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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Flood is a recurring event that leads to hazards (Rose 2014). Flood is one of the most

devastating natural hazards which lead to the loss of lives, properties and resources. It has

therefore become important to create easily read, rapidly accessible flood hazard map, which will

prioritize the mitigation effects (Eric 2011). Flooding denotes the process of inundation of an

area by unexpected or sudden rise of water due to snowmelt, extreme rainfall intensity in the

upper reaches as well in the lower part of a basin or due to dam failure in which life and property

in the affected area are under risk (Nyarko, 2012). It is a natural and recurring event for a river. It

is a result of heavy or continuous rainfall exceeding the absorptive capacity of soil and the

conveyance capacity of river channel. This causes a river to overflow its banks on to the adjacent

lands.

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface ("The world fact-book"). It is vital for all known

forms of life. On Earth, 96.5% of the planet's crust water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in

groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in

other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of ice and liquid water

suspended in air), and precipitation.

Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the

freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture (Baroni & Berati, 2007). Water is an excellent

solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in industrial

processes, and in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of

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entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving

etc.

A modern method of determining floodplain and runoff computation is by the application

of Geographical Information System (GIS) which is capable of developing information in

different thematic layers and integrating them with sufficient accuracy and within a short period

of time (Chidima, 2015, Han 2003). Remote sensing has become an important tool applicable to

developing and understanding the global, physical processes affecting the earth (Hudak 1998).

Recent development in the use of satellite data is to take advantage of increasing amounts of

geographical data available in conjunction with GIS to assist in interpretation (Tziztiki 2012).

GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware and software capable of capturing, storing,

retrieving, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced (spatial)

information for the purpose of aiding development-oriented management and decision-making

processes (Aboyade 2001). Also (Zehtabian 200) defined geographic information system (GIS)

is designed to visualize, store and analyze the information about the locations, topology, and

attributes of spatial features. In most GIS programs, data are stored and managed in a relational

database embedded in the system. A GIS program can perform regular database management

tasks in addition to its spatial analysis capabilities. For this reason, GIS can be considered as a

relational database management system with a map interface for data presentation.

Geographical Information System (GIS) has emerged as a powerful tool for storing,

analysing and displaying spatial data and using these data for decision making in several

areas (Yeung, 2003). GIS has been used in the map classification of groundwater quality

based on correlating total dissolved solids (TDS) values with some aquifer characteristics

(Butler, 2002) or land use and land cover (Asadi, 2007). Other studies have used GIS as

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a data base system in order to prepare maps of water quality according to concentration

values of different chemical constituents (Yammani, 2007). In such studies, GIS is utilized

to locate ground water quality zones suitable for different usage such as irrigation and

domestic (Yammani, 2007).

These are three schools of thought about the preponderance of floods all over the globe

especially in the tropics. The first is of the opinion that there is global warming and climate

change that is directly and or indirectly increasing the amount of rain and ice melting that is

increasing the amount of runoff. In this case, the only source of water that results in great runoff

(floods) in West Africa, and indeed, Nigeria will be rain water. The second school of thought is

of the view that there have been a lot abuses heaped on the physical environment which is only

responding to the abuses heaped on it. The abuses include but not limited for poor planning of

the physical environment drains for the built up areas and others. The third school has it that it is

the combination of both global warming and climate change, and the abuses of man on the

environment that are the causes of prolonged and torrential showers of rains and the resultant

runoff that lead to devastating floods in America, Europe and Africa including Nigeria. The facts

behind the three schools are yet to be thoroughly researched and confirmed (Dow and Dewing,

2006).

Two common approaches to solve flood problem that has been recognized are structural

and non structural measure. Structural measure such as river widening, deepening and

straightening is targeting to reduce flood magnitude but at the same time might transfer the flood

problem to the downstream. For non structural measures, tools such as triangulated irregular

network data model (TIN), which allows an efficient surface model generation to analyze and

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display terrain. This can be used to quantify the effects of human interference to the river system.

Such tools already available in advanced country but the application is still new in this country.

This research focuses on developing methodology to study the floodplain map of Eleyele

catchment and computation of runoff in Geographic Information System (GIS) environment.

1.2 Statement of Problem

In August 2011 and July 2013, flooding in Ibadan claimed many lives and properties. A

close look at this historical update shows the flooding and flood management has become one of

the issues to contend with in this ancient city. Flooding results into a lot of damages and the

extent of damage varies from place to place. Nigeria has her share of flood events which has

taken a toll on lives and properties. A lot of research has been carried out to ascertain the causes

of flooding and different reasons have been identified, such include: dumping of refuse over the

years has led to the filling up of ponds and blockages of other natural water ways or drainages;

high intensity rainfall coupled with a gentle slope for water accumulation; dam failure coupled

with almost bare surface; rapid rate of unplanned settlement leading to poor drainage system

among many others. The spatial distribution of risks as well as the benefit of flood mitigation

measures is rarely considered. Therefore, it is often unknown which area benefit most from a

measure and which areas do not. This underscores the need for this study so as to find a

reasonable solution, prevention and mitigation strategy for this menace.

1.3 Aim
The aim of the research is to determine the floodplain map and runoff computation of

Eleyele area using Geographic Information System (GIS).

1.4 Objectives
i. To generate the digital elevation map using GIS

ii. To generate the land use map of the study area using GIS
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iii. To generate the runoff map using GIS

iv. To generate the floodplain map using GIS

v. To proffer engineering advice to government and occupant of the flood prone area

1.5 Scope of the Study

This study focus on studying the flood plain map runoff computation, it is expected to

cover the catchment Area within Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria. To generate the land use map of the

study area, digital elevation map and the floodplain map using GIS. It is also to generate the

runoff computation of the study area.

1.6 Limitation of the Study

The research study is limited to Eleyele catchment formulated by researcher which is

situated within Ibadan, the capital Oyo State in the southwest area of Nigeria.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Flood

Flood is difficult to monitor on large scales, because they are determined by local

condition such as precipitation, slope of terrain, drainage network, protective structures, land

cover, and other factors. Each river or coastal area must be monitored at different places along its

course. some flood disasters happened annually, yet others can occur unexpectedly (De Groeve

2010, Harman, 2014).

European Union EU (2013) defines flood as a covering by water of land not normally

covered by water. Flood may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies such as river or

lake, in which water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of the water escaping its usual

boundaries or it may occur due to accumulation of rain water on saturated ground in an aerial

flood, leading to catastrophe and other life treating hazard. Flood can be categorized into three

major forms which include;

i. Riverine flooding

ii. Coastal flooding

iii. Shallow flooding

i. Riverine Flooding: A watershed is an area that drains into a lake, stream or other body of water.

Other names for it are basin or catchment area. Watersheds vary in size; larger ones can be

divided into sub-watersheds (Coulibaly 2008). Flooding that occurs along a channel is called

riverine flooding.

Types of riverine flooding are Overbank Flooding, Flash Flooding and Riverine Erosion.

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 ii. Coastal Flooding: Development along the coasts of the oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and large

lakes can be exposed to two types of flood problems not found in riverine areas: Coastal Storms

and Coastal Erosion. The Pacific and Caribbean coasts face a third hazard: Tsunamis (Ramsay &

Bell 2008).

iii. Shallow Flooding: Shallow flooding occurs in flat areas where a lack of channels means water

cannot drain away easily. Shallow flood problems fall into three categories: Sheet Flow, Ponding

and Urban Drainage.

2.2 Effect of Flood

There have been journalistic and non-quantitative reports of floods and floodplain map

for several parts of Nigeria. But they are superficial and lack directions for professionals and

policy makers (Aderogba, 2011). The journals of Taiwo (2008), Amaize (2003), Lola(1997),

Atdhor (2011), British Broadcasting Corporation (1999) and Ngordi (2011) are in this category

they are generic in analysis of data and information, and in the recommendations for sustainable

development. Above all, there is none of recent, to describe the magnitude and criticality of the

phenomena with the attendant challenges. The works of Adeaga (2008), Oyegbile (2008) and

Oyebande (1990 and 2005) are paraphrasing, disjointed or sectional. Adeaga (2008) is only on

mapping of the hazards caused by floods in the North Eastern part of Lagos Metropolis.

Similarly, the work Aderogba (2011) on the challenges of global warming and floods in Lagos

Metropolis, Nigeria is only an expositing of the poor planting of the physical environment of

Lagos Metropolis and poor living habit of the residents Vis-à-vis the resultant floods.

Probably because the entire nation requires attention for sustainable development in the

face of incessant floods. (Aderogba 2012) the study of Aderogba (2012) qualitative studies of

recent floods and sustainable growth and development of cities and towns in Nigeria is on the

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 country such as the south Western part of the country with the multiplying city of urban

functions, and the peculiarity of urban growth, processes and development in the region. The

region countries about 20% of the nation’s population; and about 47% of industrial

establishments, (National population commission, 2007 & Mabunje, 1968). It is the growth pole

of the nation; its growth and development needs to be sustainable.

2.3 Flood Damage

Floodplains are home to nearly 10 million households. In an average year, floods kill 150

people and cause over $3 billion in property damage. Nationally, average annual flood losses

continue to increase loods can hurt or kill people, and damage property, in several ways.

Knowing the impact of a potential hazard and guarding against it is integral to administering a

floodplain management program.

The five main causes of flood damage:

i. Hydrodynamic forces

ii. Debris impact

iii. Hydrostatic forces

iv. Soaking

v. Sediment and contaminants

2.3.1 Hydrodynamic Forces

Moving water creates a hydrodynamic force which can damage a building’s walls in

three ways

i. Frontal impact as water strikes the structure.

ii. Drag effect, as water runs along the sides of a structure.

iii. Eddies or negative pressures, created as water passes the downstream side.

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 2.3.2 Debris Impact
Debris also increases the hazard posed by moving water. Floodwaters can and will pick

up anything that will float—logs, lumber, ice, even propane tanks and vehicles. Moving water

will also drag or roll objects that don’t float. All of this debris acts as battering rams that can

knock holes in walls.

2.3.3 Hydrostatic Forces

The weight of standing water puts hydrostatic pressure on a structure. The deeper the

water, the more it weighs and the greater the hydrostatic pressure. Because water is fluid, it

exerts the same amount of pressure sideways (lateral pressure) as it does downward. As water

gets deeper, it exerts more lateral pressure than shallow water.

2.3.4 Soaking
When soaked, many materials change their composition or shape. Wet wood will swell,

and if it is dried too fast it will crack, split or warp. Plywood can come apart. Gypsum wallboard

will fall apart if it is bumped before it dries out. The longer these materials are wet, the more

moisture they will absorb. Soaking can cause extensive damage to household goods. Wooden

furniture may get so badly warped that it can't be used. Other furnishings, such as upholstery,

carpeting, mattresses and books, usually are not worth drying out and restoring. Electrical

appliances and gasoline engines won't work safely until they are professionally dried and

cleaned.

2.3.5 Sediment and Contaminants

Many materials, including wood and fiberglass or cellulose insulation, absorb floodwater

and its sediment. Even if allowed to dry out, the materials will still hold the sediment, salt and

contaminants brought by the flood. Simply letting a flooded house dry out will not render it clean

and it certainly will not be as healthy a place as it was before the flood.

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Few floods, especially those that strike inland, have clear floodwater, and so they leave a mess

made of natural and man-made debris. Storm water, snowmelt and river water pick up whatever

was on the ground, such as soil, road oil, and farm and lawn chemicals. If a wastewater treatment

plant upstream was inundated, the floodwaters will likely include untreated sewage.

Nwigwe & Emberga (2014) in their study an Assessment of causes and effects of flood in

Nigeria concluded that Living habits of the urban dwellers, urban policies and programmes.

Government concerns and others have been unsustainable. There must be pragmatic physical

planning and sustainable living habit of the urbanities otherwise, with global warming; the

effects of floods in the region may be more grievous.

2.4 Safety and Health Hazards

Floods pose a variety of hazards as they build, crest and subside. At different points in the

life of a flood, people are displaced, damage occurs and finally a cleanup can begin. Disruption

of normal public utilities and the presence of flood debris and damage can produce safety and

health hazards.

When utilities are damaged, hazards arise. Electrocution is the second most frequent

cause of flood deaths, claiming lives in a flooded area that is carrying a live current created when

electrical components short. Floods also can damage gas lines, floors and stairs, creating

secondary hazards such gas leaks and unsafe structures. If the water system loses pressure, a boil

order may be issued to protect people and animals from contaminated water.

Fire can be a result of too much water: floods can break gas lines, extinguish pilot lights,

and short circuit electrical wiring causing conditions ripe for a fire. Fire equipment may not be

able reach a burning building during high water. Floods bring and leave health hazards in the

form of animal carcasses, garbage and ponds that can become breeding grounds for germs and
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mosquitoes. Any flooded items that come in close contact with people must be thrown out,

including such things as food, cosmetics, medicines, stuffed animals and baby toys. Clothes and

dishes need to be washed thoroughly.

Mold, mildew and bacteria grow in damp, flooded areas. One health hazard occurs when

heating ducts in a forced-air system are not properly cleaned following inundation. When the

furnace or air conditioner is turned on, the sediments left in the ducts are circulated throughout

the building and breathed in by the occupants. Flooding, especially repetitive flooding, takes a

toll on people's mental health.

Stress comes from facing the loss of time, money, property and personal possessions such

as heirlooms. This is aggravated by fatigue during cleanup and anxiety over lost income, health

risks and damage to irreplaceable items.

Children and the elderly are especially susceptible to stress from the disruption of their

daily routines.

2.5 Floodplains
The South-East Watershed Forum (SEWF, 2003) defined floodplains as low lying areas

adjacent to bodies of water that are susceptible to flooding during seasonal or unexpected

weather events. Associated Program on Floodplain Management (APFM, 2008) it consist of

floodway and floodway fringes. Floodplains are “flood prone areas” they have been sought as

sites for urban development because of the facilities they offer including access to source of

water for a variety of uses (Genoovese 2006). Floodplains have attracted people for living,

industrial, commercial and recreational activities (Sani 2015).

Human development and activities have altered the landscape of urban floodplains thus

affecting both the immediate floodplain and event downstream. Because of the attractiveness of

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floodplains for development during urbanization substantial urban population, facilities, utilities

and services are subjected to flooding. The degree of urbanization of cities determines the spatial

variation and intensity of river flooding in cities (Ogundele and Jegede 2011). (Abam 2006)

defines flood as large volume of water which arrives at and occupy the stream channels and its

floodplains in a time too short to prevent damage to economic activities including homes. The

management of activities within the floodplain which are flood prone can significantly reduced

flood damage to existing development and prevent the amount of damages from raising in the

future.

Chidinma (2015) in her study on the mapping of flood prone zones in Surulere region of

lagos in Nigeria. The researchers were interested in recognizing the issues that lead to flooding

and with the help of GIS software it will chart the flood prone zones in Surulere. The land cover/

land use map and DEM were generated in the ArcGIS and it will clearly define the flood prone

zones in the charts. With the help of map the result was concluded that majority of the terrestrial

area were disposed to flooding. Therefore it was important for the Lagos government to

implement the necessary methods, awareness and research in order to mitigate flood in Surulere

region.

Eric (2002) studied creating a Terrain Model for Floodplain Mapping. The paper

expresses the use of a geographic information system (GIS) method accessible for the growth of

a topography model based on tributary channel depiction of the HEC-RAS model. The

researcher has an idea for developing an automated terrain modeling approach in which a

technique combine a topography model from HEC-RAS cross section files and DEM. It was

concluded that the resulting topography DTM precisely describes both channel morphology and

floodplain mapping at a vast scale which was required for hydraulic modeling and for the

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topography model it was produces by integrated hydraulic modeling with DTM approach

signifies the overall background and it was similar in quality to topography model information

acquired through aerial photogrammetry.

Usman (2015) the paper describes the Assessment of flood using Geospatial techniques

for the Indus River Reach: Chashma-Taunsa. In this paper researcher had done research on the

Indus river reach Chashma-Taunsa for flood modeling and flood mapping for normal flood of

2006 and exceptionally high flood occurred in year 2010. To implement hydraulic modeling and

flood plain mapping HEC-RAS, ARC-GIS and its extension Hec-GeoRAS were used for the

working out the peak flow attenuation, assessment of lag time between inflow and outflow and to

implement mapping for the estimation of flood zone depth and flooded area of reach. The

researcher concluded that the flood area computed in model shows good match with the satellite

observed data, which shows that the computed flood extents are reliable and will also access the

areas vulnerable to flood with estimation of depth for year 2010 flood.

2.5.1 Floodplain Development

Throughout time, floods have altered the floodplain landscape. These areas are

continuously shaped by the forces of water either eroded or built up through deposit of sediment.

More recently, the landscape has been altered by human development, affecting both the

immediate floodplain and events downstream.

Historically, people have been attracted to bodies of water as places for living, industry,

commerce and recreation. During the early settlement of the United States, locations near water

provided necessary access to transportation, a water supply and water power. In addition, these

areas had fertile soils, making them prime agricultural lands.

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 This pattern of development continued as communities grew. In recent decades,

development along waterways and shorelines has been spurred by the aesthetic and recreational

value of these sites. Because floodplains have attracted people and industry, a substantial portion

of this country’s development is now subject to flooding. Floodplains account for only seven

percent of the nation’s total land area. However, they contain a tremendous amount property

value. It is estimated that there are 8 – 12 million homes in our floodplains.

Two problems result from floodplain development:

i. Development alters the floodplain and the dynamics of flooding.

ii. Buildings and infrastructure are damaged by periodic flooding.

2.5.1.1 Best Practice Principles in Urban Floodplain Management

Different countries and metropolitan cities may have developed their best practice and

approaches to effectively manage floodplain encroachment due to urbanization. The pillars on

which these best practice principle are built on are;

i. Recognizing Hazards on floodplain as result of urban encroachment.

ii. Recognizing the need to avoid these hazards.

iii. Coping with the risk resulting from urban encroachment on floodplains.

The main aim of floodplain management is to reduce the negative effect of flooding and

flood liability on the urban infrastructure, services and properties that are located on flood prone

areas along river banks. The effective management of floodplain ensures that maximum social

and economic benefits are derived from floodplain while reducing flood risk to the barest

minimum level. To ensure effective management of floodplain and its associated risk, best

practice principles have been identified and put to use in the management of floodplains in

Australia, USA and part of Europe and Asia.

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 2.5.2 Flood Maps
The Australia Emergency Management Agency (EMA) manual 19 Flood map is

important in the management of floodplain. The flood map shows the extent of flood and hazard

on the floodplains and its adjoining areas. The flood map serves as a tool for the preparation of

floodplain management plan and flood emergency plan. The flood map principle is applied in the

identification of physical development limits to the spatial growth of settlement.

2.5.3 Identification of Flood Problems

The identification of flood problem is essential in the management of floodplain. The

Emergency management Australia (EMA) manual 19 the modern floodplain management

recognizes three types of “floodplain problems”. These are:

i. Existing: This has to do with the recognition of encroachment of human activities on floodplain

resulting to change in land use within the floodplain. Therefore the existing physical

development and activities are exposed to “existing” risk of flooding due to their location on

floodplains.

ii. Future: This refers to proposed human activities on floodplain that will be exposed to “future”

flood risk. Proposed development and human activities on floodplains needs to consider

cumulative impact of all proposed and existing development on floodplains not just on individual

bases.

iii. Residual: It refers to flood risk on floodplain that exceed the existing floodplain management

measures employed in the management of risk associated with flooding on the identified flood

plain in the future.

2.5.4 Proactive Response

Floodplain management measures in most developing countries are reactive in approach.

These have resulted to private and public losses resulting from flooding. The reactive measures
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apply structural engineering techniques which are limited in scope and effectiveness and gives

way at maximum return flood period. Effective and sustainable floodplain management measures

need to be proactive in response by recognizing, identifying floodplain and putting in place

measure that will guide and control human use of floodplains. The principle of proactive

response make use of urban management measures such as policy guide, land use and

development control managements of human activities on floodplains.

2.5.5 Community Expectation and Awareness

(Oludere 2012) the creation of awareness and coping measures to people living in flood

prone areas is important to management of floodplain encroachment and imminent risk

associated to it. The growing urban population expects that floodplains will be developed and

used to meet their social and economic expectations. In developing countries in Africa, Latin

America and Asia this has resulted to the sub division of floodplain in urban centers for housing

development and squatter settlement. This is due to the fact that poverty risk is rated far higher

than flood risk by floodplain occupants (Peter 2006). Effective and sustainable floodplain

management ensures that people are able to live and work on floodplain with no risk to life and

unacceptable risk of damage to infrastructure because of flood disaster. For management of

floodplain to be successful, the growing population must understand and appreciate the concept

of flood risk and exposure to flood hazard as a result of floodplains encroachment.

2.5.6 Policy Integration and Implementation

The UNDP (2010) adequate governance is fundamental for the sustainability of risk

management and risk reduction. The UNDP stress the need for institutional and legislative

systems at the urban level to own the risk reduction process. Putting in place good policies that

relates to urban planning are vital to development and management of urban water ways. There

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for development and implementations of integrated policy are essential for proper management

of floodplains and flood disaster that are located along coastal areas and river courses. Town

plans, local environmental plan and other formal planning instruments should provide the basic

foundation for floodplain management. These provides legal legislation to the managers that are

essential for effective management of floodplain hence they should be well integrated.

Floodplain management is multi objective land use planning that is best directed to the agency

responsible for local planning.

2.5.7 Ensuring Appropriate Land Use

Association of State Floodplain Managers (ASFPM 2007) the principle of land use in

floodplain management is arranging human occupancy or activities on the floodplain putting into

consideration their vulnerability to flood hazard. When land use changes are to be permitted on

floodplains they should be land uses that minimize flood risk and maximizes the benefit of using

the floodplains. Land use planning in regards to floodplain mapping are concrete decisions about

land use that allows or forbid detailed uses without precautionary measures on urban use on

floodplains (Peter, 2006). It is therefore imperative that land use planning be it in rural or urban

area needs detailed information about floodplains and flood risks areas.

Enforcing ability of authorities concern has an impact on the choice of instruments to be

applied. This depends on policy and legal legislation.

2.5.8 Structural Flood Mitigation Works

This has to do with physical construction on floodplains and river flood way of structures

such as dams, levees and dykes, channel improvements. These are aimed at modifying the

floodplains and flood behaviour by keeping flood water away from people that are encroaching

on floodplains.

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 2.5.9 Land Use Planning Controls
This measure is aimed at keeping people away from the floodplains. It makes use of

development plan to guide physical development and by extension human socio-economic

activities away from floodplains. These measures make use of zoning to ensure proper land use

activities on floodplains. It determines the density of development on floodplains.

2.5.10 Development and Building Control

This measure recognizes the fact that flood will occur at some time base on existing or

proposed encroachment on floodplains. These measures are aimed at reducing the risk of

inundation and damages on flood prone areas within the city when flood disaster occurs. These

measures among which are floor elevation, floor levels, and flood proofing of structures are also

known as flood coping measure or strategies. Development and building control measures, codes

and standard use in managing floodplain encroachment differs from one region to another and

are determine by detailed analysis of the river floodplain.

2.5.11 Floodplain Management Plan

To realize the multiple objectives of floodplain management the best practice principle is

for local urban planning and management authority to develop a more comprehensive floodplain

management plan. The public perception that flooding will not occur should be discourage. The

emergency management Australia (EMA) the floodplain management plan by local authority

should consider flood risk rather than the flood recurrence interval. By using the flood risk as

determinant for planning development and building controls the negative effects of “change” on

flood level can be minimized. In putting in place an emergency flood plan the local agencies are

to collaborate with stakeholders. Flood emergency plan should be able to address residual flood

risks associated with flooding ALNAP, (2010) and ESDP, (1999).

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 2.6 Floodplain Management Strategies

Strategy 1: Modify human susceptibility to flood damage

Reduce disruption by avoiding hazardous, uneconomic or unwise use of floodplains.

Tools include:

i. Regulating floodplain use by using zoning codes to steer development away from hazardous

areas or natural areas deserving preservation, establishing rules for developing subdivisions,

and rigorously following building, health and sanitary codes.

ii. Establishing development and redevelopment policies on the design and location of public

services, utilities and critical facilities.

iii. Acquiring land in a floodplain in order to preserve open space and permanently relocate

buildings.

iv. Elevating or flood proofing new buildings and retrofitting existing ones.

v. Preparing people and property for flooding through forecasting, warning systems and

emergency plans.

vi. Restoring and preserving the natural resources and functions of floodplains.

Strategy 2: Modify the Impact of Flooding

Assist individuals and communities to prepare for, respond to and recover from a flood.

Tools include:

i. Providing information and education to assist self-help and protection measures.

ii. Following flood emergency measures during a flood to protect people and property.

iii. Reducing the financial impact of flooding through disaster assistance, flood insurance and

tax adjustments.

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 iv. Preparing post-flood recovery plans and programs to help people rebuild and implement

mitigation measures to protect against future floods

Strategy 3: Modify Flooding Itself

Develop projects that control floodwater.

Tools include:

i. Building dams and reservoirs that store excess water upstream from developed areas.

ii. Building dikes, levees and floodwalls to keep water away from developed areas.

iii. Altering channels to make them more efficient, so overbank flooding will be less frequent.

iv. Diverting high flows around developed areas.

v. Treating land to hold as much rain as possible where it falls, so it can infiltrate the soil instead

of running off.

vi. Storing excess runoff with on-site detention measures.

vii. Protecting inland development with shoreline protection measures that account for the natural

movement of shoreline features.

viii. Controlling runoff from areas under development outside the floodplain.

Strategy 4: Preserve and restore natural resources

Renew the vitality and purpose of floodplains by reestablishing and maintaining

floodplain environments in their natural state.

Tools include:

i. Floodplain, wetlands and coastal barrier resources or land use regulations, such as zoning, can

be used to steer development away from sensitive or natural areas.

ii. Development and redevelopment policies on the design and location of public services,

utilities and critical facilities.

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iii. Land acquisition; open space preservation; permanent relocation of buildings; restoration of

floodplains and wetlands, and preservation of natural functions and habitats.

iv. Information and education to make people aware of natural floodplain resources and functions

and how to protect them.

v. Tax adjustments to provide a financial initiative for preserving lands or restoring lands to their

natural state.

vi. Beach nourishment and dune building to protect inland development by maintaining the

natural flood protection features.

Flood management strategies in these regions have been geared towards ‘compensating’ the

people of the affected areas after flood occurrence. Very little attention is paid on formulating

rational land use planning to reduce flood induced disaster. Preparation of a flood hazard map for

these regions would be the one of most crucial steps for implementing non-structural remedial

measures. The study area is characterized by heavy rainfall in July to October which results in

flooding.

2.7 Runoff

Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface

water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating. According to the U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS), runoff is that part of the precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation

water that appears in uncontrolled surface streams, rivers, drains, or sewers.

2.7.1 Factor affecting runoff

There are a variety of factors affecting runoff:

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 2.7.1.1 Amount of rainfall

The amount of rainfall directly affects the amount of runoff. As expected, if more rainfall

hits the ground, more rainfall will turn into runoff. The same can be said about snowmelt. If a

large amount of snow melts in a short time period, there will be a large amount of runoff.

2.7.1.2 Metrological characteristics

These characteristics are temperature, humidity, wind, velocity and pressure variation.

2.7.1.3 Basin characteristics

These are size, shape, slope, altitude (elevation), topography, geology (type of soil) land

use pattern, orientation and type of drainage net.

2.7.1.4 Storage characteristics

These characteristics are depressions, pools and ponds/lakes, stream, channels, check

dam (gullies), upstream reservoir/tanks and flood plains.

2.7.1.5 Permeability

The ability of the ground surface to absorb water will affect how much surface runoff

occurs. If you have ever poured water onto sand, you may have noticed it sinks into the sand

almost instantaneously. On the other hand, if you pour water on the street, the water will not

sink but runoff to the gutter or a ditch. The less water the ground can absorb, the more runoff on

the surface there will be. This is called permeability.

2.7.1.6 Vegetation
Vegetation needs water to survive, and a plant's root system is designed to absorb water

from the soil. There is less runoff in highly vegetated areas because the water is used by the

plants instead of flowing off the surface of the ground.

33
 2.7.1.7 Slope
The slope of a surface is also important to the amount of runoff there will be. The steeper

a surface is, the faster it will flow down the slope. A flat surface will allow the water time to

absorb.

2.7.2 Runoff Computation

The runoff of a catchment area can be computed daily, monthly and year. The following

are some of the method of computing the runoff.

i. Formulae and tables

ii. Infiltration method

iii. Unit hydrograph

iv. Rational method

v. Coaxial graphical correlation and API

Roger & Kenneth (2003) lay emphasis on computer model of calculating runoff and said

“many computer models have been developed in recent years for calculating rainfall runoff”.

Example include, the US Army corps of engineers HEC-HMS model, the NRCS TR20 model

and the FHWA-fundel HYDRAIN system. As with all the computer models, the accuracy and

validity of the output can be only as accurate and valid as the input. The input and output data

must be carefully inspected by a capable and practiced user to ensure valid results. This research

work shall lay emphasis on rational method.

2.8 Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to
digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth surface and the
events (non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that is taking place on it.
34
 2.8.1 Defining GIS
A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by

spatial/geographical coordinates. It is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyse,

manage and present all types of spatial or geographical data. In other words, GIS is both a

database system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of

operations for working with the data. (Das, 2008). It may also be considered as a higher order

map. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical

analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These

abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of

public and private enterprise for explaining events, predicting outcomes and planning strategies

(Subramani, 2012). A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used

to digitally reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the events that take

place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as its

denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent

the given data geographically (Subramani, 2012).

The four functions of GIS are:

1. Data acquisition and pre-processing
2. Data management, storage and retrieval

3. Manipulation and analysis

4. Product generation
(Mdison, 2004).
The GIS has the power of organizing effective Social Information System (SIS) towards

decision-making or resource management. The spatial information system comprises synthesis of

spatial formation and non-spatial data within GIS framework. The GIS aims and works at

35
bringing together, the diverse information, which are gathered from various different sources.

Hence, this is also known as integrated analysis (Thomas, 1991). Geographic information

science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems (Michael 2010).

2.8.2 GIS Techniques and Technology

Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data

creation methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a

hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD

program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery

(from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue

through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of

geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of

tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing).

2.8.3 Relating Information from Different Sources

GIS uses spatio-temporal (space-time) location as the key index variable for all other

information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different

tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by

using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time.

Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be

referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times

of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation,

respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial

36
reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor

benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, POS or

lCAD drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely

(even when using exactly the same data, see map projections), but all Earth-based spatial–

temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and

ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time (Cowen 2010).

2.8.4 Data Representation

GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.)

with digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete

objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or elevations).

Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of

abstractions mapping references: raster images and vector. Points, lines, and polygons are the

stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new hybrid method of storing data is that of

identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each

point, returning a "3D color image". GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more

realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine.

2.8.5 Data Capture

Data capture entering information into the system consumes much of the time of

GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored

in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned

to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and

polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further
37
processed to produce vector data. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data

collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO).

Positions from a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) like Global Positioning System can

also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the

ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or

disconnected editing sessions. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-

grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process,

import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the

ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder. New technologies also allow

users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and

mapping more accurate.

Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of

sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidar, while

platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites.

2.8.6 Spatial Analysis with Geographical Information System (GIS)

GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly

including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or

'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial

vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities

have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer

software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting

facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The
38
website "Geospatial Analysis" and associated book/ebook attempt to provide a reasonably

comprehensive guide to the subject. The increased availability has created a new dimension to

business intelligence termed "spatial intelligence" which, when openly delivered via intranet,

democratizes access to geographic and social network data. Geospatial intelligence, based on

GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be

described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process.

2.8.7 Topological Modeling

A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally

stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modeling and analysis

to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include

adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close

something is to something else).

2.8.8 Geometric Networks

Geometric networks are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent

interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is

composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to graphs in mathematics and

computer science. Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges,

which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately. Geometric

networks are often used to model road networks and public utility networks, such as electric, gas,

and water networks. Network modeling is also commonly employed in transportation planning,

hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling.

39
 2.8.9 Hydrological Modeling

GIS hydrological models can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models

lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or catchment area.

Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope. As basic

terrain analysis of a digital elevation model (DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect,

DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine

direction of surface runoff, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and

lakes. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment.

Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that

show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point. More detail can be added to the model,

such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and

evapo-transpiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. One of the main uses of

hydrological modeling is in environmental contamination research.

2.8.10 Map Overlay

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or polygons) creates a new

output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These

overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the

geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect

overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A

symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs

except for the overlapping area. Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay,

though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the

40
properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to

extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset. In raster

data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local

operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra," through a function that combines the values of

each raster's matrix. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an

"index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.

2.8.11 Applications

The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or

application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an

organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or

purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed

for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose. GIS provides, for every kind of

location-based organization, a platform to update geographical data without wasting time to visit

the field and update a database manually. GIS when integrated with other powerful enterprise

solutions like SAP and the Wolfram Language helps creating powerful decision support system

at enterprise level. Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market has

resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of

GIS, and usage in the fields of science, government, business, and industry, with applications

including real estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable development,

natural resources, climatology, landscape architecture, archaeology, regional and community

planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based services, which

allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest

41
restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay

their position back to a central server for display or other processing.

2.8.12 Implications of GIS in Society

With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the

social and political implications of GIS. GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual

and political gain. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and

representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the

potential to increase citizen trust in government. Other related topics include discussion on

copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use

it as a tool for public participation.

(Eric 2011) in his research he studied Flood Hazard Mapping using Aster Image data

with GIS This study addresses the need for an efficient and cost-effective methodology for

preparing flood hazard maps in Ghana, particularly those regions where floods pose a recurrent

danger. An additive model was utilized to create a composite flood hazard index of the study

area. Taking Northern region as an example, and using available topographical, land cover and

demographic data, the study created a district level map indicating flood hazard prone areas. A

composite flood hazard index was developed incorporating variables of near distance to the

White Volta River, population density, number of towns in each district, area of cultivated

savanna (crops), and availability of high ground (Shelter). Also, maximum flood hazard zones

were mapped in a GIS environment.

He concluded that these results obtained in this study provide essential information for

planners and administrators to analyze and manage flood hazards, and also to formulate remedial
42
strategy. However, one thematic area that could have been factored into the flood hazard

modeling is the ease of evacuation of lives and property in the event of a flood.

(Chinmoyee 2013) in their research Flood risk zone mapping of the Subansiri sub-basin

in Assam, India. The study notified us that Flood plain zoning of a river basin is an essential

management strategy to regulate land use in order to restrict the damages in frequently flooded

areas. The river Subansiri is one of the largest north bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra which

creates flood havoc almost every year bringing untold miseries for the people living in the lower

part of the basin, i.e. the part which falls in the Dhemaji and Lakhimpur districts of Assam.

Flood plain zonation of this area is done in this study on the basis of the flood inundation map of

2004 collected from the Dartmouth Flood Observatory website and the flood inundated areas

during the flood of 2008 where water remained stagnant even in the post flood period. The study

was carried out using GIS and Remote Sensing techniques. The Remote Sensing and GIS

software ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1 and ARC GIS 9.3 are used as tools for identifying different

flood risk zones in the study area with reference to the existing flood inundation map of 2004

and the post flood imagery of 2008. These areas are delineated from post flood season imagery

of October 2008. The final flood zonation map includes three zones viz. the chronically

inundated, occasionally inundated and rarely inundated zones. A large part of the agricultural

lands and villages of Dhemaji and Dhakuakhana lying on the left bank of the river Subansiri

were submerged by flood compared to the right bank. This may be because of the low-lying

nature of the basin in Assam where these parts are always vulnerable not only to the floods of the

Subansiri and its tributaries, but also to breaching of the embankments of the river Brahmaputra.

In their conclusion they argue that various flood protection measures like earthen embankments,

spurs, porcupines etc. are used to protect the area from flood. Embankments provide reasonable

43
protection to the flood affected areas locally and for a limited period. But, their effectiveness

decreases due to rising of the river bed gradually, which is due to the fact that the river carries

large silt load annually a considerable part of which is deposited in the channel leading to

aggradations of the river bed (Goswami, 1998). Breaching of embankments occurs mainly due to

overtopping, seepage and erosion. The materials used for construction of embankments are

mostly sand and silt which are susceptible to erosion. Due to lack of proper maintenance of the

existing embankments and meandering nature of the river, the erosion problem leading to breach

of embankments is increasing year by year causing heavy flood in this portion.

(Goodell 2006) The paper describes the flood inundation mapping using HEC-RAS

software for the Cameron Run watershed which was located in eastern Fairfax country, in the

commonwealth of Virginia, USA. HEC-RAS software is considered as an essential tool for

urban and municipal development purpose, emergency action strategies, flood protection taxes

and environmental studies. Generally plotting a floodplain prerequisite is to predict the behavior

of the streams, channels, rivers for numerous interval rain storm actions and has capability to

transform the predicted data outcome into a strategy assessment of magnitude of inundation. The

main objective of the researchers in their paper was to procedure HEC-RAS software in order to

generate flood inundation map and velocity sketches for all of the main tributaries in the

Cameron Run Watershed. The researchers consider the current and upcoming conditions for

modeling the 1, 2, 10, 25 and 100 year return interval rainstorms. In this paper Researchers do

the Comparisons of 1 year flood with the 100 year flood.

The results were presented in the Arc View shape file polygons and lines in the stable

flow version of HEC-RAS. As HEC-RAS software is unique model so it will compute and

44
express the water surface elevation for each cross-section and outcomes will not vary large

enough along the channel reach cross-section, the overbanks and the core canal.

(Usman 2015) the paper describes the Assessment of flood using Geospatial techniques

for the Indus River Reach: Chashma-Taunsa. In this paper researcher had done research on the

Indus river reach Chashma-Taunsa for flood modeling and flood mapping for normal flood of

2006 and exceptionally high flood occurred in year 2010. To implement hydraulic modeling and

flood plain mapping HEC-RAS, ARC-GIS and its extension Hec-GeoRAS were used for the

working out the peak flow attenuation, assessment of lag time between inflow and outflow and to

implement mapping for the estimation of flood zone depth and flooded area of reach.

In HEC-RAS model input cross-section data were collected from physical survey and

extracted from DEM SRTM 90m using Hec-GeoRAS model. The simulated and computed

hydrographs upstream of Taunsa Barrage statistical comparison shows the acceptable outcomes

i.e. coefficient of determination ( R2 ) and Nash and Sutcliffe coefficient as 0.90 & 0.86 for year

2006 flood and 0.95 & 0.93 for year 2010 flood, which shows good based for the generation of

flood inundation in channels. The Researcher had also done comparison of lag times and peak

flow attenuation for observed and computed flood peaks of year 2006 and 2010 which show

almost good outcome with the observed values. The outcome of HEC-RAS model was exported

in Arc-GIS to perform flood mapping. The conclusion by the researcher was that the flood area

computed in model shows good match with the satellite observed data, which shows that the

computed flood extents are reliable and will also access the areas vulnerable to flood with

estimation of depth for year 2010 flood.

45
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

Eleyele is located in Northeastern part of Ibadan within longitude 3051ꞌ05ꞌꞌE to 3052ꞌ37ꞌꞌE

and latitude 7025ꞌ14ꞌꞌN to 7026ꞌ40ꞌꞌN. The catchment area of the reservoir lies between longitude

3048ꞌ04ꞌꞌE to 3055ꞌ17ꞌꞌE and latitude 7021ꞌ49ꞌꞌN to 7029ꞌ55ꞌꞌN. The Eleyele catchment comprises of

settlements such as Apete, Awotan, University of Ibadan (U.I), Akere, and Ojoo etc. at the

northern part; Sango, Airport at the eastern part, Atalapa, Gege, Abanla etc. at the western part

and Odo-ona, Adegbite, Idioro etc. at the southern part of the reservoir.

Eleyele reservoir is a modified natural riverine wetland type with area of 1.290km2 and a

catchment area of 445.37km2 (Figure 3.1). In 1942, the quest to create a modern water supply

system to meet the challenge of water scarcity for the emerging Ibadan metropolis led to the

construction of Eleyele Dam on the main River Ona with a reservoir storage capacity of

29.5million litres (Tijani 2011).

Eleyele, Ibadan has a tropical wet and dry climate (Kӧppen climate classification Aw).

Ibadan’s wet season runs from through October, though August sees somewhat of lull in

precipitation. This lull nearly divides the wet season into two different wet seasons. November to

February forms the city’s dry season, during which Ibadan experiences the typical West African

Harmattan. The mean total rainfall for Ibadan is 1420.06mm, falling in approximately 109 days.

There are two peaks for rainfall, June and September. The mean maximum temperature is

26.46oC and the relative humidity is 74.55% (BBC Weather, 2010, Olaniyan 2015).

46
Figure 3.1: Map of Study Area

47
3.2 Software

I. Google Earth Pro for satellite image processing (Remote Sensing), produced by US dept

of state geographers.

II. HEC GEO-RAS for hydraulic Modeling, produced US Army corps of engineers.

III. Arc-GIS 9.3. For GIS applications, produced by ESRI, Redlands, USA.

3.3 Digital Elevation Map

The process of generating these maps involves acquiring existing maps and processing

(Geo-referencing) those maps using GIS. The Eleyele catchment Map was extracted from the

Nigeria Federal Survey map of Ibadan for the year 1967 which was acquired by GIS Expert.

Remote sensing technology used to acquire the elevation data of the catchment area. These

acquired input maps and elevation data were imported into the ArcGIS interface and then used to

develop the topographical and digital elevation maps of (Study area) Eleyele catchment.

The input maps were imported in to ArcGIS environment through a process known

Adding of Data. ArcGIS interface has a cross ‘+’ sign which help in adding this input map. The

maps were geo-referenced, that is, the maps were given their correct coordinates through the

process of geo-referencing within the ArcGIS environments. The extraction of the topographical

maps from the input maps involved other processes such as; Rectifying, Digitizing, Interpolation

Laying-out and Exporting. Rectifying implies correcting the input map with the exact geo-

referenced values of the map. Digitizing implies extracting or carving out the necessary features

needed in the input map which are the Eleyele catchment, its catchment settlements, roads and

water bodies.

48
 The process of interpolation was used to generate the digital elevation map, this involved

creating and attaching the collected elevation data to a point shape-file. The shape-file was then

interpolated using the elevation data at Z values. Natural neighbor process of interpolation was

used as it’s the most suitable for elevation attributes. Laying-out is the act of given necessary

attributes of a map to our newly produced map. Those attributes include; Size of paper, North

Arrow, Scale, Title and Legend. After laying out the map, the topographical maps were then

exported from the ArcGIS environment in a TIF format.

3.4 Landuse Map

As part of the research work you need to create a landuse map. You now have to turn the

information that you collected into a map. There are two ways that you can approach this

problem:

i. Color in a paper map to show landuse variation.

ii. Use GIS to produce a digital landuse map

The first way is by far the simplest and the one to adopt if you are running out of time.

The instructions below describe what you need to do if you want to produce your map using GIS.

The input maps were imported in to ArcGIS environment as shown in figure 3.2 through

a process known Adding of Data. ArcGIS interface has a cross ‘+’ sign which help in adding this

input map as shown in figure 3.3. The maps were geo-referenced, that is, the maps were given

their correct coordinates through the process of geo-referencing within the ArcGIS

environments. The extraction of the topographical maps from the input maps involved other

processes such as; Rectifying, Digitizing, Laying-out and Exporting. Rectifying implies

correcting the input map with the exact geo-referenced values of the map. Digitizing implies

extracting or carving out the necessary features needed in the input map which are the Eleyele

49
catchment, its catchment settlements, roads and water bodies, this involved creating and

attaching the collected elevation data to a point shape-file through arc catalog Figure 3.4. The

shape-file was then interpolated using the elevation data at Z values and other procedure for

mapping out are involve in figure 3.5 - figure 3.7. The process of interpolation was used to

generate the digital elevation map, Natural neighbor process of interpolation was used as it’s the

most suitable for elevation attributes. Laying-out is the act of given necessary attributes of a map

to our newly produced map figure 3.8. Those attributes include; Size of paper, North Arrow,

Scale, Title and Legend. After laying out the map, the topographical maps were then exported

from the ArcGIS environment in a TIF format.

50
Figure 3.2: Adding of Data

Figure 3.3: ArcMap work space

Figure 3.4: Arc tool bar and ArcCatalog

Figure 3.5: Creating Shape file

51
Figure 3.6: Start Editor

Figure 3.7: Sketch Tool

Figure 3.8: Digitalized Area

52
3.5 Hydrological Maps

The hydrological Maps include the Flow Direction Maps, Flow length and Flow

Accumulation Maps. These maps are ArcGIS inventories into studying water flow within a

catchment based on elevation. The flow direction discusses the direction at which water flows.

Water is much more directed to certain areas than others. The flow accumulation is a derivative

of the flow direction model and they model flow pattern and flow availability in a catchment

respectively. ArcGIS has tools for modeling the hydrological maps and they are found under the

ArcGIS Toolbox.

53
 INPUTS CATCHMENT MAP ELEVATION DATA

ELEVATION DATA
PRE-PROCESSING GEO-REFERENCING RECTIFYING DIGITIZING

PROCESSING SPATIAL INTERPOLATION HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS

OUTPUTS DEMS FLOW DIRECTION MAPS

FLOW ACCUMULATION MAPS

POST-PROCESSING LAYING OUT MODELS/MAPS EXPORTING MODELS/MAPS

Figure 3.2: A Flow Diagram Showing Hydrological Maps Generation

Process(Olaniyan, 2015)
Source:

54
3.6 Flood Plain Map

The flood plain map of Eleyele catchment was formulated by generating the Triangular

Irregular Network (TIN) of elevation within the catchment. TIN models a three dimension view

of an area. It gives a better and clearer picture of an area and can be used to delineate flood prone

area solely base on the elevation variation and slope of the area. TIN is a 3D generating icon

under the ArcGIS Toolbox. The procedure to be followed in generating TIN involves using the

TIN creating icon to transform the elevations within the catchment into a 3D surface.

55
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result
The results of this project include the production of the digital elevation measurement

maps of Eleyele catchment which is subsequently used to generate the flow direction maps and

then the water shed maps and the contour and elevation maps of the study area (catchment area).

The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) of catchment area topography which is used as

the flood plain map was also generated in order to identify flood prone zones in the catchment.

The research work also include determination of land use pattern, runoff computation and flood

plain maps of the study area to ensure safety of lives and property.

4.1.1 Topography Map of Eleyele Catchment Area

The topographic map of Eleyele catchment (Figure 4.1), which shows features found on

the earth’s surface, The characteristics of this map is that the shape of the earth’s surface is

shown by contour lines, an imaginary lines which join points/areas of equal elevation on the

surface of the land above or below a reference surface, such as mean sea level. The features

shown in this map includes; Elevation Marks, River, Contour lines, Rivers, Settlements,

Highway and so on. About one hundred (100) settlement were located on the topography map of

Eleyele catchment.

56
Figure 4.1: Topography Map of Eleyele Catchment

57
 4.1.2 Elevation Map of Eleyele Catchment Area
The elevation of the study area as shown in figure 4.2 which ranges from 108m - 264m in

height from sea level. The following sixteen (16) areas as shown in table 4.1 which are

University of Ibadan, Ojoo, Sango, Odo-Ona, Pump house, Oloko bola, Old Airport, Idi-Ayunre,

Podo, Aba Ige, Sola, Arapaja, Gege, Oloko, Aiyegoro, Apete. Also the variation in elevation as

plotted on a bar chart is shown in figure 4.3.

The following result were reach from the elevation map (Figure 4.2), it shows that there

is an increase in elevation of the area as we move from southern part of the catchment area to the

northern part of the catchment area. Areas like Sola, Arapaja, Aba ige, Idi-ayunre etc are of

lower elevation between 108m - 180m, also the central part of the catchment with areas like

Bola, Eleba, Idi-iroko, Podo, Apataganga etc are of moderate elevation between 180m - 220m

while the northern part of the catchment map are of higher elevation such as Oloko, Ayigoro,

Adamu, Oyewo etc between 220m - 264m.

58
Figure 4.2: Elevation Map of Eleyele catchment

59
Table 4.1: This are the elevation of major settlement in the study map.

S/no Settlement Elevation

1 University of Ibadan 208
2 Ojoo 213
3 Sango 213
4 Odo - Ona 172
5 Pump House 190
6 Airport 204
7 Oloko Bola 183
8 Podo 166
9 Idi-Ajunre 157
10 Aba-Ige 148
11 Sola 137
12 Arapaja 180
13 Oloko 264
14 Gege 229
15 Ayigoro 236
16 Apete 213

60
Figure 4.3: Bar Chart

61
 4.1.3 Contour Map of Eleyele Catchment area

Contour map of Eleyele catchment area is shown in Figure 4.4 a contour map is an

isoline that connects points on a map that have the same elevation. It shows the amount of land at

different heights i.e. lands with same height are joined with same contour line. Five (5) meter

contour interval were specified with respect to elevation in the interpolation of the contour map

using ArcGIS 9.1

The result from the contour map (figure 4.4) shows area with hills which implies that an

area of high ground, the ground slope down in all directions. A hill is shown on a contour lines

forming concentric circles. the inside of the smallest closed is the hilltop as shown on the contour

map are Oyelakin, Oloko, Sola, Jamoje, Idi-iroko and Ibusogboro with elevation 219m, 264m,

137m, 202m, 153m and 108m respectively. It could also be deduced from the map that areas

like Faruku, Abaliende, Aba Ige, Obepi-Onidajo, Alapata, Alata fall around a saddle which

implies that they falls on low point between two areas of higher ground. A saddle is not

necessary the lower ground between two hilltop; it may simply be dip or break along a level

ridge crest.

The contour map shows us that areas like Idioro, Alamu, Odo-ogun, Olosa and Adewale

camp all falls on a Ridge which implies a sloping line of high ground. Contour lines forming a

ridge tends to be U-shape or V-shape. The closed end of the contour line points away from high

ground.

62
Figure 4.4: Contour Map of Eleyele Catchment
63
 4.1.4: Digital Elevation Measurement (DEM) Maps of Eleyele catchment
The Digital Elevation Measurement (DEM) maps (Figure 4.5) of Eleyele catchment

(Study area) for the year 1967 by Federal Survey, Nigeria showing Ibadan Provence, Abeokuta

Provence and Ijebu Provence. The elevation value ranges from 108m to 264m, The areas that are

shaded blue in color are areas of high elevation while those of tinted blue are of low elevation.

The essence of the Digital Elevation Measurement (DEM) maps of the catchments is also

to allow various elevation dependent analyses to be carried out in the GIS software. The Digital

Elevation Measurement map forms a backbone behind every hydrological, and terrain analyses

and interpretation. The terrain configuration of Eleyele Catchment, (Figures 4.5) shows that the

Northern parts of the catchment are essentially of high elevations while the Southern parts are

characterized by moderate elevations and central parts of the catchment are characterized by low

elevations.

The Digital Elevation Measurement maps can also be used for hydrological purpose. to

produce the flow direction maps, flow accumulation maps and the flow basin maps.

64
Figure 4.5: Digital Elevation Model of Eleyele Catchment

65
 4.1.5: Landuse Map of Eleyele Catchment area

Landuse map of Eleyele catchment area (Figure 4.6) shows the knowledge about landuse

which becomes important to overcome the problem of loss of productive ecosystems,

biodiversity, deterioration of environmental quality, loss of agricultural lands, destruction of

wetlands, and loss of fish and wildlife habitat.

The landuse pattern were classified into three (3) with areas colored yellow indicates

areas with less developed area such as Aba ige, Abaliende,Obepi-Onidajo, Oke, Agbada etc.,

green color indicates forest or green area such as Adamu, Adewale Camp, Jamoje , Onigbago

etc. while blue color indicate developed or paved areas such as Sango, University of Ibadan,

Apete, Ojoo etc.

66
Figure 4.6: Landuse Map of Eleyele Catchment

67
 4.1.6: Hydrological Map of Eleyele Catchment

4.1.6.1: Flow Length Map of Eleyele Catchment

Figure 4.7 shows flow length map of Eleyele catchment, this is achieved with the use of

flow length tools in hydrology tools box option, it takes a surface flow direction earlier generated

(figure 1)in the appendix as input and outputs a raster showing the length of flow of each point

areas. The flow length identified with five class with values ranges from (0 - 0.166741669) and

colors which are; sky blue, green, orange, orange and white with value (0 - 0.02354), (0.02354 -

0.045772223), (0.045772223 - 0.073889446), (0.073889446 - 0.107891668), (0.107891668 -

0.166741669), respectively. Different color indicates different rate at which water flow through

areas with different values within the catchment. White indicates area with very low flow length,

Brown show areas of low flow length, orange indicates moderate flow length, green indicates

high flow length rate and sky blue indicates areas with very high flow length.

The purpose of the flow length is to flow length map which calculate the Upstream and

Downstream distance or weighted distance along the flow path for each point of area. The flow

direction map (figure 1) is therefore subsequently used to generate the and flow basin maps

which shows how water flow are been distributed within the catchment area.

Table 4.2 further explain the essence of this map. The table classified the differences

between areas in the Catchment to their different flow length values. It essential to note that the

flow length maps were generated by splitting the Digital Elevation Measurement (DEM) maps

into different cells/map units of various elevation values. Each cell/map unit in the flow length

maps acts as water flow receiving cells and as water flow source cells. Each cell receives water

flow sloppily from closed/adjacent cell(s) which are of higher elevation and pour out the water

68
flow received to another closed/adjacent cell(s) having lower elevation to it in the same manner.

The configuration of flow length map therefore depends on the elevation values and elevation

slope distribution.

Analyzing the output (Figure 4.3), sky blue signifies highest flow length, green signifies

high flow length, orange signifies moderate flow length, brown signified low flow length while

white signify lowest flow length. The areas that are white will have ability to receive flow of

water from many directions and will be of lower elevation to the supplying so as to allow water

to flow sloppily into them. If any area having a high flow direction is surrounded by areas of

higher elevation, then it will not have any receiving area to release water flow. Such an area will

have water being built up into them and will obstruct normal path of flow of water. It is therefore

suggested that areas with high flow direction within the Catchment which are capable of

obstructing normal path of flow of water can cause threat to the environment.

69
Figure 4.7: Flow Length map of Eleyele Catchment

70
Table 4.2: Flow Length configuration of Eleyele Catchment

S/N FLOW FLOW PICTURIAL COMMENT

LENGTH LENGTH CONFIGURATION
CLASS COLOR
1 Very High Sky Blue It is scattered Upstream
throughout the map

2 High Green Contribute majorly to Upstream

the map attribute

3 Moderate Orange Contribute majorly to Downstream

the map attribute

4 Low Brown Contribute majorly to Downstream

the map attribute

5 Very Low White It is scattered Downstream

throughout the map

71
Table 4.3: Nature and comment of flow length with respect to different location

LOCATION NATURE COMMENT

Ejo ekun Very Low Much volume of water is accumulated
Abada Very Low Much volume of water is accumulated
Kogbo Very Low Much volume of water is accumulated
Onipepeye Very Low Much volume of water is accumulated
Awotan Very Low Much volume of water is accumulated
Bare Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Olosa Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Agelu Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Gege Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Sango Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Ayiegoro Low Area Less volume of water is accumulated
Akinsipe Moderate Moderate volume of water is accumulated
Ikefa Moderate Moderate volume of water is accumulated
Aladorin Moderate Moderate volume of water is accumulated
Inalende Moderate Moderate volume of water is accumulated
Oyelakin Moderate Moderate volume of water is accumulated
Olorunda High Low volume of water is accumulated
Onigbagba High Low volume of water is accumulated
Akerele High Low volume of water is accumulated
Faruku High Low volume of water is accumulated
University of Ibadan High Low volume of water is accumulated
Podo Very High Lower volume of water is accumulated
Ajibode Very High Lower volume of water is accumulated
Apete Very High Lower volume of water is accumulated
Ojoo Very High Lower volume of water is accumulated
Arowojede Very High Lower volume of water is accumulated

72
 4.1.6.2: Flow Basin Map of Eleyele Catchment Area
The flow basin maps of Eleyele Catchment (figure 4.8). It shows the distribution of water

flow within the Catchment. Flow basin map are delineated with the analysis area by identifying

ridge lines between basins. The input flow direction raster is analysed to find all sets of

connected points of area that belong to the same flow classes. It helps to classify how depressed

an area is and also how an area can accommodate water flow, also the distribution of surface

water in the area.

Vulnerability of an area to flooding can be discovered. Conclusively Eleyele Catchment

has a very low and low basin majorly at its Southern part, Moderate flow basin at its Western

part and with high basin majorly at its Northern part of the catchment area.

Low flow basin contributes to 50% of the Eleyele Catchment with area covering 230km of

the total Catchment, moderate basin is 5.0% of the Catchment with area covering 23km, high

basin is 45% of the Catchment with area covering 192km.

As a means of mitigating flood hazard effect in the Eleyele Catchment, it is suggested that;

i. The Southern parts of the Catchment will be good for urban settlement and

facilities siting because of its low flow basin.

ii. Construction of Dam as part of Engineering solution in mitigating the effect of

flood water at the western and northern part of the Catchment should be encouraged. The

Dam will serve as barrier to flow of water down the Catchment and also impound water

for domestic and industrial use.

73
 iii. The Northern part should be used for agricultural purposes and it is advisable to

notify people of the danger of encroaching the place thus encourage them to evacuate the

area of the catchment.

74
Figure 4.8: Flow Basin Map of Eleyele Catchment Area

75
Table 4.4: A Table showing flow basin configuration of Eleyele Catchment

S/N Flow Basin Total Area Total Area Comment

Values Covered Covered
2
(km ) (%)

1 Low Basin 230 50 Less water is accumulated

2 Moderate Basin 23 5 Moderate volume of water is

accumulated

3 High Basin 192 45 High volume of water is accumulated

76
 4.1.7: Floodplain Map of Eleyele Catchment

Floodplain map of Eleyele Catchment shows the area that are inundated with flood in the

Eleyele Catchment. This can be determine by various surface analysis tools prerequisite to

Triangulated Irregular Network TIN in GIS environment. Triangulated Irregular Network is the

Digital Terrain Model which satisfactorily shows area that are prone to flooding (Floodplain).

4.1.8: Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) of Eleyele Catchment Area

Figure 4.9 is the Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) map of Eleyele catchmenet

topography. The TIN of the catchment explains the areas that are prone to flood going with the

fact that water will always flow from areas of high elevation to areas of low elevation. The areas

that are red in colour are of low elevation and are therefore at the flood prone zone. The flood

prone areas include; Sola, Arowojede, Abailende, Aba Ige, Olorunda, Adewale Camp,

Ibusogoro, Akorede, Abodurin, Omi-Fatokun, Ikija etc. as appeared in figure 4.6. The flood zone

area is approximately 2.6km2 which covers 25.24% of the Eleyele catchment area. Table 4.4 is

used to give an account of how areas of low elevation in the Eleyele catchment are notably prone

to flood.

77
Figure 4.6: Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) Map of Eleyele catchment indicating flood

prone area
78
Table 4.5: Areas in Eleyele Catchment and their Flood Prone status

LOCATION SUSCEPTIBILITY ELEVATION COMMENTS

TO FLOOD (Meter)

OLOKO No 264 Very High Elevation

APETE No 213 High Elevation

ATALAPA No 203 High Elevation

ABA IGE Yes 148 Very Low Elevation

AIYEGORO No 246 Very High Elevation

U.I No 208 High Elevation

IKIJA Yes 132 Very Low Elevation

OYEWO No 246 Very High Elevation

GEGE No 190 Moderate Elevation

AIRPORT No 204 Moderate Elevation

ODO-ONA Yes 172 Very Low Elevation

AKOREDE Yes 130 Very Low Elevation

OJO No 203 Moderate Elevation

ARAPAJA Yes 180 Very Low Elevation

SANGO No 231 High Elevation

OJOO No 213 Moderate Elevation

CAMP Yes 119 Very Low Elevation

SOLA Yes 128 Very Low Elevation

79
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions

The following conclusions were made based on the findings from this study:

i. The topographical and DEM maps of Eleyele catchments show that there is notable lower

of elevations in the southern part of the catchment map which has affected the

hydrological pattern of the catchment.

ii. The hydrological maps of Eleyele catchment shows flows were accumulating in the lower

region of the catchment area.

iii. The flood plain map generated from the TIN of the study area shows that 50% of the

Eleyele catchment area are prone to flood and these areas are notably of low elevation.

5.2 Recommendation

The following are hereby recommended as a way forward to water supply and flood mitigation

in the study area:

i. Barriers to flow of water should be investigated and necessary measures should be taken.

ii. Control of urbanization and various human activities within Eleyele catchment area.

iii. The development of flood contingency master plan for flood plains in Eleyele catchment

area and Nigeria at large is imperative.

iv. Communities should be strongly discouraged from settling within the flood plains.

80
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APPENDIX

84
Figure 1: Flow Direction Map

85