Module 11

Goals of Organizational Structure

 To Describe systematically how people behave as they interact with one another
 To Understand why people behave differently with one another. Managers should look into this
behavior and analyze the reason behind the action of their workers.
 To Predict future worker behavior so that an appropriate of action may be employed.
 To Control and develop human activity at work.

An organizational goal is the end-point toward which activities are aimed. It is the target or end that
managers want to reach. Goals provide direction and serve as a reference point. Goals are the raisin
deter of an organization. In other words, goals are the reason for the existence of an organization. If an
organizations fails to achieve its goal, it can be said that it has failed in its objectives. Thus, goals are
critical to organizational success and effectiveness. Organizations are purposive. They have specific goals
to attain. In the process of attaining these goals, they mobilize various resources-human as well as non-
human (financial, physical, technical, etc.) available to them. Organizational goals, in fact, provide an
idea about the character, in tensions, activities, and behavior of an organization. The nature of goals
differs from organization to organization. A business enterprises wants to make a profit or to increase its
market share, or to attain higher ethical standards in the conduct of all its affairs. A social organization
like a university, in contrasts, may have an objective of increasing access to higher education, or provide
relevant and quality education to students in given fields of study. A non-profit hospital aims at
improving community health or patient care through mobile camps. These are only the general
statements about the in tensions of these organizations. The goals are more precise, specific,
measurable, and focused statements. They should state clearly what is to improved changed, reduced,
or maintained. Organizational goals are as far as possible, expressed in quantitative measurable, and
concrete terms desired to be achieved within a given time period. Goals are firm commitments of the
organization to accomplish something specific. Organizations direct their scarce resources and energies
into area that will help them to attain their goals. To motivate efforts goals should be linked to reward.
An organization may have multiple goals to pursue in a given period of time. When organizations have
such multiple goals to attain within limited time, financial and material resources, priorities are fixed.
Most crucial and urgent goals are given top priorities.

Managers should be held responsible for performance result of the workers within the organization, and
therefore, they should be interested in the worker’s behavior, attitudes, skill development, tem effort,
and productivity.

The Nature of Conflicts in Organization

Conflict results because of incompatibility or influence in activities in the organization. Conflict is any
situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in disagreement. Conflict is an interpersonal
process that arises from oppositions over the goals and objectives of the organization to attain the
desired results.

Many organizations approach the management of conflict with the following assumptions:

 Conflicts can be avoided.

 Conflict is the result of personality problems of individuals within the organization.
  Conflict produces inappropriate reactions by the individuals involved.
 Conflict creates a polarization – manifestation of contrasting tendencies with the organization.

The progressive stages of development of conflict are:

1. Latent Conflict – at the initial stage of conflict, the basic conditions exist but have not yet been
recognized.
2. Perceived Conflict – The cause of the conflict is recognized by one or both of the participants.
3. Felt Conflict – tension began to build between the participants, although seemingly, there is no
struggle yet.
4. Manifest Conflict – the struggle is underway; and the behavior of the participants makes the
existence of the conflict apparent to others in the organization who may not be directly
involved.
5. Conflict aftermath – the conflict is ended by a resolution or by suppression. This may establish
new condition that might lead to either better cooperation or to a new conflict that may be
more disastrous or violent in nature.

Three types of conflicting goals that exist and these are:

 Mutually exclusive positive goals – goal conflicts results when a person is motivated toward two
or more positive, mutually exclusive goals at the same time. This form of conflict can be resolved
by making a decision quickly to end the conflict.
 Positive-negative goals – this conflicts exists when an individual tries to achieve a goal that has
both positive and negative results.
 Negative-negative goals – the individual tries to avoid two or more negative, mutually exclusive
goals. Most likely, the outcome of this conflict is frustration.

Levels of Conflict

1. Intrapersonal Conflict – is internal to the individual and is perhaps the most difficult type of
conflict to analyze, because it relates to the need-drive-goal motivational sequence.
Intrapersonal conflict basically results when barriers exist between the drive and the goal. This
result when goals have both positive and negative outlooks and, at the same time, when
competing and conflicting goals exist.

2. Interpersonal Conflict – this kind of conflict is a very serious problem to many people because it
deeply affects the individual feelings and emotions. The tendency to protect one’s self-image
and social-esteem from damage by other persons is inherent in every individual. When self-
integrity is threatened, the individual is affected and relationships start to deteriorate.

3. Intergroup structural conflict – this type of conflict normally arises from such causes as different
perceptions and viewpoints, competition for resources, and group loyalties.

Causes of Conflicts
 1. Organizational Change – People have different perspectives over the direction to go, the way to
take, the resources needed and the probable outcome. This change will naturally affect global
economy and other social structures of society.
2. Personality clashes – Individual differences is a basic concept affecting organizational behavior.
Personality differences can cause conflict. Workers should learn to accept and respect one’s
personality.
3. Different set of values – People have different beliefs, orientation adhere to various value
systems. Their philosophical orientation and ethical values may lead them to different directions
4. Threats to status - When one’s status is threatened, face-saving virtually becomes a potent
driving force as the individual struggle to uphold the desired image.

5. Contrasting perceptions – People perceive things differently as a result of their previous

experiences
6. Lack of Trust – Every relationship requires some degree of trust. It builds confidence and
provides opportunities in which to act, and enriches the entire fabric of an organization.
7. Role dissatisfaction – role dissatisfaction and conflict often result when a group that has low
perceived status sets standards for another group.
8. Role ambiguity – This occurs when the credit or blame for the success or failure of a particular
assignment cannot be determined between two units, conflict is likely to result.

Advantages of Conflict

 People become more creative and would like to experiment with new plans and ideas.
 Once the conflict is resolve, the parties involved in the conflict may be committed to the
objectives and ideals of the organization.
 Conflict energizes workers to be more involved to the issue, even if not all of the resulting
activity may be constructive.
 It often for pent-up tensions resulting in catharsis.
 Conflicts can result in an educational experience.
 Disadvantages of Conflict
 If the conflict lasts for a long period of time, it may become so intense that it may be allowed to
focus on personal issues.
 The interpersonal level, cooperation, and team effort among workers may subsequently
deteriorate.
 Distrust start to grow among workers who need to coordinate their efforts and, as a result, the
organization’s desired objectives are prejudiced.

Module 12
“Stress and Human Behavior”

STRESS

Is defined as the mental and physical condition that result from a perceived threat of danger (physical or
emotional) and the pressure to remove it. Stress and Conflict are integral parts of an organizational life.

• POTENTIAL STRESS exists when an environmental condition presents a demand threatening

to exceed a person’s capabilities and resources for meeting it.
 • EXCESSIVE STRESS can also result in both physical and emotional problems.

BURNOUT

Is a condition that occurs when work is no longer meaningful to the individual and this can result from
stress or may be other work-related or personal factors. While burnouts have become more recognized
as parts of an individual stress, there are certain related myths that have surfaced.

MYTH NO. 1 – Burnout is just a newfangled notion that gives lazy people an excuse not to work.

MYTH NO. 2 - As long as people really enjoy their work, they can work as long and as hard as they
want and never experience burnout.

MYTH NO. 3 – Individuals know when they are burning out an, when they do, all they need to do is
to take off for a few weeks, and then they will be as good as new.

MYTH NO. 4 – Individuals who are physically and psychologically strong are unlikely to experience
burnout.

MYTH NO. 5 – Job burnout is always job-related. Burnout usually results from a combination of
work, family, social and personal factors.
 

TRAUMA

One problematic case of severe stress is called work place trauma which usually occurs because of
disintegration of worker self-concepts and beliefs in their capabilities arising from dramatic negative
factors or unpleasant experiences at work.
FRUSTRATION

Can cause stress because the individual becomes irritable, or develops an uneasy feeling in his stomach,
or have some other reactions. When a person lives with frustration day after day, it begins to build
emotional disorders that interfere with the ability to perform functions effectively.

TYPES OF REACTION TO FRUSTRATION

• AGGRESSIVE by demanding treatment or may threaten to appeal to higher management

• APATHETIC by not responding to his job or co-workers.
• WITHDRAWAL by requesting a transfer or quitting the job.
• REGRESSION is less mature behavior by reversing to less adapted behavior and feeling such
as self-pity.
• FIXATION a partial arrest of emotional and instinctive reaction blaming the superior for both
his problem and the problems of others, regardless of the facts.
• PHYSICAL DISORDERS usually occurs when the individual has an upset stomach.
• SUBSTITUTE GOALS as a reaction to frustration, the individual aspires to becoming the
leader of a powerful informal group in office politics.

RELAXATION provides a means of mental ease o adjust to the stress in the lives of workers. The ideal
elements of relation efforts involve:

1. A comfortable position in a relatively quiet location.

2. Closed eyes and deep comfortable breaths.
3. Focus on pleasant mental image
4. Avoidance of distracting thoughts and unpleasant events.
5. Soothing background music.

Many organizations provide special lounges for workers to use and this has resulted in dealing with
stress.

BIOFEEDBACK

1. Different approach for working with stress

2. Workers undergo medical guidance and learn from instrument feedback to influence symptoms
of stress.
SABBATICAL LEAVES

1. Provisions to workers of paid or unpaid time from work to encourage stress relief and
personal education for development.
2. Most workers return emotionally refreshed; feel rewarded and valued by management; and
usually bring back new insight gained from workshops and conferences.
3. One of the side effects of this method is that it adds to organizational flexibility and rises
worker’s competency and self-esteem.

1. AGGRESSIVE - by demanding treatment or may threaten to appeal to higher management

2. APATHETIC_- by not responding to his job or co-workers.
3. WITHDRAWAL- by requesting a transfer or quitting the job.
4. REGRESSION - is less mature behavior by reversing to less adapted behavior and feeling such
as self-pity.
5. FIXATION - a partial arrest of emotional and instinctive reaction blaming the superior for both
his problem and the problems of others, regardless of the facts.

Module 13
“Counseling and Human Behavior”

COUNSELING

• Is the discussion of a problem that prevents a worker from doing his job efficiently.
• Provides some kind of direction to help workers improve their mental health so that they will
feel comfortable and able to meet the daily demands of life.
• Exchange of ideas and opinions about feelings between two people.

FUNCTIONS OF COUNCILING

ADVICE – giving advice requires a counselor to make judgments about the counselee’s problem and
provide direction as a course of action.

REASSURANCE – giving the worker courage and self-confidence to face the problems at hand.

COMMUNICATION – is an important part of the counselor’s job to discover emotional problems directly
related to company policies and to interpret the organization’s activities to workers as they discuss
problem affecting them.

EMOTIONAL CATHARSIS – is the release of emotion tension and frustrations, by way of telling
somebody about it.
CLARIFIED THINKING – is the removal of emotional blocks which hinder a person from thinking
rationally.

REORIENTATION – is a change in a worker’s psychic self through a change in fundamental goals and
values. Managers seem to be sensitive to the emotional problems of workers.
TYPES OF COUNSELING

1. Direct counseling – is the process of listening to a worker’s problem, deciding with the
worker what should be done and then telling and motivating the worker to do it.

2. Non-direct counseling – is the process of skillfully listening and encouraging a counselee to

explain troublesome problems, understand the problems and determined appropriate
solutions.

1. Participative counseling – is the mutual counselor-counselee relationship that establishes a

cooperative exchange of ideas and opinions to help solve a counselee’s problem.

There are various characteristics of people with good mental health:

A. . They feel comfortable about themselves

• Are not very mush affected by their emotions e.g., fear, anger, jealousy, guilt or worries.
• Can take life’s disappointments in stride.
• Have a wide range of tolerance, easy going attitude toward themselves as well as others;
can afford to laugh at themselves or the misfortunes they experience.
• Never overestimate or underestimate their abilities.
• Can accept their shortcomings graciously.
• Have self-respect
• Feel able to handle any situation that comes their way however difficult it may seem.
• Get satisfaction from simple, everyday pleasures.

B. They feel right about other people.

• Are able to give love and to consider the interests of others.

• Have personal relationships that are satisfying and lasting.
• Expect to like and trust others and take it for granted that others will like and trust them.
• Respect the many differences they find in people.
• Do not push people around; and do not allow themselves to be pushed y others either.
• Feel that they are part of the group.
• Feel a sense of responsibility to their neighbors and others.
C. They are able to meet the demands of life.

• Do something about their problems as they arise.

• Accept their responsibilities.
• Shape their environment whenever possible; adjust to it when necessary.
• Plan ahead but do not fear the future.
• Welcome new experiences and new ideas.
• Make use of their natural capacities.
• Set realistic goals for themselves.

_
ADVICE - giving advice requires a counselor to make judgments about the counselee’s problem and
provide direction as a course of action.

REASSURANCE - giving the worker courage and self-confidence to face the problems at hand.

COMMUNICATION - is an important part of the counselor’s job to discover emotional problems directly
related to company policies and to interpret the organization’s activities

EMOTIONAL CATHARSIS - is the release of emotion tension and frustrations, by way of telling somebody
about it.

RE ORIENTATION - is a change in a worker’s psychic self through a change in fundamental goals and
values.
Module 14
“Organizational Change”

Organizational Change

Change, like life, is a process. It is evolution, growth transformation and development. It is learning and
unlearning, appreciating, criticizing, preserving and altering.

1. Work Change.

- The nature of work change may be any alteration that management instituted in the work
environment. Changes may lead to pressure and conflicts that may eventually cause a
breakdown somewhere in the organization.

2. Response to Change.

- Every individual responds to change according to his attitude and needs. These attitudes and
needs and other feelings about change are not the result of change.
 3. Cost and Benefits.

- It is likely that all changes have some costs. The introduction of a new work system and
procedure will naturally require the inconvenience of learning new skills and may disrupt, to
a certain extent, work and consequently, reduce productions.

I. Resistance to Change

Alvin Tofler, a futuristic thinker, social critic, and educator revolutionized the world with his
books: Future shock focused on the process of change. The Third Wave discussed the direction of
changes, and how these changes will be done.

Reasons why workers resist.

• They may not be comfortable with the nature of change. Some workers may violate their normal
belief system; they might believe that the decision of management is disadvantageous to their
welfare. Others resist change for fear and anxiety as a threat to their job security.

• Workers recent having been ill-informed or they may resist the authoritarian approach of the
manager. The introduction of change may revolve around a perception of positioning.

• The third reason is the perception of inequity – while others may gain some benefits ofr the
change, others may not.
Forms of Resistance

3 forms of resistance to change:

1. Rationale resistance.
This form of resistance is perceived by workers to be based on disagreement of facts,
rational reasoning, logic and science.

2. Psychological resistance.
This psychological resistance basically involves workers’ emotion, attitudes, and sentiments.

3. Sociological resistance.
Involves group interest, norms and values. In as much as social values are powerful forces in
the environment, they must be looked into and be carefully considered.

II. Implication of Resistance to Change

A. Leadership and change. Some changes originate within the organization itself and others
through the regulatory laws enacted by proper authorities such as law and ordinances.
B. Transformational leader are the managers who are futuristic in outlook and initiate bold
strategic changes to position the organization for its future. These managers articulate the
vision of the organization and sell it vigorously.

C. Creating Vision. Transformational leaders possess the ability to create and communicate a
clear vision for the organizational behavior and goals.

D. Communicating Charisma. Charisma is the special quality that gives an individual influence
over a group of people. It is a leadership characteristic that can help influence workers to
respond and sustain an action.

E. Stimulating Learning. The change that transformational leaders will bequeath to the
succeeding leaders who will lead the organization that they will leave behind will see to it
that the change they have initiated will continue to develop and bear positive results.
Steps in Change

Three steps in managing change:

• Unfreezing. A process that simply means that old ideas and practices need to be changed so that
new ones can be adopted for use.
• Changing. A process that basically means the step in which the new ideas and practices are being
learned.
• Refreezing. Is a process, which means that what has been learned, is integrated into actual and
meaningful practice.

Support-need for Change

The support-need to be built before, during and after a change is extremely necessary for a long
term success of the change program.

A. Rationale for Change. The effective leader reinforces a climate of psychological support for
change and this change is premised on the basis of impersonal requirements of the prevailing
condition rather than on personal grounds.

B. Participation. Full participation of the workers is a basic requirement to build support for
change. During the interaction process, workers are encouraged to discuss and articulate their
views and make some suggestions.

C. Shared Reward. Another way of building support for change is that there are adequate rewards
for workers when change is implemented. If the change will bring them a wind full of gains, they
become enthusiastic about the change.

D. Workers’ Security. Security during a change is very important among workers. A number of
managers guarantee that workers’ rights should be protected.

E. Communication. Communicating applies to all phases of management. The communication

function is the means by which social inputs are fed into social system.

F. Stimulating Workers’ Readiness. This approach of building support for change is premised on the
assumption that change is more likely to be accepted if the workers affected by it recognize a
need for it before it occurs.
Guidelines for managing Change

• Make only necessary and useful change.

• Teach workers to expect continual change and need to develop new skills.
• Change by evolution gradually, not revolution dramatically.
• Recognize the possibility of resistance to change and develop appropriate and positive strategies for
confronting and containing each source of resistance.
• Involve workers throughout the change process to diminish resistance.
• Share the benefits of change to workers.
• View the organizational change as an essential process, and pay particular attention to the
unfreezing and freezing stages.
• Diagnose the problems remaining after a change occurs, and treat them properly.
• Recognize that the primary purpose of a change is to improve performance results

1. HUMAN VALUES_ Humanistic values are positive beliefs about desire for growth among
workers.
2. UTILIZATION OF A CHANGE AGENT- Change agents are people whose roles are to stimulate,
facilitate, and coordinate change within the system while remaining independent from it.
3. PROBLEM SOLVING - OD emphasizes the process of problem-solving by way of training
participants to identify and solve actual problems that are important and need immediate
solutions.
4. 4. EXPERIMENTAL LEARNING- Is the process when participants learn by experiencing in the
training environment of human problems that they actually face on the job.
5. INTERVENTIONS AT VARIOUS LEVELS - Basically, one of the primary objectives of organizational
development is to build organization that will be responsive to the needs of workers.
Module 15

“Organizational Development”

Organizational Development

Organizational Development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral science, knowledge

and information at various levels to bring about planned change. Understanding organizational
development and its primary objectives include a higher quality of work performance, productivity,
adaptability and effectiveness.

I. Assumptions on Organizational Development.

There are sets of assumptions that management practitioners make in order to guide their actions.
These assumptions have to be examined carefully so that manager should be aware of the impact
underlying organizational development.

Common assumptions underlying organizational development:

For individuals

• People want to grow and mature

• Workers have much to offer (e.g., energy and creativity) that may not be used at work
• Most workers desire the opportunity to contribute (they desire, seek, and appreciate
empowerment).

For groups

• Groups and teams are critical to organizational success.

• Groups have powerful influence on human behavior
• The complex roles to be played in-groups require skill development

For Organizations

• Excessive controls, policies, and rules are detrimental.

• Conflicts can be functional, if properly channeled.
• Individual and organizational goals can be compatible
Features of Organizational Development

1. Human values.

Humanistic values are positive beliefs about desire for growth among workers. The
objectives of developing an organizational climate should be directed towards the
recognition and implementations of the OD program that will develop workers, who are
self-actualized, integrally developed human beings imbued with the sense of human dignity,
and are human beings with a sense of responsibility for their organizations, and society.

2. Utilization of a Change Agent.

Change agents are people whose roles are to stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate change
within the system while remaining independent from it. It is in this context that OD
programs use one or more change agents.

3. Problem-solving.

OD emphasizes the process of problem-solving by way of training participants to identify

and solve actual problems that are important and need immediate solutions.

4. Experimental Learning.

Is the process when participants learn by experiencing in the training environment of human
problems that they actually face on the job.

5. Interventions at various levels.

Basically, one of the primary objectives of organizational development is to build

organization that will be responsive to the needs of workers.

Organizational Development Process

While there are various approaches to OD, a typical comprehensive program includes the
following steps:

1. Initial Diagnosis.

At the outset, the consultant meets with top officials of the organizations to identify the
problems. The consultant then seeks inputs by means of interviews with various workers in
the organization.

2. Data Collection.

The date to be collected should be related to the problem to determine the organizational
climate and behavioral problems.
3. Data feedback and confrontation.

Work groups are assigned to review and analyze the data collected, to mediate areas of
disagreement, and to establish priorities for change.
4. Action planning and problem-solving.

The data are collected, synthesized and analyzed are used by the group to study appropriate
recommendations for change.

5. Use of interventions.

When action is completed, the consultant helps the workers/participants select the
appropriate OD interventions. The intervention will focus on the individuals, group,
interdepartmental relations or the whole organization.

6. Evaluation and follow-up.

This is the stage of the development process when the expertise of the consultant is
necessary to help organization evaluate with utmost objectivity the results of study.
 SELF-CHECK FN-15.1.4

A. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

6. INITIAL DIAGNOSIS
At the outset, the consultant meets with top officials of the organizations to identify the problems.
7. DATA COLLECTION –
-The date to be collected should be related to the problem to determine the organizational
climate and behavioral problems.

8. DATA FEEDBACK AND CONFRONTATION

Work groups are assigned to review and analyze the data collected, to mediate areas of
disagreement, and to establish priorities for change.

9. ACTION PLANNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

The data are collected, synthesized and analyzed are used by the group to study appropriate
recommendations for change.
10. USE OF INTERVENTION
When action is completed, the consultant helps the workers/participants select the appropriate
OD interventions.