Chapter 1: General Concepts and Historical Events in
Science, Technology, and Society
Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself.
Science as an Idea
 It includes ideas, theories, and all available
systematic explanations and observations about
the natural and physical world.
Science as an Intellectual Activity
 It encompasses a systematic and practical study
of the natural and physical world.
 This process of study involves systematic
observation and experimentation.
Science as a body of Knowledge
 It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a
body of knowledge that deals with the process of
learning about the natural and physical world.
 This is what we refer to as school science.
Science as a Personal and Social Activity
 This explains that science is both knowledge and
activities done by human beings to develop better
understanding of the world around them.
 It is a means to improve life and to survive in life.
 It is interwoven with people’s lives.
Human Being
 Have embarked in scientific activities to know
and understand everything around them.
 Persistently observed and studied the natural and
the physical world to find meanings and seek
answers to many questions.
 Have developed noble ideas, later known as
philosophy, to provide alternative or possible
explanations to certain phenomena.
 Also used religion to rationalize the origins of life
and all lifeless forms.
Scientific Revolution
 Claimed to have started in the early 16th century
up to the 18th century in Europe.
 Europe where the invention of the printing
machine and the blooming intellectual activities
done in various places of learning, and the
growing number of scholars in various fields of
human interests.
 Was the period of enlightenment when the
developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry
transformed the views of society about nature.
 Explained the emergence or birth of modern
science as a result of these developments from the
disciplines mentioned.
 Ideas generated during this period enabled the
people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their
beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt
that it ignited vast human interests to rethink how
they do science and view scientific processes.
 Was the golden age for people committed to
scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply
trying moment to some scientific individuals that
led to their painful death or condemnation from
the religious institutions who tried to preserve
their faith, religion, and theological views. Some
rulers and religious leaders did not accept many
of the early works of scientists.
 Very significant in the development of human
beings, transformation of the society, and in the
formulation of scientific ideas.
 Significantly improved the conduct of scientific
investigations, experiments, and observations.
 Also led to the creation of new research fields in
science and prompted the establishment t of a
strong foundations for modern science.
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
Scientist
 Are ordinary people doing extraordinary things.
 Some scientist were never appreciated during
their times, some were sentenced to death, while
other were condemned by the Church during their
time.
Nicolaus Copernicus
 One of the Renaissance men.
 Knowledge about the nature of the universe had
been essentially unchanged since the great days
of Ancient Greece, some 1500 years before
Copernicus.
 His ideas were an e.g. of what is presently called
as a “Thought Experiment”.
 Was Appointed Frombork Cathedral in Poland by
the time he finished his doctorate degree.
 Was strongly influenced by a book entitled
“Epitome” published in 1496 by a German
author, Johannes Muller. This book contains
Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of
Ptolemy.
 In 1510, Copernicus’s idea and model of the
universe was essentially completed.
 He circulated a summary of his ideas to his few
close friends in a manuscript Called “
Commentariolus” (Little Commentary).
 In 1543, He published his book “De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” (On The
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). Often
cited as the start of the scientific revolution.
 In this book, he placed the sun to be the
centerpiece of the universe. Earth and all the
planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each
year. The Moon, however, would still be seen
orbiting the earth.
  His model of Earth orbiting around the sun
automatically positioned the planets into a logical
sequence.
 Two kinds of Planetary motion:
o The orbit of Venus and Mercury lay
inside the orbit of earth, thus, closer to
the Sun.
o The orbit of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter
lay outside of Earth’s orbit, thus,
farther form the Sun.
 The sequence is Mercury with the shortest year,
though Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn
with the longest year.
 Copernicus Model was judge to be heretic and
therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught
to Catholics.
 It was banned and ignored in Rome for the rest of
the 16th century.
Charles Darwin
 Famous for his Theory of Evolution.
 Changed our concept of the world’s creation and
its evolution.
 His professors recommended him to join a five-
year voyage through the HMS BEAGLE on the
Islands of GALAPAGOS.
 Publish his book “The Origins of Species” in
1589
 This book is considered to be one of the most
important works in scientific literature.
 His book presented evidence of on how species
evolve over time and presented traits and
adaptation that differentiate species.
 Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were
extraordinarily that moved beyond the realms of
plants and animals into the realms of humans.
 His book “The Descent of Man” was so - Incorporated their advanced understanding of
impressive yet very controversial. He introduces astronomy into their temples and other religious
the idea of all organic life, including human structures.
beings, under the realms of evolutionary thinking.
- E.g. The pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is
 Major Contributions: situated at the location of the Sun during the
o Evolutionary biology spring and fall equinoxes.
o Philosophy of science
- Mayan knowledge and understanding about
Sigmund Freud celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as
 Famous in psychology. evidenced by their knowledge of predicting
eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting
 Rosenfels (1980) described Freud as a towering and harvesting.
literary figure and a very talented communicator
- Also known for measuring time using 2
who did his share to raise the consciousness of
complicated calendar systems.
the civilized world in psychological matter.
o Calendar was useful for their life
 PSYCHOANALYSIS especially in planning their activities
and in observing their religious rituals
 scientific way to study the
and cultural celebrations.
human mind and neurotic
illness.
- Developed the technology for growing different
 Has great impact on the
crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary
scientific way of
machinery and tools.
understanding human nature.
 Focusing on human sexuality
- Built HYDRAULICS System with sophisticated
and the evil nature of man.
waterways to supply water to different
- Freudian ideas and theories are still considered
communities.
nowadays as a great inspiration to examine the
human mind and behavior in a more scientifically
- Used various tools and adapt themselves to
accepted way.
innovations especially in the field of arts.
- Built Looms for weaving cloth and devised a
Cradles of Early Science
rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral
called Mica.
Development of Science in Mesoamerica:
- Believed to be one of the 1st people to produce
Mesoamerica
rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear
- includes the entire area of Central America from
received its patent in 1844.
southern Mexico up to the border of South
America.
- Considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
Maya Civilization
- is one of the famous civilizations that lasted from
- One of the world's 1st civilizations to use a
approximately 2,000 years.
writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics.
- Known for their works in ASTRONOMY.
 - Skilled in mathematics and created a number
system based on the numeral 20.
- They independently developed the concept of
zero and positional value, even before the
Romans did.
Inca Civilization
 Famous in Mesoamerica.
 Made advanced scientific ideas considering
their limitations as an old civilization.
 Tools Developed to help them in everyday
life:
1. Roads paved with Stones.
2. Stone buildings that surmounted
earthquakes and other disasters
3. Irrigation system and technique
for storing water for their crops to
grow in all types of land
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark
their religious festivals and
prepare them for planting season
5. 1st Suspension Bridge
6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes
to keep records that only experts
can interpret
7. Inca Textiles since cloth was one
of the specially prized artistic
achievements.
Aztec Civilization
 Made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole.
 Their Contributions:
 Mandatory education
- Aztec puts value on education; that is
why their children are mandated to get
education regardless of their social
class, gender or age. It is early form of
universal or inclusive education.
 Chocolates
- Aztec develop chocolate during their
time.
- Used it as currency
- Aztec valued the cacao beans highly
and made it as part of their tribute to
their gods.
 Antispasmodic Medication
- They used a type of antispasmodic
medication that could prevent muscles
spasms and relax muscles, which could
help during surgery.
 Chinampa
- Form of Aztec technology for
agricultural farming in which the land
was divided into rectangular areas and
surrounded by canals.
 Aztec Calendar
- Enabled them to plan their activities,
rituals, and planting season.
 Invention of the Canoe
- A light narrow boat used for traveling
in water system.
Development of Science in Asia
Asia
 is the biggest continent in the world and home of
many ancient civilizations.
 Host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and
political activities of all ages.
India
 Is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of
water and fortified by huge mountains in its
northern borders.
 Creatively developed various ideas and
technologies useful in their everyday lives.
 Known for manufacturing iron and in
metallurgical works.
 Their iron steel is considered to be the best and
held with high regard in the whole of Roman
Empire.
 Also famous in medicine. E.g. AYURVEDA – a
system of traditional medicine that originated in
ancient India before 2500BC, is still practiced as
a form of alternative medicine.
o They discovered some medicinal
properties of plants that led them to
develop medicines to cure various
illnesses.
o SUSRUTA SAMHITA, describes
different surgical and other medical
procedures famous in Ancient India.
 Also notable in the field of astronomy.
 They developed theories on the configuration of
the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth,
and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30
days each.
 1st 12 chapters of the SIDDHANTA
SHIROMANI, written in the 12th century.
o Cover topics such as:
 Mean longitudes of the
planets
 True longitudes of the planets
 Three problems of diuranla
rotation
 Syzygies
 Lunar eclipse
 Solar Eclipses
 Latitudes of the planets
 Rising and settings
 The moon’s crescent
 Conjuctions of the planets
with each other
 Conjunctions of the planets
with the fixed stars
 The paths of the sun and
moon
 Also known for their mathematics
 Earliest traces of Mathematical knowledge
appeared in Indus Valley Civilization.
o People of this civilization, tried to
standardize measurement of length to a
high degree of accuracy and designed a
ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.
 Mathematician Aryabhata(476-550)
o In his Aryabhatiya, introduced a
number of trigonometric Functions,
tables, and techniques, as well as
algorithms of algebra
  Brahmagupta (628AD)
o Suggested that gravity was a force of
attraction, and lucidly explained the use
of zero as both a placeholder and a
decimal digit, along with the Hindu-
Arabic numeral system now used
universally throughout the world.
 Madhava of Sangamagrama
o Considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis.
China
 One of the ancient civilization with substantial
contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics,
arts, philosophy, and music
 Greatly influenced may of its neighbor
countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and
other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
 Known for traditional medicines.
 Discovered various medical properties and uses
of different plants and animals to cure human
illness.
 Acupuncture
 Technology:
o Compass
o Papermaking
o Gun powder
o Printing tools
o Iron plough
o Wheelbarrow
o Propeller
o Different model of Bridge.
o Invented the 1st seismological
detector, and developed a dry dock
facility.
 Astronomy, made significant records on:
o Supernovas
o Lunar
o Solar Eclipses
o Comets
 They observed the heavenly
bodies to understand
weather changes and
seasons that may affect
their daily activites
o Use Lunar Calendar
o Seismology
Middle East Countries
 Dominantly occupied by Muslims
 Spread of Islam in 7th and 8th centuries, a period
of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the
Golden Age of Islam lasted until 13th century.
 Common language of Arabic, access to Greek
text from the Byzantine Empire, and their
Proximity to india were contributory to the
 Ibn Al-Haytham
o Muslim scientist, regarded as the father of
Optics, especially for his empirical proof of
the intromission theory of light.
 Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi
o mathematician gave his name to the concept
of algorithm while the term algebra is
derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the
title of one of his publications.
o Arabic Numeral System -originally came
from India, but Muslim mathematicians did
make several refinements to the number
system,such as the introduction of decimal
point notation.
 Jabir ibn Hayyan
o “Father of chemistry”
 Ibn Sina
o Pioneered the science of experimental
medicine.
o 1st physician to conduct clinical trials.
o The Book of Healing and The Canon of
Medicine was standard medicinal texts in
both Muslim and Europe during 17th century.
o Discovered Contagious nature of infectious
diseases and the introduction of clinical
pharmacology.
 Decline of Golden age of Islam started 11th to 13th
century due to the conquest of Mongols whereby
Libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions
were destroyed.
Development of Science in Africa
Africa
 Blessed with natural and mineral resources.
 Science also emerged in this part of the planet
long before the Europeans colonized it.
 Africa are knowledge producers.
Egyptian
 Contributed to the fields of Astronomy,
Mathematics, and Medicine.
 E.g.
o Geometry product of necessity to
preserve the layout and ownership of
farmlands of the Egyptians living along
the Nile River.
o Rules of Geometry were developed and
used to build rectilinear structures, the
post of lintel architecture of Egypt.
o Great Structures
 Egyptian Pyramids
 Early Dams built to divert
water from the Nile River
o Egypt was known to be a center of
alchemy, which is known as the
medieval forerunner of chemistry.
o Studied Anatomy and Pharmacology,
and applied important components such
as examinations, diagnosis, treatment,
 and prognosis for the treatment of
diseases.

 Astronomy
o Famous in the African region.

o African use 3 types of calendars

 Lunar
 Solar
 Stellar

 Metallurgy
o Known in African regions.

 Iron Technology
o Was imported from North Africa and
Nile Valley.

o Enable them to benefit from the

developments during the Bronze Age
until the Iron Age.

 Mathematics
o Also known to be prominent in the life
of early people in African continent.

 Lebombo Bone
 From Swaziland and South
Africa.
 Tool for Multiplication,
division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a
six month lunar calendar.
 Oldest known mathematical
artifact dated from
35000BCE.

 Ancient Egyptians
o Good in the four fundamental
mathematical operations and other
mathematical skills.

o Have knowledge of the Basic concepts

of algebra and geometry.