work has survived the challenges of time, contributing to our
understanding of the continuity of literary traditions across different historical
periods.
❖ Hercules (731)
➢ Parentage and Birth:
■ Hercules, known as Heracles in Greek mythology, is the son of Zeus (king of
the gods) and Alcmena, a mortal woman.
■ Hera, Zeus's wife and Hercules's stepmother, despises Hercules due to his
divine parentage.
➢ Youth and Early Adventures:
 ■ Hercules exhibits great strength even as a child.
■ Strangles two serpents sent by Hera to kill him in his crib.
■ Kills his music tutor Linus with a lyre in a fit of rage.
➢ Divine Punishment:
■ Hera inflicts Hercules with temporary madness, leading him to commit acts
that haunt him later.
➢ Twelve Labors:
■ Imposed as punishment for his deeds, Hercules must complete Twelve
Labors assigned by King Eurystheus.
■ Labors include slaying the Nemean Lion, capturing the Erymanthian Boar,
cleaning the Augean stables, and capturing the Golden Hind.
➢ Marriage and Family:
■ Marries Megara, but Hera drives him to madness, leading him to kill her and
their children.
■ Hercules seeks purification for his actions.
➢ Servitude to Omphale:
■ Serves as a slave to Queen Omphale as part of his purification.
■ Performs various tasks, including spinning wool.
➢ Capture of the Ceryneian Hind:
■ One of the Twelve Labors involves capturing the Ceryneian Hind, a deer with
golden antlers, sacred to Artemis.
➢ Capture of the Erymanthian Boar:
■ Another labor involves capturing the Erymanthian Boar, a monstrous creature
terrorizing the region.
➢ Capture of the Golden Hind:
■ Hercules is tasked with capturing the Golden Hind, a sacred deer belonging
to Artemis.
➢ Capture of the Augean Stables:
■ The cleaning of the Augean Stables, which Hercules accomplishes by
diverting two rivers.
➢ Slaying the Nemean Lion:
■ Hercules defeats the Nemean Lion, a creature with impenetrable skin, by
strangling it.
➢ Slaying the Hydra:
■ Hercules defeats the Hydra, a serpent with multiple heads, as part of his
labors.
➢ Retrieval of the Apples of the Hesperides:
■ One labor involves obtaining the golden apples from the Hesperides,
daughters of Atlas.
➢ Capturing the Cretan Bull:
■ Hercules captures the Cretan Bull, a monstrous creature causing havoc in
Crete.
➢ Cerberus and the Underworld:
■ Hercules's final labor is to capture Cerberus, the three-headed dog guarding
the Underworld.
➢ Death and Deification:
■ Hercules is poisoned by the centaur Nessus.
■ Ascends to Mount Olympus, becoming a god after his death.
➢ Symbol of Strength:
■ Hercules symbolizes strength, courage, and endurance in Greek mythology.
■ Often depicted in art and literature, his stories continue to be a significant part
of Western cultural heritage.
❖ Socrates and Xantippa (734)
➢ Socrates:
■ Ancient Greek philosopher, considered one of the founders of Western
philosophy.
■ Lived in Athens during the 5th century BCE.
■ Known for his Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative
dialogue.
➢ Xantippe:
■ Wife of Socrates.
■ Often portrayed in historical anecdotes as a challenging and ill-tempered
woman.
➢ Marriage:
■ Socrates and Xantippe had three sons together, but there is limited historical
 information about their marriage.
➢ Anecdotes and Literary Depictions:
■ Various anecdotes depict Xantippe as a shrewish and difficult wife.
■ In one famous story, Xantippe reportedly poured a chamber pot of water over
Socrates's head, prompting him to remark that after thunder, rain follows.
➢ Philosophical Interpretation:
■ Some scholars interpret the stories about Xantippe as symbolic of the
challenges and distractions of worldly life that philosophers, like Socrates,
must endure.
➢ Death of Socrates:
■ Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock for allegedly corrupting
the youth of Athens and rejecting the city's gods.
■ During his final moments, Xantippe is said to have been brought to him, and
Socrates calmly reassured her and his friends.
➢ Plato's Account:
■ Many details about Socrates and Xantippe come from Plato's writings,
especially in his work "Phaedo" where the death of Socrates is described.
■ Some argue that Plato, being a student and admirer of Socrates, might have
portrayed Xantippe in a less favorable light to emphasize Socrates's devotion
to philosophy.
➢ Alternative Views:
■ Some modern scholars question the historical accuracy of the negative
portrayals of Xantippe and suggest that these stories might be exaggerated
or even fictionalized.
➢ Symbolic Role:
■ Xantippe has become a symbolic figure representing the challenges and
distractions that may arise in the pursuit of philosophical or intellectual
endeavors.
➢ Legacy:
■ The stories about Socrates and Xantippe continue to be studied and
interpreted in various ways, exploring themes of family life, philosophy, and
historical context in ancient Athens.
❖ Phasipha, Queen of Crete (739)
➢ Parentage and Marriage:
■ Pasiphae is the daughter of Helios, the sun god, and the Oceanid Perseis.
■ Becomes the queen of Crete through her marriage to King Minos.
➢ Minotaur Myth:
■ Associated with the famous myth of the Minotaur, a monstrous creature with
the head of a bull and the body of a man.
➢ Curse of Poseidon:
■ Pasiphae incurs the wrath of the sea god Poseidon due to an offense
committed by her husband Minos.
■ Poseidon curses Pasiphae, leading to her unnatural attraction to a bull.
➢ Birth of the Minotaur:
■ Pasiphae, under the influence of Poseidon's curse, engages in a union with a
bull.
■ Gives birth to the Minotaur, a creature confined in the labyrinth constructed
by Daedalus.
➢ Daedalus and the Labyrinth:
■ Daedalus, the skilled craftsman, builds the labyrinth to contain the Minotaur.
■ Pasiphae's unnatural union with the bull is a key element in the complex web
of events leading to the creation of the labyrinth.
➢ Ariadne and Theseus:
■ Pasiphae's daughter, Ariadne, plays a crucial role in the story of Theseus and
the Minotaur.
■ Provides Theseus with a ball of thread to navigate the labyrinth and defeat
the Minotaur.
➢ Symbolism and Interpretations:
■ Pasiphae's story is often interpreted as a tale of divine punishment and the
consequences of human actions.
■ The Minotaur, born of Pasiphae's unnatural union, represents the
consequences of disobedience to the gods.
➢ Cultural References:
■ The myth of Pasiphae and the Minotaur has been depicted in various forms
of art, literature, and drama over the centuries.
 ■ Remains a prominent and enduring part of Greek mythology.
➢ Connection to Other Myths:
■ Pasiphae's story is intertwined with other myths, including the adventures of
Theseus, the craftsman Daedalus, and the construction of the labyrinth.
➢ Tragic Fate:
■ Pasiphae's role in the Minotaur myth emphasizes the tragic consequences of
divine curses and the complex interplay of gods and mortals in Greek
mythology.
➢ Legacy:
■ The myth of Pasiphae continues to be a subject of study and interpretation,
contributing to the rich tapestry of Greek mythology and its exploration of
human and divine relationships.
❖ Clitemnestra (743)
➢ Parentage and Marriage:
■ Daughter of King Tyndareus and Queen Leda.
■ Married to Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae, forming a powerful political
alliance.
➢ Children:
■ Mother of three children: Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes.
➢ Agamemnon's Return from Troy:
■ Agamemnon leads the Greeks in the Trojan War.
■ Controversially sacrifices their daughter Iphigenia to appease the gods and
ensure a favorable wind for the Greek fleet.
➢ Affair with Aegisthus:
■ While Agamemnon is away at Troy, Clytemnestra enters into an affair with
Aegisthus, a cousin and enemy of Agamemnon.
➢ Agamemnon's Murder:
■ Upon Agamemnon's return from Troy, Clytemnestra and Aegisthus conspire
to murder him.
■ Clytemnestra kills Agamemnon either directly or with Aegisthus' assistance.
➢ Motives for Murder:
■ Clytemnestra's motives include revenge for the sacrifice of their daughter,
Iphigenia, and resentment over Agamemnon bringing Cassandra, a Trojan
princess, as a concubine.
➢ Feud with Electra and Orestes:
■ Clytemnestra's actions lead to a bitter feud with her remaining children,
Electra and Orestes.
■ Electra mourns her father's death and resents her mother's role in it.
➢ Orestes' Revenge:
■ Orestes, with the encouragement of his sister Electra and the guidance of the
god Apollo, avenges his father's death by killing Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
➢ Trial and Punishment:
■ Orestes is later tried and tormented by the Furies (Erinyes) for matricide.
■ Athena intervenes, and Orestes is eventually acquitted in a trial known as the
Areopagus.
➢ Tragic Figure:
■ Clytemnestra is often portrayed as a tragic figure driven by a combination of
personal grief, vengeance, and political ambition.
■ Her actions contribute to the cycle of violence within the House of Atreus.
➢ Literary and Dramatic Depictions:
■ Clytemnestra's story is a prominent theme in Greek tragedies, including
Aeschylus' "Oresteia" and Euripides' "Electra."
■ Her character has been explored and reimagined in various works of
literature and drama throughout history.
➢ Symbolism:
■ Clytemnestra's story explores themes of revenge, justice, and the
consequences of actions within the context of ancient Greek mythology.
■ Symbolizes the complexities of familial relationships and the tragic outcomes
of unchecked vengeance.
❖ Amphiorax and Eriphilem (749)
➢ Amphiaraus:
■ Renowned seer and warrior in Greek mythology.
■ One of the Seven Against Thebes, a group of heroes who fought against
Thebes.
➢ Eriphyle:
 ■
Wife of Amphiaraus.
■
Known for her role in a tragic series of events involving the war against
Thebes.
➢ Oracles and Prophecies:
■ Amphiaraus possessed the gift of prophecy and foresaw his own death in the
upcoming war against Thebes.
➢ The War of the Seven Against Thebes:
■ Amphiaraus, despite knowing his fate, participates in the war against Thebes.
■ He is opposed to the war, but his brother-in-law, Adrastus, convinces him to
join the expedition.
➢ The Bribe of Eriphyle:
■ Eriphyle is bribed by Polynices, one of the leaders of the expedition, with the
gift of Harmonia's necklace to convince Amphiaraus to join the war.
➢ Prophecy Fulfilled:
■ Eriphyle succumbs to the bribe and convinces Amphiaraus to participate in
the war, leading to his foretold death.
➢ Death of Amphiaraus:
■ During the battle, Amphiaraus is swallowed by the earth, fulfilling the
prophecy and sparing him from direct combat.
➢ Harmonia's Necklace:
■ The necklace, a precious heirloom, had a tragic history and was believed to
bring misfortune to its possessors.
➢ Fate of Eriphyle:
■ Eriphyle later faces consequences for her role in Amphiaraus's death.
■ Their son, Alcmaeon, avenges his father by killing Eriphyle, completing the
tragic cycle.
➢ Legacy and Symbolism:
■ The story of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle is a classic example of the theme of
tragic prophecy and the consequences of meddling with fate.
■ It highlights the complexities of human relationships and the interplay
between destiny and free will in Greek mythology.
➢ Cultural References:
■ The tale has been retold and referenced in various works of literature and
drama, contributing to its enduring legacy in Western storytelling.
❖ Lyvia (753)
➢ Early Life:
■ Born on January 30, 58 BCE, in Rome.
■ Original name was Livia Drusilla before marriage.
➢ Marriage to Tiberius Claudius Nero:
■ Married to Tiberius Claudius Nero in 42 BCE.
■ Gave birth to two sons: Tiberius and Nero Claudius Drusus.
➢ Relationship with Augustus (Octavian):
■ Livia's first husband supported the senatorial party in Rome.
■ During a civil war, Livia allied with Octavian (later Augustus), and there were
rumors of her involvement in the death of her husband.
■ Married Octavian in 39 BCE.
➢ Mother of the Empire:
■ Livia became the first empress of Rome as Octavian became Augustus
Caesar, the first Roman Emperor.
■ Actively involved in political life, she played a significant role in the imperial
court.
➢ Children with Augustus:
■ Livia and Augustus had no biological children together.
■ Livia's son from her previous marriage, Tiberius, was adopted by Augustus
as his heir.
➢ Influence and Power:
■ Exercised influence behind the scenes, particularly in family and political
matters.
■ Instrumental in promoting the careers of her sons and securing the future of
the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
➢ Augustus's Death:
■ After the death of Augustus in 14 CE, Tiberius succeeded him as emperor.
■ Livia's influence continued during Tiberius's reign.
➢ Posthumous Honorifics:
■ After her death in 29 CE, Livia was deified by the Roman Senate, and her full
 titles became "Divi Augusta" (the Divine Augusta).
➢ Cultural Impact:
■ Depicted in various works of art and literature, including the famous statue
known as the "Livia Drusilla Bust."
➢ Legacy:
■ Livia is remembered as a powerful and influential figure in Roman history,
known for her political acumen and role in shaping the early Roman Empire.
■ Her story provides insights into the complexities of politics, power, and family
dynamics during the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman
Empire.
❖ Lucy (753)
❖ Latumyus and Arrius (764 – 770)

Historical References
❖ Heloise (682)
➢ Early Life:
■ Born around 1101, Heloise was a French scholar and abbess.
➢ Educational Background:
■ Heloise received a comprehensive education, unusual for a woman in
medieval times, under the guidance of her uncle, Fulbert, a canon at Notre
Dame in Paris.
➢ Love Affair with Abelard:
■ Heloise and Peter Abelard, a philosopher and theologian, began a romantic
relationship while Abelard was her tutor.
■ Their love affair was kept secret but eventually became public knowledge.
➢ Secret Marriage:
■ Heloise became pregnant, and to avoid scandal, Abelard suggested a secret
marriage.
■ Heloise agreed, but the marriage was kept secret to protect Abelard's career.
➢ Tragic Turn:
■ Fulbert, Heloise's uncle, discovered the marriage and felt betrayed.
■ Abelard was castrated by Fulbert's associates as punishment.
➢ Separation and Monastic Life:
■ Heloise and Abelard decided to lead separate lives.
■ Heloise became a nun, and Abelard a monk, each entering monastic life.
➢ Letters Between Heloise and Abelard:
■ The correspondence between Heloise and Abelard, known as the "Letters of
Abelard and Heloise," reveals their complex and passionate relationship.
■ Their letters express deep intellectual and emotional connection.
➢ Abelard's Adversities:
■ Abelard faced challenges in his academic career, including accusations of
heresy.
■ Heloise supported Abelard during his difficulties.
➢ Abbess of Paraclete:
■ Heloise became the abbess of the Paraclete, a religious house for women.
■ The Paraclete became a center of learning.
➢ Later Life and Death:
■ Heloise continued her scholarly pursuits and monastic responsibilities.
■ She died in 1164 and was buried alongside Abelard at the Paraclete.
➢ Legacy:
■ Heloise is remembered for her intelligence, love affair with Abelard, and her
role as an abbess.
■ The letters exchanged between Heloise and Abelard are considered some of
the most profound and moving expressions of love and intellect in medieval
literature.
➢ Cultural Impact:
■ The story of Heloise and Abelard has inspired numerous literary works,
operas, and adaptations over the centuries.
■ Their relationship is often cited as a poignant example of the conflict between
personal desires and societal expectations in medieval Europe.
❖ Darius (Breton saint) (504)
➢ Darius I (Darius the Great) - Persian King:
■ Ruled the Persian Empire from 522 to 486 BCE.
■ Known for organizing the empire into satrapies and building the Royal Road.
■ Led the Persians in the Battle of Marathon against the Greeks.
 ➢ Darius III - Last Achaemenid King of Persia:
■ Ruled Persia during Alexander the Great's conquest.
■ Defeated by Alexander at the Battle of Issus and later at the Battle of
Gaugamela.
➢ Saint Darius - Breton Saint:
■ Limited information available without specific details.
■ If possible, provide more context or details about the specific Breton saint
named Darius.
➢ Other Possible Darius:
■ Darius, a common given name in various cultures, could refer to individuals in
different historical, cultural, or religious contexts.
❖ Appelles (person who made Darius's tomb) (505)
➢ Ancient Greek Painter:
■ Apelles was a renowned painter in ancient Greece, considered one of the
greatest artists of antiquity.
➢ Time Period:
■ Active during the 4th century BCE, particularly during the reign of Alexander
the Great.
➢ Hometown:
■ Born in Colophon, an ancient Greek city in Asia Minor.
➢ Protégé of Ephesus:
■ Initially, Apelles was the protégé of Ephorus, a painter in Ephesus.
➢ Training in Athens:
■ Apelles moved to Athens, the cultural center of the ancient world, to further
his artistic education.
➢ Alexander the Great's Court Painter:
■ Earned the patronage of Alexander the Great and became his court painter.
➢ Portraits of Alexander:
■ Created several portraits of Alexander the Great, capturing his likeness in
various poses.
➢ Characteristics of His Art:
■ Known for his attention to detail, mastery of color, and ability to depict
realistic textures.
➢ Lost Works:
■ Unfortunately, none of Apelles's original paintings have survived to the
present day.
➢ Famous Anecdote:
■ Apelles is associated with the phrase "Nulla dies sine linea" (No day without a
line), emphasizing his dedication to his craft.
■ According to legend, he overheard a cobbler criticizing the accuracy of his
depiction of a shoe in a painting, leading Apelles to correct it.
➢ Collaboration with Protogenes:
■ Engaged in a friendly artistic competition with the painter Protogenes,
illustrating their mutual respect and talent.
➢ Artistic Influence:
■ Apelles's techniques and artistic principles influenced later painters and
became a reference in the history of art.
➢ Death:
■ The exact circumstances of his death are unclear, and various accounts
exist.
➢ Legacy:
■ Apelles's legacy endures through historical accounts, anecdotes, and his
influence on the artistic ideals of subsequent generations.
➢ Recognition by Pliny the Elder:
■ The Roman author and naturalist Pliny the Elder praised Apelles extensively
in his work "Naturalis Historia," contributing to the painter's lasting reputation.
➢ Symbol of Artistic Excellence:
■ Apelles is often considered a symbol of artistic perfection and remains an
iconic figure in the history of painting.
❖ Simplicius Gallus (649)