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Marxist Theory of Social Change:A Scientific Interpretation

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 Marxist Theory of Social Change:A Scientific Interpretation
Taslima Akter

Introduction
Marxism is the philosophy of social change.In that sense it can be considered to be a philosophy
of praxis.Though Marx did not establish any specific philosophical theory,in his writings he did
not simply explain the world but also provided guidelines to change it.The theory of social
change is one of the most important theories of Marx’s philosophy. He established the theory of
social change on the basis of his materialistic conception of history, generally known as
‘Historical Materialism’.He enriched eighteenth century materialism with the achievements of
Classical German philosophy, especially of Hegel's system, which in its turn had led to the
materialism of Feuerbach.
Marx provided the scientific explanation of social change and development. He believes that
there are some objective laws by which we can explain social change and development.These
laws are universal and independent of man's will.According to Marxism, humans are born and
grown up in a specific production system. He participates in the production system and builds
production relations for his material needs. On the basis of mode of production and the relation
of production, other social relations:i.e.; political, legal, moral, etc. take shape.So, the
determining force of social change is the production of material wealth.That is to say, economic
activity is the basis of social change and development. In this regard he discusses the very nature
of the existing capitalist system which is based on disparity.He analyses relation of production
from which surplus production emerges.Surplus production creates surplus values which leads to
the ownership of private property.Because of the ownership of private property social inequality
arises and class conflict become distinct.Gradually,people become class conscious and as a result
class philosophy arises.After certain time,through inevitable revolution capitalist system
abolished and a sosialist society established.
Marxist Thought About Social change
Pre-Marxist sociologists were divided about the development and change of society. Some of
them bring supernatural or divine beings in order to explain social development. On the other
hand, many tried to explain social development logically and scientifically by cause-effect
relationship.
Karl Marx defended philosophical materialism which has been proved to be the only philosophy
consistent and true to all the teachings of natural science.He formulated the materialistic concept
of history.Marx and Engels repeatedly explained that every deviation from materialism is
erroneous.1They introduce 'historical materialism’ in The German ideology (1903), which is
based on dialectical materialism.Historical materialism is the materialist interpretation of
history.According to idealist,the consciousness of man determines their social being.But the main
premise of historical materialism is that social consciousness does not determine social being
rather social being determines social consciousness.Marx’s social theory is revolutionary:
“Marx freed the history of human thought from idealism by formulating the principal
postulate (basic premise) of historical materialism: social being determines social
consciousness.” 2
Marx and Engels applied principles of dialectical materialism to analyse history and explain
social change and development.
Marx attempted to solve the questions:which determinative force forms society's structure and
characteristic?Why does one society change into another?How does society and its directive
forces develop?Is the changes in society accidental or are they dictated by necessity or objective
laws? What is the chief cause and foundations of social life?3In historical materialism we found
an explanation of these questions.
Society,as an inseparable but distinct part of nature constantly interacts with nature,especially
with the geographical environment.No productive activity or labour is possible without
interaction with nature.Favourable natural conditions advance society’s development and
unfavourable natural conditions adversely affect social development.But geographical trends can
not explain the causes of social development.It also can not tell us how much the society
influences the geographical environment.Geographical environment ultimately depends on the
character of the social system,the level of production,technology and science.Moreover,The
changes of society is faster than the geographical changes,so it can’t be the determinative force.
Peoples labour is the mighty force without which any kind of production is impossible,which
makes the nature to serve the needs of man.Population may accelerate or slow down a country's
development.But this is also not the determining force of social change.So we can say that the
cause of social development and change is neither the geographical environment nor population.4
Determining Force of Social Development
Twentieth century German philosopher Jurgen Habermas thinks that the real Marx is the one
who sees the essence of all sensuous human activity being the core. All sensuous activity is
materialistic. Humans have some basic material needs without which they cannot exist. Nature
does not provide these needs i.e.;food, clothing, shelter etc. directly.They have to fight against
nature.Man has to transform natural objects to produce these material things to satisfy their
needs.Man consciously applied labour to create society's basis, that is to say they created
production relation along with religion ,ethics,law ,history,civilization .
“The production of material wealth is consequently the chief determining factor in social
development.”5
So,the determinative force of social change is the mode of production of material values.
Man’s labour is a natural necessity for human social life including his existence itself as natural
resources do not help in production directly. For material production objects and means of labour
are needed. Objects of labour are the things to which human labour is applied and machines,
equipment, tools, production buildings, transport etc. are the means of labour. The objects and
means of labour constitute the means of production. The most important means of labour is the
instrument with which people act on objects of labour and transform them. Without the aid of
this, there is no other way to get the means of livelihood of man. The better the instruments of
products are, the better the means of livelihood will be.6
Man is the fundamental element of production.They apply labour consciously to produce
material wealth.Without man there will be no use of production as only man is capable of setting
a tool into motion and organising material production. All the instruments of labour and the
people, who produce the material wealth, are the productive forces, the means of
production.7One of the most important factors of material production is cooperation. Labour is
social in character, so production can only be possible if they are organised in a society and
cooperate with each other. Marx wrote-
“In order to produce, they enter into finite connections and relations with one another
and only within these social connections and relations does their action on nature, does
production, take place.” 8
An integral part of material production is people’s relations in the production process. This
constitutes the relations of productions. Therefore, a certain historical mode of production
appears as the unbreakable unity between the productive forces and the corresponding relations
of productions. Relations of production are based on the form of ownership i.e., the relation of
people to the means of production. The dominant or subordinate position of various social
groups in production depends on the form of ownership, their relation in the production process
or mutual exchange of their activity.9 The form of distribution also depends on the nature of the
ownership of the means of the production. In the capitalist system in spite of not directly
participating in production the owner of the means of production receives the bigger part of the
produced wealth.Marxist philosopher Afanasayev says:
“The sphere of production relations thus encompasses the forms of ownership of the
means of production and also the consequent position of the various social groups in
production and the forms of distribution of material wealth.”10
Role of Base and Superstructure in social change
Relations of production are formed objectively, independent of peoples will and desire. Definite
relations between people in the production process only arise if the productive forces, to which
these relations correspond, have matured.The mode of production develops by virtue of its own
causes, its own dialectics.In order to live, people must produce material wealth. On our planet
the population is growing increasingly and their demands of material and cultural needs are also
growing greatly. The only way to satisfy the increasing needs of the ever growing number of
people we have to expand and improve production constantly with the help of technology and
science.11
Production constantly grows, develops and improves. The development of production begins
with a change in the productive forces and productive forces includes instruments of production
and people who use these instruments. From history we have seen that the instruments of
production develop first as the result of the work of the people engaged in production. Along
with the development of production instruments the working people themselves improve. The
relationship of people in the production process, the relations of production also change with the
development of instruments of labour and working people. The productive forces rise and
determine relations of productive systems. The relations of production are based on the
productive forces and they actively influence the productive forces.12As Afanasayev wrote:
“...new productive relations, corresponding to the nature of the productive forces,
accelerate the expansion of social production and are the prime mover in the
development of productive forces. On the other hand, old productive relations which lag
behind the development of the productive forces hinder behind their advancement.”13

Initially, production relations conform to the nature of the productive forces and act as a prime
factor of the development of production. Gradually the production relations become obsolete and
cannot keep pace with the development of productive forces. As a result, a contradiction is
created between the new productive system and the old production relations. This contradiction
arises from the intrinsic nature of various sides of social production. Ultimately the contradiction
grows so acute that it turns into social conflict.In order to destroy the old production relations
and turn into new ones, social revolution becomes a necessity. That’s the objective dialectics of
the productive forces and relations of production in an antagonistic class society.
Every society builds up on its own basis. The basis is the sum of production relations which is
based on the state of productive force. In order to originate a basis, material conditions and
productive forces are needed to arise within the old society. After taking shape it plays a vital
role in social life as entering into economic relations people organize the production and
distribute material wealth.Afanasyev maintains:
“The basis is of prime importance because it serves as the foundation for the
superstructure, i.e., the political, legal, philosophical, moral, aesthetic and religious
views of society and the corresponding relations, institutions and organizations.”14
Basis plays an important role in building superstructure. The nature of society, ideas and
institutions are directly determined by the aspect of the mode of production. Though
superstructure arises on a definite economic basis it plays a vital role in social development as it
ultimately expresses the attitude of people. Ideas can destroy or strengthen the basis. Through
basis,superstructures can influence the development of society.The superstructure is brought into
being by the basis and is inseparably bound up with it.
Marx gives various historical examples including modern capitalist society that the basis of an
antagonistic class society is contradictory. It reflects the antithesis of class interests by expressing
the different relations of people to the means of production. He shows the antagonism between
the oppressed and the oppressors, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. As superstructure is the
reflection of basis it is also contradictory,.Marx states:
“...The class, which is the ruling material force of society, is at the same time its ruling
intellectual force.”15
Under capitalism, the bourgeoisie dominates the proletariat not only economically but also
through ideas and institutions. Bourgeois art and philosophy are degenerating and the most
reactionary form of idealism.
The basis determines the nature of superstructure and changes in the economic system
necessarily leads to changes in superstructure. When one economic system supersedes another as
a result of social revolution, the changes in the superstructure are especially deep. When
revolution occurs, the political rule of the new class is replaced by the political rule of the old
class. That is to say, “Social consciousness changes the social being.”Though the foundation of
superstructure is the economic system there is a relative independence which is evident in the
continuity of its development. When the old basis is replaced by a new one, a revolution takes
place in the superstructure. But this does not mean that through the destruction of the old basis
the system of old superstructure ceases to exist, rather its individual elements outlive the basis
and pass into the superstructure of the new society.16
“Each new exploiting society took over from the preceding superstructure the ideas that
sanctified exploitation and defended the political and legal institutions of the exploiters,
religion.”17
As a result of the continuity of this kind, each society’s superstructure is complex. The
superstructure discrete the ideas and institutions of the old and new economic basis. It is evident
that, in order to protect the capitalist basis, bourgeois ideas and institutions are being used to
suppress the progressive forces. Ideological influence plays an important role in the defence of
the capitalist system. In this process bourgeois state and law, even the media plays an extremely
big role.
“Social change is brought about by the conscious activities of the individuals. But the
outcome of this activity and the conscious motives are conditioned by the laws of
economic development which operate independently of the will or consciousness, i.e.,
objectively.”18
So, we can say that the determining force of social development is the mode of production,the
material basis of society.
Surplus value in Mode of Production
In order to establish his theory of social change Marx started with the analysis of the nature of
capitalism.The centre of capitalist system is commodity.Commodity production is the
determining factor of capitalism.
Theory of ‘surplus value’ is the law of capitalist production system.Marx discussed this theory in
his famous book Das Capital(1867).Before Marx, Adam Smith and David Ricardo introduced
the labour theory of value.Based on this Marx established his theory of surplus value.He showed
that the value of every commodity is the socially necessary labour time in the mode of
production.
Classical economists showed the relation of exchange of commodities,where Marx showed the
relation between man.By exchanging commodities production relation is expressed.Capitalism
means more development of this relation.In market system,labour power turns into
commodity,working people sell their labour to wealthy people in exchange of wages.A part of
the day he works for the living of his family in exchange of the wages and the rest of the day for
free and create surplus values for the capitalists.The surplus value is the source of profit and
property of capitalist class.19In any society labour power is the vital element of production.But
only in capitalist system it turns into commodity.In capitalist system labourers are free and
deprived of means of production.Though the proletariat are legally free as they are not tied to
any particular land or factory owner but they are not free as a whole.Marx says that in the market
of commodity labourers are free in the sense that he is the owner of his labour power and he has
nothing else to sell except his labour power as he is deprived of means of production.
Capitalist society is exploitative.The capitalist economic system is that through surplus value
production and labour exploitation capitalist grab
value.M-C-M:money-commodity-money.Here,money is invested for the production of
commodity and for more money these commodities are being exchanged.This additional money
is more than the first invested money and after being exchanged they goes to the pocket of the
capitalists.The additional money is the profit.Marx called this surplus value.20
Marx searched for the source of the surplus value in the capitalist production system.According
to him,on the one hand there are the owners of the means of production system,the capitalists,
and on the other hand there are working people who are the direct producers,deprived of the
ownership.Source of surplus value for him is labour.Labor is a kind of power which labourer sell
to the capitalists.In capitalist system labour power turns into commodity and it also has a
practical value.Its value is determined by socially necessary labour time.21
Capitalist production relation is the relation of buying-selling labor power.By analyzing this
relation Marx discovers the concept of surplus value.The relation of buying-selling labour power
is the root of exploitation.Capital is the centre of capitalist exploitation,which is inseparably
related to surplus value.Capital is accumulation of value,which creates additional value and
works for accumulation.Means of production turns into capital when they belong to private
owner and used for the exploitation of labourer,a certain production relation is expressed,the
owner of means of production is capitalist and labourers are deprived of the ownership of the
means of production.Capital is that value which brings surplus value by exploiting the labourer.22
Capital creates surplus value.Again,capital emerges from surplus value.Surplus value turns into
capital as a result accumulation of capital..In that case,one part of surplus value becomes
capitalists income and other part is his accumulation.This accumulation divides into two
parts;redundant permanent capital and redundant changeable capital.The more surplus value the
more the exploitation is .This is the general law of capitalist accumulation.Appropriation of
surplus value of labour exploitation by the capitalists is the inevitable consequences of this law..23
Driving force of social development:Class struggle
Marx brought his concept of ‘class’ to show how this concept arises and dominates the
development and change of society.Marx showed that the dominating idea of a society or a state
is the idea of class.According to Marxism,state is the instrument of exploitation and politics is
the expression of class relation.In this way Marx discovered the theory of ‘class struggle’.
Though Marx and Engels did not define ‘class’,we find a comprehensive definition of ‘class’ in
V.I.Lenin’s great writing A Great Beginning(1994).He wrote-
“Classes are large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy
in a historically determined system of social production,by their relation (in most cases
fixed and formulated in law)to the means of production,by their role in the social
organisation of labour,and,consequently,by the dimensions and mode of acquiring the
share of social wealth of which they dispose.Classes are groups of people one of which
can appropriate the labour of another owing to the different places they occupy in a
definite system of social economy.”24
In society,a person’s position is determined by his economic condition.The place and role of a
person,which class he belongs to is determined by the relation of him to the means of
production.Afanasyev writes in this way:
“The relation of a class to the means of production is the chief feature determining its
place and role in social production,and also the way it obtains its income and the size of
that income.”25
From history we know about five socio-economic
formations;primitive-communal,slave,feudal,capitalist and communist.When private property
spread of and commodity exchange speeded up,social inequality arose and primitive equality
gave way to the first antagonistic classes,slaves and slave owners. After that till today's society
all the societies are class based societies and the history is the history of class struggle.As Marx
and Engels says in ‘Communist Manifesto’ That-
“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.”26
The history of class struggle is the history of antagonistic classes in society.This is the objective
theory of social development.Class conflict existed in the past but it became clear and acute in
capitalist system.The history of capitalism is also the bitter struggle of two basic conflicting
classes.On the one hand,the bourgeoisie,who own the the means of production and on the other
hand,the proletariat who are the working force of capitalism.In other way,capitalist-the oppressor
and proletariat-the oppressed.The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat.With the development of
capitalism the degree of exploitation keeps increasing.
With the increasing exploitation the working class gradually become conscious of their own class
and the exploitation of the system.The conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie
becomes very sharp and distinct.The very nature of capitalist system to help unite,organise and
educate the working class.The workers have no property and no fear of losing anything except
their chains. Primarily they fight against the bourgeoisie independently, not united.When they
start working in a factory together they get united and start to fight against the bourgeoisie.
There are three main forms of proletraiat’s class struggle-economic,political and ideological.The
economic struggle helps to draw mass of workers into the class struggle and serves as a good
school of organisation for them.The class consciousness and class solidarity grows. In the
process of unity they built their own organisation ,trade union,cooperatives,mutual benefits
societies etc.The purpose of economic struggle is not to abolish exploitation but restrict and
mitigate it.Political struggle is for the abolition of mainstays of the capitalist system and gain
state power for a social system in which a handful of oppressors will not appropriate the fruits of
labour of millions.Ideological struggle is against bourgeois ideology and for the victory of
proletarian ideology.27
Internal conflict In a system is the basis of class contradiction and that it is also the ground of
social development.In the words of Afanasyev:
“The class struggle is the driving force ,the source of development of an antagonistic
class society.This struggle determines the development of an antagonistic society both
in relatively ‘peaceful’ periods and particularly in periods of storm and stress.” 28
Marx showed that class struggle is the driving force of the change of the society.After analysing
previous class conflicts,Marx predicted that class conflict after a certain time turns into
revolution.In order to abolish the capitalist system the proletariat also has to be conscious of its
class interests.There will be a new society through class struggle where there will be no class.For
this,revolutionary theory is needed which is established by Marx and Engels and their followers.
conclusion
Marxist theory of social change has been criticised by many sociologists.Though we can not say
that historical materialism is completely indefectible but we can say that the real cause of social
change and development is explained by them.Marx and Engels formulated historical
materialism as the objective law of social development.They showed how the superstructures are
formed on the objective basis,economic base or mode of production.Man works consciously with
a particular objective.They produce materials with creative labour.With the help of science and
technologies ,conscious and creative labour and cooperation with others they formed a
production system.Culture,education,Ideologies,politics,arts,values,thoughts,outlooks,policies
etc are also formed based on the production system.In modern society, the capitalist production
system creates surplus value by which the capitalists exploit the proletariat.The capitalist own the
property and the proletariat own only their labour that they sell to capitalist for a minimal
living.Gradually this relation turns into conflict.Class conflict creates consciousness and class
philosophy emerged.Class philosophy turns into revolution which in turn establish socialism
where there will be no exploitation and no conflict of class.From the written history of society
we know that class struggle is the determinative force of social development.Historical
materialism gives the realistic and logical explanation of social change .
Reference.
1. ,Karl,Marx and Frederick Engels:Selected Works in one vol.,Lawrence and
Wishart,London,1968,p.24
2. Haroon,Rashid,"Karl Marx’s Philosophy and Its Relevance Today",Philosophy and
progress:Vols.LXII-LXII,January-June,July-December,2017,p.30
3. Ibid,p.29
4. Afanasyev,V.,Marxist philosophy:A popular Outline,Moscow:progress
publisher,1968,p.189-190
5. Ibid,p.192
6. Ibid,p.192
7. Ibid,p.191
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8. Ibid,p.189
9. Ibid,p.194
10. Ibid,p.194
11. Ibid,p.197
12. Ibid,p.195
13. Ibid,p.195
14. Ibid,p.197
15. Marx,Karl and Frederick Engels:The German Ideology,Moscow:progress
publishers,1964,p.60
16. Marxist Philosophy,pp.199-200
17. Ibid,p.200
18. Rashid,Haroon,"Karl Marx’s Philosophy and Its Relevance Today",Philosophy and
progress:Vols.LXII-LXII,January-June,July-December,2017,p29
19. রশীদ,হারুন; মার্ক সীয় দর্শন,জাতীয় সাহিত্য প্রকাশ,২০১৪,পৃ-৫০
20. প্রাগুক্ত,পৃ-৫১
21. প্রাগুক্ত,পৃ-৫২
22. প্রাগুক্ত,পৃ-৫১
23. প্রাগুক্ত,পৃ-৫১-৫২
24. Lenin,V.I.,Selected Works,Vol.1,Moscow:progress publisher,1970,p.248
25. Marxist Philosophy,p.238
26. Karl,Marx and Frederick Engels:Selected Works in one vol.,Lawrence and
Wishart,London,1968,p.35
27. Marxist Philosophy,pp.242-243
28. Ibid,p.239