KADEMA_PRINCE_N0182687R

Research methods -TCW3209

Individual assignment 1

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Tittle
Design of a Timber Footbridge across Bulawayo road in front of the Harare Agricultural Show
ground main gate.

Abstract
This research proposal/project aims to design a timber foot bridge, across Bulawayo road in
front of the Harare agricultural show ground across which a lot of people are facing challenges
crossing the road in order to access different facilities inside the premises as Bulawayo road is a
busy road, and presently available pedestrian crossing level marking seem to be efficient.
Rampant vehicle-pedestrian accidents occurring as pedestrians cross the road which can jam the
traffic for hours thus these calls for a new road scenic crossing facility that utilizes locally
available materials with affordable construction and maintenance cost. The final design is based
on BS8110 for concrete and BS 5268 for timber. The form of the structure consists of the timber
joist spanning between longitudinal Pratt trusses on either end supporting the deck planks.

The foot bridge will consist of two spans 18m each to give a total of 36m resting on concrete
cross beams propped on either ends by circular columns, the transverse beams are there to brace
the columns. In support of the work geotechnical investigations are done on site followed by
usual laboratory test. To protect the timber from deteriorating and for it to last longer the use of a
penetrating water-proofers as the main seal and also to preserve the timber against insect attacks.

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1. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction
According to a report by the World Health Organization (2010) an approximation of 1.2 million
people loses their lives and approximately 50 million people are injured yearly worldwide as
they try to cross roads or as they will be crossing and these accidents are mainly faced in
developing countries. Zimbabwe being a developing country contributes a significant value these
statistics made. There is need to prevent such accidents by providing suitable and adequate
pedestrian infrastructure and crossing facilities. Foot bridges proves to be the most effective way
which will reduce accidents as pedestrians will be crossing at different levels with vehicles.

1.2 Background
The Harare Agricultural Show Ground being a venue for functions, social activities and also
harboring a shopping-mall and service-station under construction will be the epicenter of
business activities. Bulawayo road on the side is one of the busy roads used by a lot of local
drivers moving out of the CBD to locations like Kuwadzana, Warren Park, Belvedere etc. and
those going out of Harare to towns like Gweru, Norton, etc. hence the difficulty of pedestrians
crossing such a busy road.

1.3 Problem statement

The Show Ground main gate being in front of the Bulawayo main road and exposed to the high
traffic volumes, offers a high level of accidental risk to pedestrians crossing over. As people will
be trying to cross they wait for many people and cross as group thereby causing traffic
congestion which is affecting the efficiency of the signal intersection behind the gate from the
CBD leading to traffic congestion at this road section. This project intent to mitigate traffic
accidents and congestion by introducing a footbridge.

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 1.4 Justification
Pedestrians as well as motorist’s billable time will be saved and smooth maneuvering will be
enhanced. Construction of the Foot bridge will be feasible and will improve the safe accessibility
to all facilities with ease on the Show-Ground.

1.4 Research Questions

1. Do we have any other footbridge around that place into the show grounds?
2. How much does it cost?
3. Where will the materials be sourced from?
4. Will the construction be feasible as it will be crossing a busy highway?

1.5 Objectives
1.5.1 Main Objective
To design a timber foot bridge across Bulawayo road at the Harare Agricultural Show main gate.

1.5.2 Specific Objectives

1. To conduct a geotechnical investigation on the soil properties of the area, this will help
on the designing of the foundations.

2. To collect data on the expected loads that will be imposed on the structure by pedestrians
so as to design a foot bridge that will not fail due to overloading.

3. To select and design a highly aesthetic and economic structure that will carry loads and
safely transfer to the ground without any damage.

4. To prepare a bill of quantities for the proposed design which will help in case of
constructing the foot bridge if someone wishes to sponsor this design.

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 2. CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition
A bridge is a structure which provides a connection or passage over a gap without blocking the
opening or passageway underneath. Ponnuswamy, (2008) defines bridges as facilities which
allows passage of vehicles, rails, cattle etc. depending on the environment, whilst according to
Vasani and Mehta, (2006) a bridge is structure built to carry moving loads over a depression or
obstruction such as water channel, road or railway.

2.2 Classification
Bridges are classified basing on functionality, construction materials, form, type of support,
usage, and with respect to the type of joints on the bridge (Ponnuswamy, 2008). In most cases
functionality classifies bridges e.g. as railway/road bridges, foot and water conveying bridges.
Foot bridges spans over the road ways or the water ways so as to provide safe ways for
pedestrians,

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 Figure 2. 1: Joina city footbridge, Harare (Author,2019)

Figure 2. 2: Birchnough bridge, Chimanimani (google images).

Bridge classification also depends on the type of material used and the type of material used
depends on a number of factors which include the loads to be carried with the bridge. For bridges
mostly three materials are considered and these are concrete, steel and timber although timber
has not been used as a material in Zimbabwe. Chen and Duan (2003) described the choice of the
material to be used as depending on contractor’s experience, equipment availability, and the
design details and site specifications.
2.2.1 Truss bridges
The loads on this type of bridge are carried by members arranged in such a way that will carry
the loads mainly in tension and compression (Dennis et al, 2004). According to Constantino et al
(2009), a truss bridge is easy to erect, it is cheap to construct and requires minimal construction
material.

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 Figure 2. 3: Truss Bridge (Hess, 1986)

2.2.2 Suspension bridges

According to Dennis et al., (2004), one of the most common type of suspension bridges uses continuous
cables held by towers at both ends of the bridge which will be sagging in a catenary to carry vertical
overhanging cables at which the bridge deck is suspended (Dennis et al., 2004). The deck of the bridge
must be strong to withstand the traffic loads and resist wind loading. Tang (2016a), suggests that
suspension bridges are good for very long spans. In suspension bridges, the girder is not the chief load
bearing member of the system (Tang, 2016b). The girder only carries local loads and passes them to the
cables.

Figure 2. 4: The Golden Gate suspension bridge (Xu and Xia, 2011)

The suspension bridges are aesthetically pleasing, and can be used for large spans. It is
economical for light to moderate traffic and pedestrians.

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2.2.3 Cable stayed bridges
This type of bridge consists of two main towers with cables anchored into them. According to
Tang (2016a) it is suitable for moderate longer span bridges, and the cables and the towers carry
the load. However, there are disadvantages associated with this type of bridges which include
e.g., it requires a lot of space on either sides of the abutments to avoid eccentric loads. And also,
that it is difficult to construct. It is aesthetically pleasing.

Figure 2. 5: Cable stayed bridge (Constantino et al, 2009)

2.2.4 Arch bridges

According to Tang, (2016b) an arch beam can be considered as a converse of the suspension
cable. The arch will be subjected to compression hence there is need for it to be stiff for stability.
Tang (2016a), suggest arch bridge for short moderate spans, the girder only carries local loads
and transfers them to the arch rib, hence it is not the chief load bearing member. According to
Constantino et al, (2009), there are many advantages of using arch bridges which include that it
is aesthetically pleasing and also constructing one can be fast and simple since most of the parts
are prefabricated.

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 Figure 2.6: Arch bridge (Tang, 2016a)

2.3 Bridge components

Barker and Puckett (2013) explains the bridge as a structure composed of the super structural
elements and the sub structural elements. The substructure is explained as that component on the
bridge that support the deck and loads applied on the deck. These components include arches,
trusses, slabs, floating bridges rigid frames and some drainage features. The superstructure
elements include the piers, abutments and foundations (Vasani and Mehta, 2006).

Figure 2. 7: Basic bridge structure (Anon, 2015)

2.3.1 Superstructure
Sorgenfrei and Marianos (2000) described the super structure to be constituting of the
components that span the obstacle that the bridge intends to cross. The superstructure includes
the bridge deck, parapets, structural members, hand rails and some drainage features, as shown in

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the figure above. They may also be characterized by how they transmit loads from the deck to
the substructure.

2.3.1.1 Bearings
Bearings are part of the superstructure as they help transmit the load from the superstructure to
the substructure and also accommodating the anticipated service movements. According to
Sorgenfrei and Marianos (2000) bearings must restrain undesired movements and transmit
extraordinary forces associated with extreme loads. They also provide even distribution of loads
over the substructure material which may not have adequate strength to bear these loads directly
(Wolff, 2013). Wolff (2013), also added that there are many types of bearings which can be used
and these are reinforced elastomeric bearing, disk bearings and roller bearings.

2.3.2 Substructures
This is the part of the bridge that is in direct contact with the superstructure and transmits the
loads to the foundation. It comprises of piers and abutments, using wing walls their foundation.
Piers

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and abutments are structures of the bridge that vertically support the deck or bearings and transmit
it to the ground through the foundation.

2.3.2.1 Abutments
They are classified into stub abutments, partial-depth abutments, integral abutments and full depth
abutments (AAHSTO, 1996).

2.3.2.2 Foundations
The foundation is provided to transmit and evenly distribute the loads to the soil strata from the
piers, abutment and wing walls or returns (Shailendra et al., 2015). The ultimate strength and
longevity of any structure depends on the adequacy of its foundation. According to Knappet and
Craig (2012), the foundation depth is taken to that level which is safe from scour and adequate from
considerations of suitability of strata, bearing capacity and settlement stability at the foundation
level.

2.4 Materials
Materials used in the construction of bridges are determined by the type of loads that the structure
will carry and the type of conditions to which it will be exposed. Three types of materials can be
used and these are timber, concrete, steel and composites of the above materials.

2.4.1 Concrete
Concrete can be produced from a cementing medium which is a product, which is a product of a
reaction between water and hydraulic cement (Neville and Brooks, 2010). It is a mixture of water,
cement and aggregates (Cobb, 2004). Concrete can be in form of reinforced, pre-stressed or post
tension concrete.

2.4.2 Steel
According to Cobb (2004) steel is an alloy of iron with varied composition of carbon that in most
cases does not exceed 2.1% by mass. Steel can be formed into structural sections by casting, cold
and hot rolling. The manufacture and use of steel are done under controlled conditions to prevent
failure, and mild steel is used for most constructions.
2.4.3 Timber
Timber can be used to form different structural elements in bridge construction, these include
beams, trusses, columns, arches and domes (Donald and Neal, 1986), in columns timber has high
allowable compressive strength and also has a larger cross section as compared to steel which limits
its tendency to buckle. Timber is modified to give into different types of timber with enhanced
performance and they are modified to give glue laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber beams
and the sawn lumber beams (Mickael and Ritter, 1990).

2.4.3.1 Treatment and preservation of timber

According to Margetts (2016), the preservation plan should consider the environmental conditions
and aesthetics restrictions. Treatment of timber is regarded as the third line of defense against water
and termites, following good detailing of the timber and choosing good species. Preservation
increases the life span of the timber especially softs woods and according to (American wood
preservatives institute, 1992), there are mainly two types of wood preservatives used in timber
bridges which are creosote and copper chrome arsenic. In Zimbabwe creosote is mainly used for
treating timber and has proved to be a got preservative but according to Freedman et al (2002),
creosote can be used for treating timber which will not be in direct contact to the human skin on the
foot bridge, as it may be harmful and also if it gets in contact with water maybe oily.
2.4.3.2 Timber stress grading
Timber is stress graded to gain confidence of its eligibility to bear design loads safely (Ahmad et al,
2010). Grading is done visually or mechanically to get modulus of elasticity, tensile stress and the
bending stress for both perpendicular and parallel to grains (Green and Evans, 1987). Visual
grading being the most common and the oldest type of stress grading (Tsahaye et al, 2000).

2.5 Bridge design and Analysis

Concepts of safety, through redundant and ductility and of protection against collisions must be
provided (Adane, 2013). According to Adane (2013), bridges are designed for a specified limit state
to achieve objectives of safety and serviceability after construction with due regard to issues like
economy and aesthetics. According to a report by the I.T. Transport L.td. (2004), foot bridges must
be strong and rigid without endure flexibility and deflection to withstand vertical and horizontal
loads. Dead loads and live loads constitute the vertical loads and the horizontal loads are due to
wind pressures and earth pressures acting on abutments. In Zimbabwe the south African standards
are used for the design of timber.

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For designing timber permissible stresses are used and these are based on the considering that the
timber will be exposed to specific conditions during the service and some of the conditions include
moisture, the period of loading etc. In order to consider these factors to which our timber will be
exposed to during the design life the grade stresses are multiplied by the K factors from the BS
codes. These modified stresses are then termed permissible stresses (Chanakya, 2009).

According to Chanakya (2009) the design of flexural timber members involves checking the
suitability of the sections chosen in terms of bending, lateral buckling, shear, bearing and
deflection.

2.6 Bridge loading

2.6.1 Dead loads
Super structure dead loads consist of the self-weight of the superstructure i.e. decks, utilities and
anticipated future dead loads (Adane, 2013). They are permanently applied to a body and will act
due to gravity. They can be applied as concentrated loads or distributed loads. The dead load from
timber is from the self-weight of the timber which is to be calculated using the density of the
timber, that is for this project S5 grade timber will be used and the density is 360kg/𝑚3.

2.6.2 Live loads

Live loads are the weights of people, furniture, supplies, machines, etc. borne by the building its use
and occupancy (I.T. Transport Ltd, 2004). Two types of live loading considered when designing
footbridges are the point load applied due to movement of people and the load transferred to the
superstructure from the decking. They are moveable loads and sometimes the cause dynamic
effects. For footbridges the live load is taken to be 5 KN/𝑚2. (BS 5400-2-1978-7.1.1).

2.7 Bridge drainage

According to Terzaghi et al. (1996), provisions should be made to direct seepage water towards
weep holes. Weep holes are made by imbedding small diameter pipes in the wall, and these will be
used to drain water which would have seeped into the concrete backfill walls during rainstorms.

2.8 Geotechnical investigations

Geotechnical investigations are done so as to enable safe design and to lower the cost of the
constructing as we will be having a knowhow of what is really needed. The investigations are
categorized in two groups which are in-situ test and the laboratory test. According to Whitlow
(1995), the main objectives of the geotechnical investigations include to find out the ground water
conditions, to obtain representative soil samples for laboratory test and to find out the horizontal
and vertical extension of the soil layers. The laboratory test is carried out as per procedures from the
BS1377. The results from the investigations are used in determining the foundation type and the
depth of the foundation for the proposed structure.

2.8.1 Methods of investigation

2.8.1.1 Trial pits
According to Knappet and Craig (2012), trial pits allow one to survey the in-situ soil conditions
visually and also using mechanical methods such as the direct cone penetrometer. The number of
trials pits to be excavated depends on the size of the site, the larger the site the more the number of
trials pits to be excavated. These trial pits have been found over the years as the most reliable and
easy method of exploring the ground.

According to Bames (2010), there are other methods which can be used to obtain the soil sample
from sites for investigations and these include hand augers, cable percussion borings and
mechanical augers as shown in figure 2-11 below.

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 Figure 2. 11: Hand auger boring machine (Bames, 2010)
2.8.1.2 Sampling
From the trial pits, soil sample are obtained which will be used for the laboratory test. These
samples are obtained at different levels of the trial pit whenever there is a change in the soil type.
These are considered to be the representatives of the area under consideration.

2.8.1.3 Laboratory testing

The following laboratory tests need to be done during the soil investigations:

1. Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)

2. Sieve analysis test

3. Atterberg limits test

4. Shear box test

5. Compaction and California Bearing ratio test

3. CHAPTER THREE
Methods and Materials
3.1 Description of study area
This project is to be conducted in Belvedere, Harare across Bulawayo road in front of the Harare
Agricultural Show grounds. It is approximately 100m from the intersection joining Rekayi
Tangwena Avenue and Drummond Chaplin Street, and approximately 300m from Hamden Street
which is in front of the Telone training Centre. The figure below shows a part of the map of Harare
near the location of the site and it shows different routes to locations in and around the CBD the.
The bold yellow route on the map is Samora Machell avenue in the CBD which will become
Bulawayo road as it extends out of the CBD. The enclosed area in black shows the exact location

where the proposed foot bridge will be spanning across Bulawayo road.
 Figure 3. 1: Harare map (www.googlemaps.com)
Below is another figure showing the exact location of the site, the part enclosed in white shows
where the bridge will be spanning over the road. Bulawayo road is a two-way road as shown on the
map and the footbridge will be near the main entrance of the Harare agricultural show ground.

Figure 3. 2: Harare agricultural show ground (www.googlemaps)

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 3.2 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Geotechnical investigation will be conducted using the soil samples from the two trial pits dug at
the possible locations of the footbridge abutments so as to obtain the safe bearing capacity of the
soil which is to be used for designing the foot bridge foundations. The two trial pits (on either side
of the road) will then be excavated to a depth of 1.50m below the surfaces. Samples are collected
from each trial pit. Stratifications and soil profiles of both pits will be observed and noted.

3.2.1 Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test.

The DCP test is conducted on site so as to determine the in-situ bearing capacity of the soil, which
will be used for foundation design. This is conducted at 0m and 1.5m below the surface ground
level). The results are recorded in graphical and tabular form and where used to determine the
minimum foundation depth with the safe bearing capacity.

3.2.2 Sieve Analysis

This test is conducted in the laboratory and the results from the test are used for classifying the
soils around the footbridge. Soil samples from 1.5m levels trial pits.

• The prepared sample is dried to constant mass at a temperature of 105 ⁰C to 110 ⁰C and this
mass is recorded as the dry mass

3.2.3 Atterberg limits

The test is conducted in the laboratory and the results are also used for the classification of the soil
around the footbridge. This test is conducted for soil samples from all the trial pits at two levels
(1.5m and 2m). The Casagrande equipment is used to determine the liquid limit and for the plastic
limit, 3mm threads are made for determining the plastic limit.

Procedure for determining the liquid limit

• A sample of approximately 300g of material passing the 425𝜇𝑚 BS sieve is taken. The
sample is mixed thoroughly on a glass plate, adding water as necessary, until the mass
becomes a smooth homogeneous paste
• A portion of the soil/water mixture is placed in a Casagrande cup and levelled off parallel to
the cup base.
 • The mixture is then divided by drawing a grooving tool diametrically while keeping the tool
normal to the surface of the cup and leaving a clear and sharp groove.
• The crank is repeatedly turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second so that the cup is lifted
and dropped onto the base until the two parts of the sample came into contact at the bottom
of the groove along a distance approximately 13mm.
• The number of blows required to close the bottom of the groove to approximately 13mm are
recorded (between 15 – 35 blows). If the number of blows falls outside the limits of 15 to
35, the moisture content of the sample would be adjusted and the procedure would be
repeated to give a value between these limits.
• Approximately 30g of soil is immediately removed using a spatula from the portions of the
sample that has flowed together.
• The soil is placed in a suitable container and the mass is determined without delay.
The moisture content of this sample is then determined.
• The same procedure is repeated at a consistency of between 15 and 35 blows of the liquid
limit device. (It is advisable to carry out the first determination at a wet consistency and the
second determination at a drier consistency.)

Procedure for determining the plastic limit:

• A sample of approximately 20g is taken from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing the 425µm BS sieve. The sample is thoroughly kneaded until the mass became
plastic enough to be easily shaped into a ball.
• The sample is divided into two potions, each sufficient to produce a thread approximately
3mm in diameter and 150mm long (approximately 10g)
• One of these portions is formed into a uniform mass roughly ellipsoidal in shape and then
rolled between the fingers and a clean dry glass plate with sufficient pressure to form a
thread of uniform diameter throughout its length.
• When the diameter of the thread became approximately 3mm, the sample is broken into six
pieces and each piece is formed into a uniform mass roughly ellipsoidal in shape and then
re-rolled into a thread.
• The moisture content of the portions is determined.
• The experimental procedure is then repeated using the second portion of the original sample.

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 • If the value of the higher moisture content exceeded by more than 0.5% the value of the
lower moisture content, the test is to be repeated.

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