Chapter 9: Fundamental of Group

Social Identify
1. Selective Social Identities: People can selectively emphasize or
downplay different social identities based on the situation. Conflicts may
arise when managing roles, such as being a business leader and a parent
simultaneously.
2. Health and Well-being: Positive social identities contribute to better
health and lower depression levels. This is because individuals are less
likely to attribute negative situations to internal or insurmountable
reasons when their social identities are positive.
3. Work-related Identities: Social identities within organizations are
crucial. Two key aspects are relational identification (connecting
through roles) and collective identification (connecting through group
characteristics). Identification with both work groups and organizations
is important for positive attitudes and behaviors.
4. Strength of Identification: The strength of identification may vary
based on the uniqueness of a group within an organization. Low
identification can lead to issues, including decreased satisfaction and
fewer organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Applicants are less
likely to apply to organizations that don't align with their collective
identities.
Overall Summary:
Individuals navigate and balance their social identities, choosing which
ones are relevant in various situations. Positive social identities
contribute to better health and lower depression levels. Work-related
identities involve both organizational and group affiliations, with strong
identification crucial for positive outcomes. Low identification may lead
to issues such as decreased satisfaction and reluctance to engage in
positive organizational behaviors.
Key Points:
1. Group Property - Roles:
- Roles are expected behavior patterns associated with a position in a
social unit.
- Group members are akin to actors, each playing various roles, both
professionally and personally.
- Individuals, like Bill, often juggle multiple roles, such as employee,
manager, family member, etc.
- Different roles may sometimes lead to conflicts, requiring
individuals to navigate and reconcile competing demands.
2. Role Diversity:
- Individuals play diverse roles within and outside their jobs,
influencing their behavior in various contexts.
- Understanding the role someone is playing is crucial in
comprehending their actions.

3. Role Influence:
- Different groups impose distinct role requirements on individuals.
- Role perceptions guide behavior by framing ideas about appropriate
actions and learning group expectations.
Overall Summary:
- Roles are a fundamental group property where individuals, akin to
actors, fulfill expected behavior patterns within social units.
Juggling diverse roles, like those of a manager, family member, or
 community leader, can lead to conflicts. Understanding and
navigating these roles are essential for comprehending individual
behavior within groups. The diversity of roles, both professional and
personal, influences how individuals behave and respond to the
expectations of their various social units.
Key Points:
1. Role Perception:
- Role perception is our view of how we should act in a given
situation.
- Stimuli from various sources, such as friends, media, and
apprenticeship programs, contribute to shaping role perceptions.
- For example, apprenticeship programs allow beginners to learn by
observing experts.
2. Role Expectations:
- Role expectations are how others believe individuals should behave
in specific contexts.
- In the workplace, role expectations are often viewed through the
psychological contract, an unwritten agreement between employees
and employers outlining mutual expectations.
3. Psychological Contract:
- The psychological contract sets expectations for fair treatment, clear
communication, and mutual loyalty between management and
employees.
- Violations of the psychological contract can lead to negative effects
on employee performance and satisfaction.
4. Cultural Variations:
 - Perceptions of psychological contracts vary across cultures.
- In France, contracts are seen as self-interested and favoring the
powerful, while in Canada, there's a focus on balanced reciprocity.
In China, contracts extend beyond work into employees' lives, and
in Norway, they are more relational and based on trust.

Overall Summary:
Role perception shapes individual behavior based on various influences.
Role expectations, especially in the workplace's psychological contract,
outline mutual responsibilities between employees and employers.
Violations of this contract can lead to negative effects on performance
and satisfaction. Cultural variations exist in how psychological contracts
are perceived, reflecting differences in individualism, power dynamics,
and the relational aspects of these agreements across different societies.
Key Points:
1. Role Conflict:
- Role conflict occurs when compliance with one role makes it
difficult to comply with another, and at times, these role
expectations can be contradictory.
- Inter role conflict may arise when expectations from different
groups conflict, leading to challenges in managing multiple roles.
2. Work-Family Conflict:
- Work-family conflict is a common example, where expectations as a
professional clash with those as a family member.
 - This conflict can be a significant source of stress for employees, as
seen in the example of Bill balancing work expectations and family
commitments.
3. Organizational Identities and Conflicts:
- Within organizations, employees may experience conflicts between
different identities, such as during mergers or when balancing local
and international affiliations.
4. Role Play and Assimilation:
- Individuals often comply with role perceptions and expectations,
even if they initially disagree.
- The Stanford prison experiment demonstrated how individuals
quickly adopted and internalized roles, conforming to authority
positions and stereotypes.
Overall Summary:
Role conflict arises when fulfilling one role conflicts with another,
leading to challenges in managing multiple expectations. Work-family
conflict is a common source of stress, as individuals balance
professional and family roles. In organizations, conflicts can emerge
between different identities during changes like mergers. The Stanford
prison experiment highlights the power of social roles, demonstrating
how individuals readily conform to assigned roles and expectations,
even to the point of pathological reactions, influenced by societal
stereotypes and personal experiences.
Key Points:
1. Norms Defined:
- Norms are established standards of behavior within a group,
indicating what members should and should not do under specific
circumstances.
- They are influential in guiding behavior with minimal external
controls.
2. Norms and Emotions:
- Norms can influence emotions within groups, shaping how members
experience and interpret shared emotions.
- In families and task groups, frequent communication enhances the
power of norms to influence emotions.
3. Norms and Conformity:
- Individuals often conform to group norms to gain acceptance.
- Group pressures for conformity, as demonstrated by the Asch
experiment, can lead individuals to provide incorrect answers to
align with the group.
4. Norms and Behavior:
- Norms cover various aspects of group behavior, significantly
impacting workplace behavior.
- The Hawthorne Studies revealed that group dynamics, attention, and
perceived elite status influenced worker behavior more than the
physical environment.
5. Group Norms and Output:
 - Group norms can control individual behavior, as seen in the wage
incentive plan where employees collectively determined a fair
output to avoid negative consequences.
Example:
In the Hawthorne Studies, the behavior of workers assembling
telephones was influenced by group dynamics and perceived special
status. The attention received from management increased their
performance and decreased personal and sick absences. The introduction
of a wage incentive plan revealed that employees didn't maximize
individual output due to fears related to group norms, illustrating the
powerful influence of norms on beha
Overall Summary:
Norms are crucial group properties, setting standards of behavior within
a group. They influence emotions, drive conformity, and significantly
impact individual and collective behavior in various contexts. The
Hawthorne Studies highlighted the power of group dynamics and
perceived status in influencing worker behavior, emphasizing the
importance of understanding and managing group norms for effective
organizational outcomes.

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes:

1. Organizational Values and CSR Initiatives:
- Organizations aim for their values to hold normative sway over
employees.
- Alignment with positive organizational norms enhances the
probability of positive impact.
2. Political Correctness (PC) Norms:
- Strong PC norms can positively influence group outcomes.
- Clear expectations about interactions, such as gender-diverse
groups, reduce uncertainty and enhance creativity.
3. Creativity in Groups:
- Contrary to popular belief that loosened norms increase creativity,
research suggests strong PC norms in gender-diverse groups
enhance creativity.
- Clear expectations about male-female interactions reduce
uncertainty, facilitating the expression of creative ideas without
facing stereotype norms.
4. Factors Influencing Positive Group Norms:
- Positive group norms may lead to positive outcomes when other
factors are present.
- High group extraversion predicts helping behaviors more strongly
when positive cooperation norms are in place.
5. Individual Susceptibility to Positive Norms:
- Not everyone is equally susceptible to positive group norms.
- Personality traits such as emotional stability, extraversion,
conscientiousness, and social identity influence the impact of
positive group norms.
Example:
In a study of Italian adolescents, gender, group norms, and social
identity predicted the perceived frequency of using Facebook.
Personality traits like emotional stability, extraversion,
conscientiousness, and norms directly predicted problematic Facebook
use. This illustrates that the influence of positive group norms varies
among individuals and is influenced by a combination of factors.
Overall:
While positive group norms can contribute to positive outcomes, the
interplay of individual traits, organizational values, and specific norms is
crucial. Understanding these dynamics allows organizations to leverage
positive norms effectively for improved group dynamics and outcomes.

Negative Norms and Group Outcomes:

1. Deviant Workplace Behavior:
- Examples include spreading rumors, yelling, screaming, and sexual
harassment.
- Deviant behavior violates organizational norms, threatening the
well-being of the organization or its members.
2. Negative Attributes in Work Groups:
- Work groups with negative attributes like psychopathy and
aggression may exhibit characteristics of deceit, amorality, and
intent to harm others.
3. Workplace Incivility:
- Increasing rudeness and disregard toward others reported in recent
years.
- Workplace incivility, a form of deviant behavior, leads to negative
outcomes such as turnover intentions, psychological stress, and
physical illness.
4. Causes of Deviant Behavior:
- Lack of sleep, often caused by heightened work demands, may
contribute to deviant behavior.
- Organizations pushing employees to work extra hours may
indirectly facilitate deviant behavior.
5. Consequences for Individuals and Groups:
- Employees subjected to incivility may consider changing jobs, and
some may quit.
- Workplace deviance, when supported by group norms, can lead to
decreased cooperation, commitment, and motivation.
- High levels of dysfunctional behavior in groups lead to negative
moods, poor coordination of effort, and lower group performance.
Norms and Culture:
- Collectivist vs. Individualist Cultures:
- People in collectivist cultures have different norms than those in
individualist cultures.
- Orientation may be changed, even after years of living in one
society, based on organizational role-playing exercises emphasizing
collectivist or individualist norms.
Example:
- A study demonstrated that individuals primed with collectivist norms
became more motivated when assigned a task by an ingroup person.
Similarly, those primed with individualist norms showed higher
motivation when given the personal choice of the task. This suggests
that cultural orientation can be influenced and adapted, impacting
motivation and behavior.
Overall:
Negative norms and deviant workplace behaviors have tangible
consequences for individuals and groups. Understanding the causes and
outcomes is essential for organizations to address and mitigate such
behaviors, fostering a positive work environment. Additionally, cultural
norms play a significant role, and their influence can be observed even
when individuals have lived in a different society for an extended
period.
Group Property 3: Status
1. Status Definition:
- Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group
members by others.
- Even in the smallest groups, differences in member status emerge
over time.
2. Determinants of Status (Status Characteristics Theory):
- Power over others and control of group resources.
- Ability to contribute significantly to a group's goals.
- Personal characteristics valued by the group (e.g., good looks,
intelligence, friendly personality).
3. Status and Norms:
- High-status individuals may deviate from norms when they have
low identification with the group.
- They resist conformity pressures better than lower-status peers.
 - Introduction of high-status members may improve performance up
to a point but may bring counterproductive norms.
4. Status and Group Interaction:
- Individuals become more assertive when seeking higher status in a
group.
- Lower-status members may participate less actively, affecting group
performance.
- A balance of status levels is essential for optimal group
performance.
5. Status Inequity:
- Equitable status hierarchy is crucial for group cohesion.
- Perceived inequity leads to resentment, poorer individual
performance, lower health, and increased intentions to leave the
group.
6. Cultural and Contextual Influences on Status:
- Different groups and cultures have varied criteria for conferring
status.
- Conflict may arise when individuals move between groups with
different status criteria or join groups with diverse backgrounds.

7. Stigmatization and Status:

- Affiliation with stigmatized individuals can affect one's own status.
- "Stigma by association" can lead to negative opinions and
evaluations of individuals affiliated with stigmatized persons.
8. Group Status Dynamics
 - Early in life, individuals develop an "us and them" mentality.
- Ingroup favoritism and discrimination against outgroups contribute
to the dynamics of status competition and polarization between
groups.
Example:
- In a workplace, a high-status executive may resist conforming to
certain norms within the team due to their perceived importance.
However, if too many high-status individuals dominate a group, it
may lead to counterproductive norms. Additionally, if there's a
perceived lack of equity in status, lower-status members may
become resentful, impacting overall team dynamics and
performance.
Overall:
Status, a complex and dynamic group property, significantly influences
group behavior and outcomes. Recognizing the determinants of status,
its effects on norms and group interaction, and addressing status
inequities are crucial for fostering positive group dynamics and
performance. Cultural influences and the interplay between status and
stigmatization further highlight the intricacies of group status dynamics.
Group Property 4: Size and Dynamics
1. Group Size and Behavior:
- Group size influences behavior, with effects varying based on
dependent variables examined.
- Larger groups (a dozen or more members) are effective for diverse
input, fact-finding, or idea generation.
- Smaller groups (around seven members) are better for productive
tasks.
2. Social Loafing:
- Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort
when working collectively than when working alone.
- Challenges the assumption that group productivity equals the sum of
individual productivity.
- Causes may include perceived inequity, diffusion of responsibility,
and exploitation concerns.
3. Causes and Western Bias:
- Belief that others aren't contributing their fair share may lead to
reduced effort.
- Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individual input is unclear
due to collective results.
- Social loafing has a Western bias, aligning with individualist
cultures like the United States and Canada.
4. Individual Differences and Prevention:
- Strong work ethic reduces the likelihood of social loafing.
- Conscientiousness and agreeableness in a group mitigate the impact
of social loafing on performance.
- Prevention strategies include setting group goals, increasing
intergroup competition, peer evaluations, selecting motivated
members, and basing rewards on individual contributions.
Example:
- In a team of ten members working on a project, social loafing may
occur if some team members perceive others as not putting in sufficient
effort. This could lead to a decline in overall team productivity.
However, by implementing strategies like setting clear group goals,
fostering intergroup competition, and recognizing individual
contributions, managers can mitigate social loafing tendencies and
maintain high team performance.
Overall:
Group size plays a crucial role in determining the dynamics and
effectiveness of a group. Social loafing poses a challenge to achieving
optimal productivity, but understanding its causes and implementing
preventive measures can enhance group performance. The cultural
context, individual differences, and strategic interventions all contribute
to the complex interplay between group size and dynamics.
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
1. Cohesiveness Definition:
- Cohesiveness refers to the degree of attraction among group
members and their motivation to stay in the group.
- Influenced by factors like time spent together, group size, common
goals, and external threats.
2. Cohesiveness and Productivity:
- The relationship between cohesiveness and productivity depends on
performance-related norms.
- High cohesiveness with high-performance norms leads to increased
productivity.
- Low cohesiveness with high-performance norms may still increase
productivity, but less than in high-cohesiveness situations.
3. Encouraging Cohesiveness:
- Make groups smaller.
- Encourage agreement on group goals.
- Increase time spent together.
 - Elevate the group's status and perceived difficulty of membership.
- Stimulate competition with other groups.
- Reward the group collectively.
- Physically isolate the group.
Group Property 6: Diversity
1. Diversity Impact:
- Group diversity has both costs and benefits.
- Increases group conflict, potentially lowering morale and raising
dropout rates.
- The type of diversity matters: surface-level diversity cues deep-level
diversity.
2. Gender and Tenure Diversity Effects:
- Gender and tenure diversity can lead to conflict but can be mitigated
by effective leadership.
- Diversity provides opportunities for unique problem-solving
approaches.
- Short-term challenges in diverse groups, but long-term benefits if
differences are navigated.
3. Faultlines:
- Faultlines are perceived divisions in groups based on differences.
- Generally detrimental to group functioning, leading to competition,
slower learning, risky decisions, and increased conflict.
- Faultlines may be strategically employed in certain contexts to
improve performance.
Example:
 - In a project team composed of individuals from diverse backgrounds,
initial conflicts may arise due to differences in communication styles.
However, if the team acknowledges and appreciates this diversity, it can
lead to innovative problem-solving and better outcomes. A faultline
based on varied expertise may initially create challenges, but if the team
adopts strategies to promote collaboration and focuses on shared goals, it
can strategically use diversity to its advantage.
Overall:
- Cohesiveness and diversity play crucial roles in group dynamics.
Effective leadership and strategies to navigate conflicts are essential to
harness the benefits of diversity. Cohesive groups with aligned
performance norms tend to be more productive. While diversity can
introduce challenges, it also offers opportunities for creativity and
improved problem-solving, contributing to long-term success. The
strategic use of faultlines highlights the potential for diversity to be an
asset when managed effectively.
Group Decision Making
Advantages:
1. More Complete Information and Knowledge:
- Groups aggregate diverse resources, bringing more input and
knowledge into the decision-making process.

2. Increased Diversity of Views:

- Group diversity fosters the consideration of various approaches and
alternatives, leading to a richer decision-making environment.
3. Increased Acceptance of Solutions:
 - Participation in decision-making enhances group members' support
for and enthusiasm about the chosen solution.
Challenges:
1. Time-Consuming:
- Groups typically take more time to reach a decision compared to
individuals working alone.
2. Conformity Pressures:
- The desire for acceptance within the group may suppress overt
disagreement, leading to conformity.
3. Dominance by Few Members:
- Group discussions can be dominated by a minority, potentially
hindering overall effectiveness.

4. Ambiguous Responsibility:
- In group decisions, individual accountability for the final outcome is
diluted, creating ambiguity.
Effectiveness and Efficiency:
- Effectiveness: Group decisions are generally more accurate than the
average individual's decisions, especially when creativity and
acceptance of solutions are crucial.
- Efficiency: Individuals are often more efficient in decision-making,
and managers must weigh the benefits of group effectiveness against
the time consumed.
Examples:
 - Strengths: A diverse project team collaborates on a complex
problem, leveraging various perspectives to generate innovative
solutions.
- Challenges: A committee, aiming for consensus, takes longer to
finalize a decision due to conflicting opinions among its members.
Groupthink and Group shift
Groupthink:
- Definition: Situations where group pressures for conformity hinder
critical appraisal of unconventional or unpopular views.
- Example: A cohesive team avoids challenging a flawed proposal to
maintain harmony, leading to suboptimal decisions.
Group shift:
- Definition: Group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions
when discussing alternatives.
- Examples:
- Conservative Shift: A risk-averse group becomes even more
cautious after discussion.
- Risky Shift: A group inclined towards taking risks becomes more
daring after deliberation.
Overall:
- Balancing Strengths and Challenges: While groups provide diverse
input, promote creativity, and enhance solution acceptance, managers
must navigate time constraints, conformity pressures, and potential
dominance issues.
- Group Dynamics Awareness: Recognizing and addressing groupthink
and group shift are critical for maintaining objective decision-making
and achieving high-quality solutions.

Groupthink:
- Definition: Group pressures for conformity, hindering critical
appraisal of dissenting views.
- Example: A team avoids challenging a risky decision due to the
desire for group harmony, resulting in suboptimal outcomes.
Minimizing Groupthink:
1. Monitor Group Size:
- Larger groups (beyond about 10 members) may increase
intimidation and reduce personal responsibility.
2. Impartial Group Leaders:
- Leaders should seek input from all members, avoiding expressing
personal opinions, especially in early deliberation stages.
3. Devil's Advocate Role:
- Appoint a group member to challenge the majority position,
encouraging diverse perspectives.
4. Stimulate Active Discussion:
- Use exercises focusing on diverse alternatives without threatening
the group, emphasizing discussion of risks before gains.
Group shift or Group Polarization:
 - Definition: Group discussion leads members toward more extreme
views of their initial positions.
- Examples:
- Conservative Shift: A cautious group becomes even more risk-
averse.
- Risky Shift: A group inclined toward risk-taking becomes more
daring.
Explanations for Group Polarization:
1. Comfortable Group Dynamics:
- Discussion fosters comfort, encouraging expression of extreme
views.
2. Diffused Responsibility:
- Group decisions diffuse individual accountability, allowing for more
extreme positions.
3. Differentiation from Outgroup:
- Members may take extreme positions to highlight differences from
outgroups.
Group Decision-Making Techniques:
1. Brainstorming:
- Encourages free expression of ideas without criticism.
- Challenge: Less efficient than individual idea generation due to
production blocking.
2. Nominal Group Technique:
- Restricts discussion during decision-making.
 - Steps include independent idea generation, presentation, group
discussion, and silent ranking.
- Advantage: Outperforms brainstorming in idea generation efficiency.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Techniques:
- Interacting Group:
- Strength: Achieves commitment to a solution.
- Brainstorming:
- Strength: Develops group cohesiveness.
- Nominal Group Technique:
- Strength: Efficient for generating a large number of ideas.