382
Index
Analysis of structures
beams 26-32
column moments 36, 39, 220, 228-232
damaged structure 141
frames 33-43, 228
lateral loads 40-43
retaining walls 294-304
Analysis of the section
bending 57, 60, 65
clastic 87-91
flanged 66-73
uncracked 89-9]
with axial load 77-84
Anchorage bond 97-99
Anchorage bond lengths 98, 275, 37
Area of bars 375
Balanced failure 80
Bars see Reinforcement
Bases see Footings
Beams
analysis of moments and shears 25-32
analysis of sections $7, 60, 65
cantilever 170
continuous 25-32, 165-170
deflections 111-124, 331-335
design 142-177
design charts 59, 64, 148
doubly reinforced 62-66, 149-153
fective spans 143
‘one-span 27, 145-146, 158-163
prestressed 305-349
reinforcement details 10-109, 151,
156-158, 160
singly reinforced 58-62, 147-149
sizing 143-145
Bearing pressures 249-252, 298
Bearing stresses at a bend 164
Bending moments
coefficients 32, 167, 190
snvelopes 32, 37, 156, 165
redistribution 48-52, 73-16, 165
Bending with axial load 77-84, 221
Bends and hooks 98, 164
Bent-up bars 95-96, 163
Biaxial bending 239-241
Bond, anchorage 97-99
Bond lengths 377
Braced columns 33, 221, 226-227
Bundled bars 107
Cantilever beams 170-171
Cantilever retaining walls 300-304
Characteristic loads 17, 24, 374
Characteristic material strengths 12, 16
Circumference of bars 375
Coefficients of bending moments and
shears 32, 167, 190
Columns
amalysis of section 77-84
axially loaded 226
biaxial bending 239-241
braced 33, 221, 226-227
design 220-247
design charts 78-84, 228
effective height 222
loading arrangements 34, 39, 221, 230
moments 34, 39, 43, 221, 230, 243,
245-246
onerectangular section 83-84,
237-239
reinforcement details. 224-225
short 222-224, 226-227
simplified design 226-227, 238
slender 222-224, 241-246
substitute frame 33, 39, 230
uunsymenetrically reinforced 232-238
‘Combined footings 256-259
‘Composite construetion
design 350-373
serviceability limit state 353, 355,
367-373
shear connectors 361-364
transverse reinforcement 364-367
types 350-352
ultimate limit state 353, 354, 356-360Properties of reinforced concrete iB
1.2 |) Stress-strain relations
‘The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and
sirains in the conerete and the steel reinforcement, To carry out the analysis and design
of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the relationship between these
stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with
reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis of the
stresses on a cross-section of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in
the concrete and steel, and also the comps ty of the strains across the cross-section.
1.2.1 Concrete
Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain
curves. A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2. As the load is,
applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the
concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually a full recovery of
displacement if the load is removed, Eventually, the eurve is no longer Hinear and the
concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material, If the load were removed during
the plastic range the recovery would no longer be complete and a permanent
deformation would remain, The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be
a constant value of approximately 0,0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete.
‘The precise shape of the curve is very dependent on the fength of time the load is
applied, a factor which will be further discussed in section 1.4 on creep. Figure 1.2 is
typical for a short-term loading.
Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by
the graph in figure 1,3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more:
‘gradual later. The precise relationship will depend upon the type of cement used. That
40
30
20
10
a 7 28 3 1 5
day days days months year years
‘age of concrete (log scale
stress
|
i
i
“00035
Strain
Figure 1.2
Stress-stran curve for
concrete in compression
Figure 1.3
Increase of concrete strength
with age. Typical curve for a
trade C30 concrete made
with a class 42,5 Portland
cementShort columns 222-224, 226-227
Shrinkage 7-10, 116, 131-134, 285,
329
Slabs
continuous, spanning one
direction 190-192
fla 197-203
hollow block 203-205
‘one-span, spanning one
direction 187-190
ribbed 203-207
spanning, two directions
stair 209-212
strip method 218-219
waffle 203, 207-209
Slender column 222-224, 241-246
193-197,
Spacing of reinforcement 105-107, 151,
160, 164, 185, 225
Span-effective depth ratios 109-111,
123-125, 184-188, 199
Stability 136-141, 249, 296
Stairs 209-212
Steel
characteristic stresses 12, 16
stress-strain curves. 3-6, 54-55,
339
yield strains 55
Stirrups see Links
Swap footings 259-261
Stress blocks 55, 84-91
Stresses
anchorage 97-99, 275, 285
bond 97-99, 275, 285
concrete, characteristic 11, 16
permissible 19, 284, 294, 315,
shear 95, 344-349
steel, characteristic 12, 16
‘Stress—strain curves 3-4, 54-57, 339
Strip footings 261-264
Strip method 218-219
Substitute frame
braced 33-39
column 33, 39, 230
continuous beam 33-34
I 385
Index
‘Tanks 274-294
‘T-beams
analysis 66-73
design 154, 168
flange reinforcement 108-154
flange width 154
second moment of arcé
span-effective depth 1
Tendons 308-310
‘Thermal cracking 9, 131-134, 285-286
Thermal movement 6, 9-10, 278
Tie forces 137-141
39
10
‘Torsion
analysis 100-103,
design 174-177
‘Transfer stresses 305, 315-317
‘Transmission length 309
‘Triangular stress block 87-91, 113-114,
294
Ultimate limit state
factors of safety 1718, 248, 275, 297
loading arrangements 25-26, 179, 221,
296-298
prestressed concrete 338-343
stability 26, 249, 296
Uneracked section 89-91, 113-114
Untensioned steel in prestressed
concrete 342
Walls 246-247
Water-retaining structures
elastic analysis 87-91
elastic design 294
joints 277-280
limit state design 282-294
reinforcement details 280-281
Weights of materials 374
Wind loading 18, 24, 40, 248
Wire fabric 376
Yield lines 213-217
Yield strains 55
‘Young’s modulus see Elastic modulusCompression
ons raintorcemert
i required Ss
1
om 30% 20%
0.775 | 1
0 0.05) 219) 130.186
ko wie,
(€) Design for torsion (see chapters 5 and 7)
ar
Irn Umax — in /3)
t
By ORE (09S%.)
awa (®) (nyt)
(d) Design for punching shear in stabs (see chapter 8)
v= V jue
Consult table 5.1 for values of us,
For ve C7 <1.6¥e: Aww > (v — ve)ud /0.95fyv
For Love <¥ 2 Qe: Aw > S{0.7 — vg) ud JO.95foe
Appendix
Figure AT
Lever arm curve
379Reinforced concrete design
Figure 1.1
Composite action
wf Composite action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength.
Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption
that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement is designed to carry
these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two
materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the
conerete and there will not be a composite action, Thus members should be detailed
so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during
construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra
mechanical grip.
‘In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed
that there is a perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the
strain in the adjacent concrete, This ensures that there is what is known as ‘compatibility
of strains’ across the cross-section of the member.
‘The coefficients of thermal expansion for stee! and for concrete are of the order of
10 « 10°® per °C and 7-12 x10 per °C respectively, These values are sufficiently
cloxe that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expansion between the two
materials over normal temperature ranges.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of simply supported beam subjected to bending
and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the
compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
AU
Strain Section AA
Distribution
Tension
Cracking
A
Reinforcement
Wherever tension occurs itis likely that cracking of the concrete will take place. This
cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is
good reinforcement bond to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that
the embedded steel continues to be protected from corrosion.
When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then
steel reinforcement must again be provided, but in these cases it is only required to
supplement the load-carrying capacity of the concrete. For example, compression
rein forcement is generally required in a column, where it takes the form of vertical bars
spaced neat the perimeter. To prevent these bars buckling, steel binders are used to
assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete.Compression reinforcement 62-66,
149-153
Conerete
eharacteristic strength 12, 16
over 11, 105-106, 135, 250, 275, 280
cracking 6, 125-134, 275-276,
282-286
ercep 10, 115, 328, 333-334
durability 11, 134-136, 275
clastic modulus 4-5, 115, 334
shrinkage 6-10, 116, 131-134, 275,
293, 329
stress-strain curve 3, 5, 54
thermal expansion 2, 6, 9, 131-134,
277-281
Continuous beams
analysis 27-32
curtailment of bars
design 165-170
envelopes 32, 165
loading arrangements 2-26, 30
moment and shear coefficients 32, 167
Corbels 170-174
Counterfort retaining walls 295
Cover to reinforcement 11, 105-106, 135,
250, 275, 280
156-158
Cracking
control 6, 130, 276-281
flexural 125-130
thermal and shrinkage 6-10, 131-134
Creep 10, 115, 328, 333-334
Creep coefficients 115, 329
Critical section 180, 253
Critical steel ratio 131, 280, 285, 287
‘Curtailment of bars 156-158
Curvatures 116-118
Dead loads
Deflections
Design charts
beams 59, 64, 148
columns 78-84, 228
Diagonal tension 93, 344
Distribution steel 109, 185
Doubly reinforced beams 62-66, 149-153
Dowels 225, 252
Durability 11, 134-135
18, 24, 374
111-124, 184, 331-335
Earth-bearing pressures 249-252,
302-303
Effective depth 56, 143,
Effective flange width 154
Effective height of a column 222
Effective span 143, 187, 190
inex [282
Elastic analysis of a section 87-91, 294
Elastic modulus
concrete 4-5, 115, 334
steel 54-55
End blocks 335-338
Envelopes, bending moment and shear
force 32, 37, 156, 165
Equivalent rectangular stress block 55-57
Factors of safety
global 19
partial 17-18, 248, 275, 297
Fire resistance 15, 105-107, 136
Flanged section see T-beams
Flat slab 197-203
Floors see Slabs
Footings
allowable soil pressures 249
combined 256-259
horizontal loads 249, 268
pad 250-256
piled 265-273,
raft 264-265
strap 259-261
strip 261-264
Foundations see Footings
Frames
analysis 33-43
braced 33-39
laterally loaded 40-43
loading arrangements 25-26, 34, 221
unbraced 33, 40-43, 221
with shear walls 47
Gravity retaining walls 295, 296-297
Hooks and bends 98, 160, 164
Joints
construction 277
contraction and expansion 277-280
Lap lengths 99-100, 377
Laps 99-100, 377
L-beams see T-beams
Lever arm 58-59, 77, 148
Lever-arm curve 59, 148
Limit state design 14-22, 282-294
Limit stares
serviceability
ultimate 15
Links 94-95, 101-102, 151, 160-163,
174, 225, 346
Load combinations 25-26
15, 04-134, 248CHAPTER 1
Properties of
reinforced
concrete
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into
many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender
curved dome or shell. Its utility and versatility are achieved by cambining the best
features of concrete and steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of
these two materials that are listed below.
Concrete _ Steel
strength in tension poor ‘good
strength in compression good good, but stencler bars will buckle
strength in shear fair good
good comodes if unprotected
good poor ~ suffers rapid loss of strength at
high temperatures
it can be seen from this list that the materials are more or ess complementary. Thus,
‘when they are combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile strength and probably
some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the
steel to lve durability and fire resistance, This chapter can present only a briel
introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its steel reinforcement. For a more
Comprehensive study, it is recommended that reference should be made to the
specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book.384 fl inaex
Loading arrangements 25-26, 34, 221,
249, 297
Loads
characteristic 17
dead 24
imposed or live 24, 282, 297
typical values 374
Long-term deflection
332, 335
Loss of prestress 327-331
112, 119-123,
Magnel diagram 321-324
Material properties 1-13, 54
Maximum bar spacing L05S—107, 109, 151,
160, 164, 186, 225, 275
Maximum steel areas 108, 147, 224-225,
378,
Minimum bar spacing 107, 160
Minimum steel areas 108, 147, 161, 180,
185, 196, 222-225, 271, 281, 287, 377
Modular ratio 90, 294
Modulus of elasticity see Elastic modulus
Moment coefficients 32, 190, 194
Moment envelopes 32, 37, 156, 165
Moment redistribution 48-52, 56-7,
73-76, 149, 179
Moments in columns 34, 39, 43, 221,230,
243, 245-246
Neutral-axis depth 56-57, 59, 66
Nominal reinforcement 108, 147, 161,
180, 195, 286
Non-rectangular sections 83-84, 237-239
Overturning 21, 26, 297
Pad footings 250-256
Parabola, properties of 86
Partial safety factors 17-18, 248, 275, 297
Permissible bearing pressures 271
Permissible stresses 19, 284, 294, 315
Pile caps 268-273
Piled foundations 265-273
Prestressed concrete
analysis and design 308-349
cable zone 324-327
deflections 331-335
end block 335-338
losses 327-331
Magnel diagrams 321-324
Ppost-tensioning 310
pretensioning 308-309
serviceability 315-335
shear 344-349
transfer stress 316-317
ultimate strength 338-343,
Punching shear 180-184, 198, 202, 253,
271
Raft foundations 264-265
Rectangular stress block 55-59
Reetangular-parabolic stress block 55,
84-86
Redistribution of moments 48-82, 56-51,
73-16, 149, 179
Reinforcement
areas 375
bond lengths 377
characteristic strengths 12, 16
circumference 375
lap lengths 99, 377
iaximum and minimum areas 108,
147, 161, 180, 185, 196, 222-225,
271, 281, 287, 377
properties 5, 12, 54-55
spacing 105-107, 151, 160, 164, 185,
225
torsion 100-103, 174-177
untensioned 342-343
Retaining walls
analysis and design 296-304
cantilever 296, 300-304
counterfort 295
gravity 295, 297
Serviceability limit state
cracking 125-134, 282-286, 294
deflections 111-124, 331-335
durability 11, 104, 134-135
factors of safety 17-19
fire resistance | 15, 105-107, 136
Shear
beams 29, 93-97, 160-163
concrete stresses 95, 160
footings 253, 254-255, 270
prestressed beams 344=349
punching 180-184, 198, 202, 253,
reinforcement 93-97, 160-163, 172,
346-349
slabs 179-184, 202
torsion 100-103, 174-177
Shear wall structures
resisting horizontal loads 43-46
with openings 47
with structural frames 47-48Figure 1.4
‘Modul of elasticity of concrete
4 1 Reinforced concrete design
shown is for the typical variation of an adequately cured concrete made with commonly
used class 42.5 Portland Cement, Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength
used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the
design load, BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value
in calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account for age as
shown overleaf.
Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ir ig seen from the stress-strain curve for conerete that although elastic behaviour may
be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this
relationship is not truly linear, Consequently it is necessary to define precisely what
value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity.
stress
strain
‘A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E = Bs
where F, ig known as the secant or static modulus, This is measured for a particular
concrete by means of static test in which a cylinder is loaded to just above one-third of
the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to zero stress. This removes
the effect of initial “bedding-in’ and minor stress redistributions in the concrete under
load, Load is then reapplied and the behaviour will then be almost linear; the average
slope of the line up to the specified stress is taken as the value for Z. The testis
described in detail in BS 1881 and the result is generally known as the instantaneous
static modulus of elasticity.
“The dynamic modulus of elasticity, Bay, is sometimes referred to since this is much
easier to measure in the laboratory and there is a fairly well-defined relationship
between F and Fey. The standard test is based on determining the resonant frequency of
4 laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1881. It is also possible to
obtain a good estimate of Exy from ultrasonic measuring techniques, which may
‘sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual structure, The standard test
for Hy is on an unstressed specimen, lt can be seen fiom figure 1.4 that the value
obtained represents the slope of the tangent at zero stress and Ey, is therefore higher
than £,, The relationship between the two moduli is given by
Static modulus B, = (1.25Beq — 19) kNémm?
‘This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes.
,
lA -
Etat) StrainF.K. Kong and R.H. Evans, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, Chapman & Hall,
London, 1988
RM, Lawson, Commentary on BS $980 Part 3 Seetion 3.1, Composite Beams. The Steel
Construction Institute, 1990,
T.Y, Lin and N.H. Bums, Design of Prestressed Conerete Structures. J. Wiley, Chichester,
1983,
‘T.J, MaeGinley and B.S. Choo, Reinforced Concrete Design Theory and Examples. E & F
N Spon, London, 1990,
W.H. Mosley, R, Hulse and J.H. Bungey, Reinfareed Concrete Design to Eurocode 2,
Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1996.
A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, 4th edn, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow,
1998,
A.M, Neville and J.J. Brooks, Concrete Technology. Longman Scientific and Technical,
Harlow, 1987.
A\H, Nilson and G. Winter, Design of Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead,
1991
C.E, Reynolds and J.C. Steedian, Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook, 10th edn. E
& FN Spon, London, 1988,
Concise EuroCode for the Design of Concrete Buildings. British Cement Association,
Crowthome, Berks, 1993
Worked Examples for the Design of Concrete Buildings. British Cement Association,
‘Crowthorne, Berks, 1994.
Further reading {ser380
Further reading
(a) British Standards and Eurocodes
BS 1881
BS 4449
BS 4466,
BS 4482
BS 4483
BS 5057
BS 5328
BS 5896
BS 5950.
BS 6399
BS 8002
BS 8604
BS 8007
BS 8110
DD ENV 1992-1-1
DD ENV 206
Draft prEN 10080
Methods of testing concrete
Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement af concrete
Specification for bending dimensions and scheduling of reinforcement
for concrete
Cold reduced steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete
Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete
Concrete admixtures
Part 1: Guide to specifying concrete
Specification for kigh tensife steet wire and strand for the prestressing
af concrete
Structural use of steelwork on buildings. Part 3: Design in composite
consinection
Design loading for buildings
Earth retaining structures
Foundations
Code of practice for the design of concrete structures for retaining
aqueous liquids
Struetural use of conerese, Parts 1, 2 and 3
Eurocode 2; Design of concrete structures, Part |
Conerete — performance, production, placing and compliance criteria
Steel for the reinforcement of concrete
(b) Textbook and other publications
A.W. Beeby and R. $. Narayanan, Designers Handbook to EureCode 2. Thomas Telford,
London, 1995.
JH. Bungey and 8. G. Millard, The Testing of Concrete in Structures, 3rd edn, Chapman &
Hall, Londen, 1995.
R. Hulse and W.H, Mosley, Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer, Macmillan,
Basingstoke, 1986,
R, Hulse and W.H, Mosley, Prestressed Concrete Design by Computer. Macrnillan,
Basingstoke, 1987,
M.K. Hurst, Prestressed Concrete Design, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London, 1998.