THE IMPACT OF UN WOMEN AND MEXICO'S COOPERATION

STRATEGY IN ADDRESSING CASES OF GENDER-BASED

VIOLENCE IN MEXICO

1
Zahriani Anugerah Arman, 2Seniwati, S.Sos, M.Hum, Ph.D., 3Drs. Adi
Suryadi, B, MA., 4Aswin Baharuddin, S.IP, MA., 5Ishaq Rahman, S.IP.,
M.Si., 6Nurjannah Abdullah, S.IP., MA.

International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Hasanuddin University

Email :seniwati@unhas.ac.id

ABSTRACT
Gender-based violence in Mexico has been a problem in recent years.
Therefore, this problem requires special attention from the government,
civil society, the international community and an international
organisation that focuses on gender mainstreaming, UN Women. Through
this research, UN Women and Mexico's cooperation strategy has had some
impact on both the increase and decrease of gender-based violence in
Mexico. The impact that occurs can be seen in the realm of law or
regulatory systems, culture and community norms. However, this impact
is not so significant in reducing gender-based violence in Mexico. Cases of
violence continue to increase every year, therefore the strategic efforts
made by UN Women and Mexico can be said to be less significant in
dealing with cases of gender-based violence in Mexico.

Keywords: Gender-Based Violence, Mexico, UN Women, System, Culture

BACKGROUND

Gender-based violence against women includes sexual violence,

child marriage, intimate violence, trafficking, exploitation and abuse. The

impact of this violence can be both long and short term and can lead to

serious physical injuries, sexual infections such as HIV/AIDs, unwanted

pregnancies and maternal mortality (Giving Compass, 2021). Gender-

based violence not only physically affects women, but can cause long-term

harm such as HIV/AIDs. Researchers recognise that violence against

women is structural because from the outset the exploitation of women is

facilitated and promoted through societal culture and political formations.

Therefore, it is imperative to address and combat gender-based

violence as it is a worldwide phenomenon that can affect individuals,

families and society as a whole. Individuals subjected to gender-based

violence can experience depression, physical harm, abuse and death.

These negatives can lead to family breakdown and increase community

insecurity (Miranda, 2020, p. 10). From the beginning, gender-based

violence can be identified through the structure or system itself, which is

directly visible such as the male-dominated political formation. Societal

cultures that influence individuals and families to facilitate and encourage

gender-based violence.
 Gender-based violence occurs throughout the global north and

south, in low-income, middle-income and upper-middle-income

countries, across religions, ethnicities and social classes. Research shows

that countries with high levels of gender-based violence experience more

conflict, instability, lack of implementation of laws, low educational

attainment, economic underdevelopment and health crises. Historically,

diplomatic activities, programmes and research on gender-based violence

have largely focused on women. Prevalence data consistently shows that

women around the world experience very high levels of gender-based

violence throughout their life course (United States Government, 2022). In

Latin America, machismo culture is one of the characteristics that is

believed to increase homicide rates against women.

Machismo is a social construct that describes traditional patriarchal

beliefs about women's roles. Broadly speaking, machismo is a belief or

action that promotes gender inequality and limits women's autonomy.

These values demand women's compliance and legitimise the use of

violence against them. This pervasive inequality may be a partial

explanation for why some countries in Latin America have some of the

highest female homicide rates in the world (Carrigan & Dawson, 2020, p.

3). An important cause of violence against women is the culture of the

society itself. Latin America is still deeply embedded in a machismo

culture, where it is believed that women should not outrank men and that

it is acceptable for women to be subjected to violence.

Mexico recorded from 1 December 2018 to 31 December 2020. The

National Register of Disappeared and Unlocated Persons documents the

disappearance of 19,983 women, girls and adolescents in Mexico.

According to the Clandestine Graves and National Register of Missing or

Unlocated Persons report published by the National Commission for the

Search of Persons, between 1 December 2018 and 31 December 2019, a

total of 3,093 women went missing of which 1,816 have been found and

1,277 are missing. Most of the missing women, equivalent to 368 cases or

28% were aged between 15 and 19 years old. Between January and August

2020, 5,223 women and girls went missing in just 12 states in Mexico and a

total of 1,290 have not been found. It is important to note that 48% of the

missing women were minors. Furthermore, homicides against women,

according to SESNSP, recorded between January 2018 and December 2020,

11,217 women and girls were killed in Mexico (Estrada, 2021)

It is important to note that in recent years the number of female

homicides has remained consistent and not decreased in Mexico.

Furthermore, femicide, according to official data, 3,656 women were

murdered in 2018, of which 893 cases were investigated as female

homicide, equivalent to 24%. In 2019, 3,809 women were murdered and

940 cases, equivalent to 24% were investigated as femicide. According to

the SESNSP from January to December 2020, 3,752 women and girls were

murdered, of which 969 cases, equivalent to 26% were investigated as

female homicide (Estrada, 2021).

The latest information from SESNSP, from January to December

2020 shows that 10.2 women and girls were murdered every day in

Mexico. This prevalence of female homicide shows that insufficient

measures are being taken to prevent, address and punish violence against

women framed in a context of violence, discrimination and impunity. The

femicide impunity report an official data on violence against women 2017-

2019 published by RedTDT shows that according to data obtained through

access to information requests, in 2018, 746 investigation files were opened

for the crime of female homicide, while from January to May 2019, 459

female homicide files were opened in 23 states in Mexico (Estrada, 2021).

Regarding the characteristics of killings of women, INEGI reports

that women are killed with greater violence and cruelty than men.

Currently, the problem of proving female homicide crimes lies in the lack
of due diligence and a gender perspective in the investigation of these

crimes which causes such incidents to remain in total impunity.

In the last three years there has been a development of social

awareness about gender-based violence in Mexico. Among several factors

in its consistency in the level of family violence and sexual violence

against the state, as well as the increasing data on femicide crimes, which

is the killing of women because of gender. The International Women's Day

March in Mexico City recorded approximately 90,000 women experiencing

gender-based violence in the country. Based on country, National Survey

Data has shown that 70.1% of women have experienced gender-based

violence during their lifetime, with 39.9% of that violence arising from

their partner (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2023).

The latest edition of the Mexico Peace Index (MPI), shows that

while peace has prevailed in Mexico in recent years, the country continues

to face high levels of gender-based violence In 2022, 22 Mexican counties

have seen an increase in sexual harassment and 23 have seen an increase

in family violence. According to National Survey Data, sexual harassment

has become the second to third form of violence against women

experienced in the public sphere and about two to three of these acts are

committed by strangers. In 2022, the country reached a new record of

emergency calls reporting sexual harassment, with 6,977 calls, which is

equivalent to a 13.1% increase from 2021 and double the number from

2017 (Hidalgo, 2022).

Based on the data above, gender-based violence in Mexico until

2021-2022 is still increasing and has doubled from 2017. The causes of

violence against women are complex and multifaceted. Researchers have

identified several factors at the individual, family, community and

national levels. Cultural norms, laws and individual attitudes are closely

intertwined and shape the acceptance of violence against women.

Achieving the goal of ending violence against women still requires

more effective action. According to UN Women, worldwide 35% of

women experience physical and sexual violence in their lifetime, most

often by an intimate partner. In addition, around 137 women are killed

every day by family members, showing that what should be the safest

place for women is actually one of the most dangerous. One of the factors

of gender-based violence is masculinity syndrome, which relates to

structural coercion, generally related to gender, race and class (Data Pop

Alliance, 2020). In this case, the most common gender-based violence

against women is physical and sexual violence. The violence is most often

perpetrated by intimate partners and family members.

 It is important to address and combat gender-based violence as it is

a worldwide phenomenon that can affect individuals, families and society

as a whole. Individuals subjected to gender-based violence can experience

depression, physical harm, abuse and death. These negatives can lead to

family breakdown and increase community insecurity (Miranda, 2020, p.

10). From the beginning, gender-based violence can be identified through

the structure or system itself, which is directly visible such as the male-

dominated political formation. Societal cultures that influence individuals

and families to facilitate and encourage gender-based violence.

METHODOLOGY

This study uses descriptive-qualitative research methods. This

type of research is a study where researchers analyze phenomena or

cases by narrating the chronology of the information found

(Rusandi&Rusli, 2021). According to Nazir, 1988 library research is a

data collection technique carried out by examining books, notes,

literature and reports related to the issues raised by researchers (Sari

&Asmendri, 2020). Then the type of data used is secondary data, which

is a reference in the literature review. This secondary data is a source

that comes from previous research, such as books both readings and
texts, encyclopedias and articles that are used as references in a study

(Rahmadi, 2011, p. 41). Furthermore, this research is qualitative.

According to Miles and Huberman, qualitative research is a

presentation of data using words arranged in a text and described,

besides that it can include graphs and matrices or tables (Suparman,

2020, p. 4).

THEORY

Gender Based Violence (Violence Against Women)

Gender-based violence can take the form of gender inequality and

gender discrimination that occurs due to the patriarchal system. Gender-

based violence occurs systemically and occurs in various spaces ranging

from domestic, public space, politics, communities, institutions and

cyberspace (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean,

2022). Gender-based violence can occur in various aspects regardless of

public space, cyberspace, domestic, or international.

Furthermore, gender-based violence is a product of socio-cultural

constructions based on biological differences. Therefore, full equality of

rights and differences or asymmetrical power relations between men and

women, made up of several gender-related factors, such as the use of

violence are considered the greatest source of gender discrimination

(Lopez, 2019, p. 161). Women are the most common targets in cases of

gender-based violence, with women often experiencing discrimination

and violence.

Therefore, gender-based violence against women is any form of

physical, sexual or psychological violence, including threats, coercion or

restrictions on women's freedom in both the public and private spheres.

The word gender-based is used because the violence that occurs is shaped

by gender roles and status in society. Gender-based violence, specifically

gender roles and expectations, male entitlement, sexual objectification, and

power and status differences have legitimised, made invisible, sexualised

and helped perpetuate violence against women (Russo & Pirlott, 2018, p.

181). Gender-based violence is not limited to any domain, because gender-

based violence can occur both in the public domain and the private

domain, in this case the family itself that has a blood relationship.

The classification of gender-based violence is physical violence,

which is any form of violence that physically attacks women, such as

assault and murder. Sexual violence, which is any form of sexual act

committed without consent, this can include rape. Psychological violence,

all forms of psychological abuse such as coercion, humiliation and verbal

abuse. Economic violence, any form of violence that causes economic

harm such as restricting access to education and employment (European

Institute for Gender Equality, 2023).

Gender-based violence does not only occur at that time, this

violence can continue and cause long-term consequences for the survivor,

such as suicidal feelings and deep trauma experienced. Based on the

explanation above, the definition of gender-based violence that will be

used is all forms of actions taken for reasons of gender, in this case the

female gender in the form of physical, sexual, psychological and economic

violence, as well as all forms of discrimination that occur both by

institutions, groups and individuals.

Gender-based violence is any form of violence that enforces or

perpetuates gender inequality and maintains unequal gender power

relations. In this case, gender-based violence includes violence committed

by intimate partners, physically, sexually, mentally and even strangers

who have no relationship with the victim. Gender-based violence can

occur anywhere across economic, social, ethnic and geographic status.

Gender-based violence has an impact on all aspects of health,

development, access to health services, education and the fulfilment of

human rights. It is rooted in unequal gender power relations and places

women at a disadvantage because women generally do not enjoy the same

economic, political or social status as men. Gender-based violence is then

perpetuated through norms, culture and traditions that reinforce male-

dominated systems and power structures, commonly referred to as

patriarchy (Kurebwa, 2021). Gender-based violence can be perpetuated

through unequal gender power relations that cause women to be in a

position where they cannot enjoy the same economic, political and social

facilities as men.

Gender-based violence is primarily rooted in gender inequality and

perpetuated by laws, patriarchy, institutions, hetero normative culture

and bad social norms. These acts of gender-based violence should be

considered as offences that fall within the continuum of violence caused

by the unequal distribution of gender power. Gender-based violence can

occur for various reasons and can take many forms such as rape, sexual

harassment, physical abuse, forced marriage, denial of resources,

opportunities and services and psychological violence (International

Organizations for Migration, 2018). Gender-based violence can occur

anywhere and in any condition, gender-based violence can also in fact be

perpetuated by anyone and any institution, be it government, legal and

social Gender-based violence will cause various consequences that can be

fatal to its victims, such asKematian, hal ini termasuk dalam akibat fatal

yang termasuk pembunuhan perempuan dan bunuh diri (International

Organizations for Migration, 2018). Perempuan yang melakukan bunuh

diri ini disebabkan oleh trauma mendalam yang mereka alami sehingga

merasa untuk tidak suci lagi dan tidak pantas hidup.

1. Physical consequences, for example direct violence and

lasting injuries such as reproductive health problems,

unwanted pregnancies and HIV infection (International

Organizations for Migration, 2018). Women who

experience sexual abuse, such as rape, have a high chance

of contracting HIV.1. Physical consequences, for

example direct violence and prolonged injuries such as

reproductive health problems, unwanted pregnancies and

HIV infection (International Organizations for Migration,

2018). Women who experience sexual abuse, such as rape,

have a high chance of contracting HIV.

2. Mental and psychosocial consequences, for example

trauma reactions, anxiety, depression and suicidal or self-

harming thoughts, sexual harassment, stigma and

isolation and ostracisation (International Organizations

 for Migration, 2018). Despite being a survivor, it is

possible that social stereotypes continue to blame and

ostracise survivors of violence against women.

3. Socio-economic consequences, namely loss of earning

potential, loss of opportunities in employment, education

and social benefits (International Organizations for

Migration, 2018). Continuing from the consequences of

ostracisation faced by survivors can continue to affect all

aspects of their lives, such as being stopped from working

and education because they are tarnished, even though

they are survivors.

4. Legal consequences of arrest, detention and punishment

for sexual relations outside marriage or adultery

(International Organizations for Migration, 2018). In this

case, the survivor may be arrested before the reason

behind the incident is known. Women here are only

victims of irresponsible men, be it rape or sexual

harassment.

5. The World Report on Violence and Health (WRVH)

further divides violence into three categories based on

 who commits the violence, namely self-inflicted,

interpersonal and collective violence. Self-violence is a

form of self-harm such as suicidal thinking or actions and

self-mutilation. Interpersonal violence includes acts of

violence that occur between individuals. This form of

violence can occur between people who know each other,

such as intimate partners. In addition, interpersonal

violence can also occur between individuals who do not

know each other. Collective violence is instrumental

violence committed by people who identify themselves as

a group and commit violence against other groups or

other individuals to achieve political, economic or social

goals, this collective violence can take the form of

genocide, terrorism, gang warfare and systematic human

rights violations (Kerr, 2022). Gender-based violence can

be perpetrated by individuals or groups.

Besides the above categories, gender-based violence is also divided

into two categories: physical violence and psychological violence. Physical

violence focuses on unwanted contact or violation of a woman's body.

This violence causes injury and discomfort. Furthermore, psychological

violence is a type of violence that dehumanises a person, causes fear or

trauma. This psychological violence can be divided into (1) verbal abuse,

in this case offending, humiliating and threatening, (2) social abuse,

actions that result in the isolation and alienation of a woman from friends

or outcasts in addition to actions that show that women are inferior to

men (Calub, 2018). Gender-based violence against women is not only

defined as physical violence, but can also include verbal violence that is

threatening and humiliating.

Gender-based violence is understood as violence directed against

individuals or groups on the basis of their gender or sex. The notion of

gender-based violence has been around for a long time, so traditionally,

gender-based violence has been conceptualised as violence by men against

women. However, this understanding is increasingly evolving and not

only makes women the object of violence but because men want to realise

masculine dominance (Collins, 2013). Conceptualisations of gender-based

violence are largely influenced by historical and cultural understandings

and thus, different countries have different concepts of gender-based

violence (Kerr, 2022). The law in CEDAW defines gender-based violence

as "violence directed against women because of their gender" which is

highly unjust. This violence includes physical, mental or sexual abuse or

suffering, threats, coercion and other deprivations of liberty. There are two

categories of violence, namely violence in the family environment which is

included in domestic violence and actions that culturally threaten women

(United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, 2019).

Even in the closest environment, gender-based violence against women

can also occur, for example, in the family and partner environment.

DISCUSSION

Gender-based violence is any form of violence that enforces or

perpetuates gender inequality and maintains unequal gender power

relations. In this case, gender-based violence includes violence committed

by intimate partners, physically, sexually, mentally and even strangers

who have no relationship with the victim (Kurebwa, 2021). Gender-based

violence can occur and be perpetrated by anyone. Gender-based violence

is primarily rooted in gender inequality and perpetuated by laws,

patriarchy, institutions, hetero normative culture and poor social

norms.Tindakan kekerasan berbasis gender ini harus dianggap sebagai

pelanggaran yang termasuk dalam rangkaian kekerasan yang disebabkan

oleh distribusi kekuasaan gender yang tidak setara (International

Organizations for Migration, 2018).

 The strategy of cooperation carried out by international

organisations, especially in this study the cooperation strategy of UN

Women and Mexico in handling cases of gender-based violence in Mexico,

needs to be analysed whether the strategy has an impact or is effective in

either reducing or increasing gender-based violence in Mexico In Mexico,

the government has established various inter-agency mechanisms that

monitor statistical information with a gender perspective, especially on

violence against women and girls.

UN Women participates as an advisor in the statistics working

group, within the framework of national systems to prevent, address,

punish and eliminate violence against women and girls (Office of the

United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2021). As part of

the spotlight initiative, efforts are underway to transform the legal

framework to ensure compliance with international human rights

standards related to women's rights to support victims of violence. This

involves the review of more than 389 bills, to reform and harmonise

legislation in Chihuahua, Guerrero and other states in Mexico, as well as

consultation processes involving the cooperation of 120 non-governmental

organisations (NGOs) and women's movements at national and local

levels (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human

Rights, 2021).

All countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have laws on

gender-based violence against women that reflect international and

regional legal framework guidelines for addressing violence against

women. Currently 13 countries in Latin America have enacted

comprehensive laws to protect against violence, identifying different types

of violence and the circumstances in which they occur. These 13 countries

are Argentina, Bolivarian Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, El

Salvador, Gautemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia

and Uruguay. (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America

and the Caribbean, 2022)

Based on the data and arguments presented above, it can be seen

that there has been no significant change in the expected changes from the

UN Women and Mexico cooperation strategy. Based on data from the

Mexico Peace Index from 2018-2021, the level of gender-based violence in

Mexico continues to increase, based on data from the Institute for

Economics and Peace in 2019, in 2020 it increased by 76% and 2021, which

is presented in figure 8, it increased to 135%, which is the highest rate of

increase in gender-based violence in Mexico.

 According to national survey data, 90.6% of the population in

Mexico considers their country unsafe. In addition to the high rate of

organised crime, Mexico also has a high rate of violence since 2020, with

4,509 cases per 100,000 people in 2022. Although the crime rate only

increased by 4.1% from last year, there was a significant increase in cases

of sexual violence and family violence, increasing by 56.6% and 22.8%

respectively (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2023).

There has been a rapid growth in the number of reported female

homicides in Mexico over the past eight years from 2015. While these cases

represented 19.8% of female homicides in 2015, they increased to 25.6% by

2022. (Institute for Economnics and Peace, 2023) Based on the results of the

research, the cooperation strategy carried out by UN Women and Mexico

can be said to be less effective because in line with the data that has been

presented, in the 2018-2021 period, cases of gender-based violence,

including sexual violence, rape, homicides, and femicides, consistently

showed an increase or did not decrease at all.

UN Women in this case as an international organisation has carried

out its duties and fulfilled its functions, but the impact that is expected to

provide at least a decrease in cases of gender-based violence in Mexico, is

not visible or can be said to be less effective. This also happens because
gender-based violence is perpetuated from all aspects both culturally and

systemically. Therefore, international organisations such as UN Women

must continue to carry out their functions in Mexico even though they do

not show any changes. But at least it can educate the community from a

cultural perspective and law enforcement and government from a system

aspect.

CONCLUSION

The conclusion of this research is that the impact of the cooperation

strategy formed by UN Women and Mexico ultimately does not provide

significant changes to gender-based violence against women in this case

sexual harassment, rape, homicides and femicides. This is evidenced by

the absence of a decrease in data in Mexico through Mexico's annual

report in the Mexico Peace Index.

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