Steel Structure (Mahin Sir)

3/15/2023
CE 806:
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Introduction
Abdullah Al Mahin
Lecturer, CE, MEC
Contact: abdullahalmahin.cee@gmail.com
Department of Civil Engineering
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Introduction to Steel Structures & Design philosophies

2. Joint Design
 Design of Welded connections
 Design of Bolted connections
3. Design of Tension Members
4. Design of Compression Members
5. Design of Flexural Members
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REFERENCE BOOKS:
• Steel Design
- William T. Segui
• Design of Steel Structures
- Edwin H. Gaylord
• Design of steel structures
- Elias G. Abu-Saba
• Strength of materials
- Andrew Pytel and Ferdinand L. Singer
REFERENCE BOOKS:
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3/15/2023
EVALUATION PROCESS
Attendance 10%
Class Test/ Presentation/ Assignment 20%
Final Exam 70%
Total 100%
Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC
Lets Start ……
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3/15/2023
Khan’s Palace, Sylhet
WHY STEEL STRUCTURES?

# Lecture-01
1. High strength and stiffness per weight
2. Lighter
3. Better quality control
4. Fast and easy erection and installation
5. Ease of fabrication and mass production
6. Better lateral and earthquake load resistance
7. No sudden failure
8. Economy in transportation and handling
9. Large column free space and
10. Less % of floor area occupied by structural elements
Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 2
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3/15/2023
DRAWBACKS OF STEEL STRUCTURES
1. Susceptibility to corrosion
2. Higher cost of construction (Initial cost)
3. Higher maintenance cost
4. Skilled labor is required
5. Poor fire proofing
6. Electricity may be required
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM OF MILD STEEL

Elastic design
Plastic design F
D
C E
B A = Proportional limit
Stress
A B = Elastic limit
C = Yield Strength
D = Ultimate Strength
E = Rupture Strength
F = Actual Rupture Strength
Strain
Permanent set
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
A general statement assuming safety in engineering design:
Resistance (of material & cross-section) ≥ Effect of applied load
DESIGN METHODS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES
1. ASD (Allowable Stress Design)
2. LRFD (Load & Resistance Factor Design)
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3/15/2023
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)
• Safety in design is obtained by specifying that the effects of

the loads should produce stresses that were the fraction of
yield stress, fy
,
Factor of Safety (FOS) =
,
f
Or, FOS = y
0.5 fy
Or, FOS = 2
• Since the specifications sets limit on stresses, it became

Allowable Stress Design (ASD).
DRAWBACKS OF ASD
1. ASD does not give reasonable measures of strength.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
fy Unused
Strength
0.5 fy
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
2. Factor Of Safety (FOS) is applied only to stress not in load.
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LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

(LRFD)
• Apply factor of safety (F.S.) in design by
Load factors (> 1)
Strength reduction factor (< 1)
• Safety in the design is obtained by specifying that the reduced

Nominal Strength of a designed structure is greater than the effect
of factored loads acting on the structure.
• Considers variability not only in resistance but also in the effects
of load, i.e., different factored load can be assigned to different
types of loads (dead, live, wind etc.)
9
ASD vs. LRFD
ASD LRFD
ASD combines Dead and Live Loads In LRFD different load factors are
and treats them in the same way. assigned to Dead Loads and Live Loads.
ASD indirectly incorporates the LRFD aims to specify Factors of Safety
Factors of Safety by limiting the directly by specifying Resistance Factors
stress. and Load Factors.
LRFD is more rational as different Factors
ASD still remains as a valid Design of Safety can be assigned to different
Method. loadings such as Dead Loads, Live Loads,
Earthquake Loads and Impact Loads.
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ASD vs. LRFD
 Design approach similar to LRFD is being followed in

Design of concrete structures in form of Ultimate
Strength Design…..why not use similar approach in
design of steel structures?
11
STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS
1. Hot Rolled Sections

2. Built up Sections
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Hot Rolled Sections:
13
Built up Sections:
Combination of plates, W-sections, I-sections or other rolled
sections.
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STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES
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Typical Tension Members:
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Typical Tension Members:

1. Diagonal bracing in bracing systems 2. Chord Members in trusses
Top Chord
Bottom Chord
17

Typical Compression Members:
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Typical Compression Members:

1. Diagonal members in end panels of trusses
2. Chord members in trusses
3. Columns in building
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AISC Chart Sample (I Section)
Source: Strength of Materials-By Singer (4th edition)

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AISC Chart Sample (Channel Section)

21

AISC Chart Sample (Angle Section)

22
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AISC Member Dimensions and Properties Viewer 23
DIFFERENT CODES FOR DESIGN
1. Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC)-2020

2. American Association for State Highways &
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
3. American Railway Engineering Association (AREA)
4. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
5. American Welding Society (AWS)
6. American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC)
7. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
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Thank you!
16
3/30/2023
CE 806:
Design of Tension Member
Abdullah Al Mahin
Lecturer, CE, MEC
Lecture-3&4
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3/30/2023
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
Stress:
The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by
Equation
𝑃
𝑓=
where, 𝐴
P is the magnitude of load, and
A is the cross-sectional area normal to the load
The stress in a tension member is uniform throughout the

cross-section except:
• Near the point of application of load, and
• At the cross-section with holes for bolts or other discontinuities
Consider an 8 x ½ in. bar connected to a gusset plate and loaded in
tension as shown below in Figure
Figure-1:
Example of tension member
Area of bar at section a – a = 8 x ½ = 4 in2

Area of bar at section b – b = (8 – 2 x 7/8 ) x ½ = 3.12 in2
2
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3/30/2023
• Therefore, by definition the reduced area of section b – b will

be subjected to higher stresses.
• However, the reduced area and therefore the higher stresses
will be localized around section b – b.
• The unreduced area of the member is called its gross area = Ag
• The reduced area of the member is called its net area = An
STEEL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Figure-2:
Stress-strain behavior of steel
• Figure indicates that the structural deflections will be small as long

as the material is elastic (f < Fy)
• Deformations due to the strain ε will be large after the steel reaches
its yield stress Fy.
4
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• Therefore, by definition the reduced area of section b – b will

be subjected to higher stresses.
• However, the reduced area and therefore the higher stresses
will be localized around section b – b.
• The unreduced area of the member is called its gross area = Ag
• The reduced area of the member is called its net area = An
DESIGN STRENGTH
• A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states:

1. Excessive deformation; or
2. Fracture
• Excessive deformation can occur due to the

yielding of the gross section (for example
section a-a from Figure 1) along the length
of the member.
• Fracture of the net section can occur if the
stress at the net section (for example section
b-b in Figure 1) reaches the ultimate stress Fu.
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DESIGN STRENGTH
• Yielding of the gross section will occur when the stress f reaches Fy.
DESIGN STRENGTH
• Facture of the net section will occur after the stress on the net
section area reaches the ultimate stress Fu.
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DESIGN STRENGTH
ASD
Allowable load on gross section = F A = 0.6 F A
Allowable load on net section = F A = 0.5 F A
LRFD
DESIGN STRENGTH
 What will be the design strength of the tension member?
The design strength of the tension member will be the lesser

value of the strength for the two limit states (Gross section
yielding and Net section fracture).
10
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PROBLEM-1 (DESIGN STRENGTH)

A 5 x ½ bar of A572 Gr. 50 steel is used as a tension member. It is
connected to a gusset plate with six 7/8 in. diameter bolts as shown
in below. Assume that the effective net area Ae equals the actual net
area An and compute the tensile design strength of the member.
Solution:
12
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Solution:
A single angle tension member, L 4 x 4 x 3/8 in. made from A36

steel is connected to a gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts, as
shown in Figure below. The service loads are 35 kips dead load and
15 kips live load. Determine the adequacy of this member using
AISC specification. Assume that the effective net area is 85% of the
computed net area.
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Solution:

Solution:
16
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Solution:
Lecture-5&6

Shear Lag
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Determine the effective net area and the corresponding design

strength for the single angle tension member shown in figure.
The tension member is an L 4 x 4 x 3/8 made from A36 steel.
It is connected to a gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts, as
shown in Figure below. The spacing between the bolts is 3 in.
center-to-center.
Solution:
19
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Solution:
Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W8 x 24

with four lines of ¾ in. diameter bolts in standard holes, two
per flange, as shown in the Figure below. Assume the holes
are located at the member end and the connection length is
9.0 in.
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Solution:
0.245 in.
Solution:
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3/30/2023

Solution:
0.6985 in.
Lecture-7

Shear Lag
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Consider the welded single angle L 6x 6 x ½ tension member

made from A36 steel shown below. Calculate the tension
design strength.
Solution:
5.77 in2
5.77 in2
25
Solution:
1.67 in
1.67
0.6963
5.5
5.77 = 186.94 kips

0.6963 * 5.77 = 174.76 kips
174.76 k
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3/30/2023
Thank you!
16
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
CEE 443
Steel Structure
(2.0 credits)
Sourav Ray
Assistant Professor, CEE, SUST
Room No.: 108 (“C” building)
sourav.ceesust@gmail.com
Presented By:
Abdullah Al Mahin
Lecturer, MEC

(Effective Net Area)
Effective Net Area
 The connection has a significant influence on the

performance of a tension member.
 A connection almost always weakens the member & a

measure of its influence is called joint efficiency.
 Joint efficiency is a function of:

• material ductility
• fastener spacing
• stress concentration at holes
• fabrication procedure
• shear lag
 All factors contribute to reducing the effectiveness but
shear lag is the most important.
Shear Lag
 Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred
simultaneously to all elements of the cross-section.
 This will occur when some elements of the cross-section are not
connected.
 For example, see the figure below, where only one leg of an
angle is bolted to the gusset plate.
Not connected
connected
Shear Lag
 only one leg of an angle is connected and another one is

not.
Shear Lag
Pn
l= Length of Connection
Tension Theory 6
Tension Forces
Shear Lag
Section Carrying Pn
Tension Forces
Distribution of
Forces Through
Section
Rupture
Plane
l= Length of Connection
Tension Theory 9
Shear lag
A consequence of this partial connection is that the connected
element becomes overloaded & the unconnected part is not fully
stressed.
Shear lag occurs because the forces cannot be transmitted
directly into the entire cross-section of the member.
This means that the area of the member that is effective in
resisting the force is something less than the total area
Shear lag reduces the strength of the member
Shear lag
Over stressed
Under stressed
Lengthening the connection region will reduce the

effect of shear lag.
The effect of shear lag is less in the first figure than the second one.
Effective Net Area- Shear lag
AISC Specification (1999) states that the effective net area, Ae , of

such a member is to be determined by multiplying its net area by
a reduction factor U, that is, when the tension load is transmitted
only by fasteners.
 Ae = UAn
Where, U = Reduction Factor
x
U  1   0.9 (LRFD - B3.2)
L
Where,
x = The distance from the centroid of the connection
member of the interface with the gusset plate.
L =The length between the first and last row of rivets in the
connection.
 If the member has two symmetrically located planes of

connection, x is measured from the centroid of the nearest
one – half of the area.
L
L
Bolted Connections Welded Connections
 The distance L is defined as the length of the

connection in the direction of load.
 For bolted connections, L is measured from the center of the
bolt at one end to the center of the bolt at the other end.
 For welded connections, it is measured from one end of the

connection to other.
 If there are weld segments of different length in the direction

of load, L is the length of the longest segment.
 Shear lag affects both bolted & welded connections. Therefore, the
effective net area concept applied to both types of connections.
 For bolted connection, the effective net area is Ae = U An

 For welded connection, the effective net area is Ae = U Ag
Effective Net Area
x
U  1   0.9 OR
L
 Two major groups of bolted connections
 If the connection is through the flanges with at least three bolts
per line
• W, M and S shapes and T cut from them connected in flange with
bf 2
 U  0.9
d 3
• All other shapes with

bf 2
d

3 U  0.85
 Connections with only two bolts per line

U  0.75
Effective Net Area: Problem
Calculate the Ae values of the following section

L 3 x 3 x 3/8 x
3 3 ¾ dia bolt
Effective Net Area: Problem
Calculate the Ae values of the following section

L 3 x 3 x 3/8 x
3 3 ¾ dia bolt
Solution
x = 0.888
L = 6 in (3+3)
U = 1 - x /L = 1 -0.888/6 = 0.852 < 0.9
Ag = 2.11 in2
An = 2.11 – 1 x (3/4 + 1/8) x 3/8 = 2.11 -0.328 = 1.782 in2
Ae = U·An = 0.852 x 1.782 = 1.518 in2

(Welded Connections)
Effective Net Area: Special cases for welded connections
 If some elements of the cross-section are not
connected, then Ae will be less than An
 For a rectangular bar or plate Ae will be equal to An
 However, if the connection is by longitudinal welds
at the ends as shown in the figure (on next slide),
then Ae = UAg
 Where, U = 1.0 for L ≥ 2w
U = 0.87 for 1.5 w ≤ L < 2 w
U = 0.75 for w ≤ L < 1.5 w
 L = length of the pair of welds ≥ w
 w = distance between the welds or width of plate/bar
Effective Net Area: Special cases for welded connections
 For any member connected by transverse welds alone,

Ae = area of the connected element of the cross-section
And, U = 1
Effective Net Area
x
U  1  0.9 OR
L
 Two major groups of welded connections
 General case
• W,M and S shapes and T cut from them connected in flange with bf 2

d 3
U  0.9
• All other shapes
U  0.85
• Special case for plates welded at their ends
L  2W  U  1.0
W
1.5W  L  2W U  0.87
W  L  1.5W  U  0.75 L
Thank You!
CEE 443
Steel Structure
(2.0 credits)
Sourav Ray
Presented By:
Abdullah Al Mahin .
Lecturer, MEC
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER

-Staggered Bolt on plate
Effect of Staggered Holes
For a plate with a typical bolt pattern the rupture plane is shown.
Rupture failure across

section at bolts.
Pn
Yield failure (elongation)

occurs along the length of
the member.
 Whenever there is more than one hole and the holes are not lined up
transverse to the loading direction, more than one potential failure line
may exist.
 The controlling failure line is that line which gives the minimum net
area.
 In the previous examples, tension members were assumed to fail
transversely as along line AB in Fig. 1a or 1b.
Figure 1. Possible Failure Sections in

Plates
 Fig. 1c shows a member in which a failure other than a transverse one
is possible.
 The holes are staggered, and failure along section ABCD is possible
unless the holes are a large distance apart.
 In Fig. 1b, the failure line is along the section AB.
 In Fig. 1c, which is showing two lines of staggered holes, the failure
line might be through one hole (section ABE) or it might be along a
diagonal path ABCD.
Pn
g
s
 At first glance, one might think section ABE is critical since the path
ABE is obviously shorter than path ABCD.
 However, from path ABE, only one hole would be deducted while two
holes would be deducted from path ABCD.
Effect of Staggered Holes: Controlling Section
 In order to determine the controlling section, both paths ABE and
ABCD must be investigated .
 Accurate checking of strength along path ABCD is very complex.
 However, a simplified empirical relationship has been proposed

and adopted by in the AISC LRFD Manual.
Controlling Section: LRFD Specifications
 The LRFD Specification and other specifications use a very simple
method for computing the net width of a tension member along a
zigzag section.
 The method is to take the gross width of the member regardless of

the line along which failure might occur, subtract the diameter of the
holes along the zigzag section, and for each individual line add the
quantity given by s2/4g.
Controlling Section: LRFD Specifications
 s = stagger or spacing of adjacent holes parallel to loading direction,
also called pitch
 g = gage distance transverse to the loading

Critical Section and Net Length
Staggered Bolts
Tension design strength will follow the same equations as we

discussed earlier
Staggered Bolts: Problem 01
Determine the critical net area of the ½ -in plate shown
using the LRFD Specification. The holes are punched for
¾-in bolts.
Staggered Bolts: Solution
Staggered Bolts: Solution (cont’d)
Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown
assuming using the LRFD Specification. The holes are
punched for 7/8 in. bolts.
Critical Paths
1) Path ABCD (two holes) :
  15 1 
12  2 16  16  0.25  2.50sq.in.
  
2) Path ABECD (three holes; two staggers) :
  15 1  2.125 (2.125) 2 
2
12  3      0.25  2.43sq.in.

  16 16  42.5 4(4) 
3) Path ABEFG (three holes; two staggers) :
  15 1  2.125  (1.875)2 
2
12  3     0.25  2.42sq.in.

  16 16  42.5 4( 4) 
(controls)
For the two lines of bolt holes shown, determine the pitch
s that will give a net area DEFG equal to the one along
ABC.
Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown. The

holes are punched for 1’’nonstandard bolts.
d=1”
 s2 
wn  wg   d      16  2(1.125)  13.75
 4g 
 s2  23
2
wn  wg   d   
 
  16  3(1.125)   13.52
 4g  45
Smallest wn Controls
An  wnt  0.7513.52   10.1 in 2

CEE 443
Steel Structure
(2.0 credits)
Sourav Ray
Presented By:
Abdullah Al Mahin .
Lecturer, MEC
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER

-Staggered Bolt on Angle
Staggered Bolts in Angles (L Section)
 When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length g
for use in s2/4g expression is obtained by using a length between
the centers of the holes measured along the centerline of the angle
thickness, i.e., the distance AB in Fig. 2.
 Thus the gage distance g is given by

Staggered Bolts in Angles (L Section) Example-1
Determine the net area An for the angle given in the figure.
The holes
- are punched for 7/8 in bolts.
Staggered Bolts in Angles (L Section): Solution
For the net area calculations the angle may be visualized as
being flattened into a plate as shown in Fig.
Staggered Bolts in Angles (L Section) Example-2
Find the design tensile strength shown in figure. A36 steel is

used and holes are for ¾ inch bolts.
Gross width, Wg = 8 + 6 - ½ = 13.5 inch

Complete by Yourselt.....
5/11/2023
CE 806:
Design of Flexural Member
Abdullah Al Mahin
Lecturer, CE, MEC
BEAMS
• Beams are structural members that support transverse
loads and are therefore subjected primarily to flexure, or
bending.
• A structural member is considered to be a beam if it is
loaded so as to cause bending.
• Commonly used cross-sectional shapes include the W, S,
and M shapes.
• Beam Should be designed based on
1. Flexure
2. Shear
3. Deflection
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5/11/2023
DESIGN CONCEPTS
For flexure (shear will be covered later), the required and
available strengths are moments.
LRFD:
For Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD),
------------- (1)
DESIGN CONCEPTS
ASD:
For Allowable Stress Design (ASD),
------------- (2)
------------- (3)
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5/11/2023
BENDING STRESS AND THE PLASTIC

MOMENT
• To determine the nominal moment strength (Mn), we must first
examine the behavior of beams throughout the full range of
loading, from very small loads to the point of collapse.
• For a linear elastic material and small

deformations, the distribution of bending
stress is shown in Figure.
• From elementary mechanics of

materials, the stress at any point can be
found from the flexure formula:
------------- (4)

MOMENT (CONT.)
• The maximum stress will occur at the extreme fiber, where y is
maximum.
• Thus there are two maxima: maximum compressive stress in the top
fiber and maximum tensile stress in the bottom fiber.
• If the neutral axis is an axis of symmetry, these two stresses will be
equal in magnitude.
• For maximum stress, Equation (4) takes the form:
------------- (5)
Where,
c is the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber
Sx is the elastic section modulus of the cross section.
3
5/11/2023

MOMENT (CONT.)
• Equations 4 and 5 are valid as long as the loads are small

enough that the material remains within its linear elastic range.
• For structural steel, this means that the stress fmax must not
exceed Fy and that the bending moment must not exceed,
My = Fy Sx
where,
My=bending moment that brings the beam to the point of yielding.

MOMENT (CONT.)
• The Figure shows a simply supported
beam with a concentrated load at
midspan at successive stages of
loading.
• Once yielding begins, the distribution
of stress on the cross section will no
longer be linear, and yielding will
progress from the extreme fiber toward
the neutral axis.
• At the same time, the yielded region
will extend longitudinally from the
center of the beam as the bending
moment reaches My at more locations.
These yielded regions are indicated by
the dark areas in Figure c and d.
7
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5/11/2023

MOMENT (CONT.)
• When stage d has been reached, any further increase in the load
will cause collapse, since all elements of the cross section have
reached the yield point of the stress–strain curve and unrestricted
plastic flow will occur.
• A plastic hinge is said to have formed at the center of the beam,
and this hinge along with the actual hinges at the ends of the beam
constitute an unstable mechanism.
• During plastic collapse, the mechanism motion will be as shown
in Figure.
• Structural analysis based on a consideration of collapse

mechanisms is called plastic analysis. 8
Thank you!

Steel Structure (Mahin Sir)

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3/15/2023

Department of Civil Engineering

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

1. Introduction to Steel Structures & Design philosophies

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC

Khan’s Palace, Sylhet

WHY STEEL STRUCTURES?

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 2

DRAWBACKS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM OF MILD STEEL

A general statement assuming safety in engineering design:

Resistance (of material & cross-section) ≥ Effect of applied load

DESIGN METHODS FOR STEEL STRUCTURES

1. ASD (Allowable Stress Design)

2. LRFD (Load & Resistance Factor Design)

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 6

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

• Safety in design is obtained by specifying that the effects of

• Since the specifications sets limit on stresses, it became

1. ASD does not give reasonable measures of strength.

2. Factor Of Safety (FOS) is applied only to stress not in load.

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 8

LOAD & RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

• Safety in the design is obtained by specifying that the reduced

ASD vs. LRFD

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 10

ASD vs. LRFD

 Design approach similar to LRFD is being followed in

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

1. Hot Rolled Sections

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Hot Rolled Sections:

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Typical Tension Members:

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Typical Tension Members:

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Typical Compression Members:

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

AISC Chart Sample (I Section)

Source: Strength of Materials-By Singer (4th edition)

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Source: Strength of Materials-By Singer (4th edition)

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Source: Strength of Materials-By Singer (4th edition)

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

AISC Member Dimensions and Properties Viewer 23

DIFFERENT CODES FOR DESIGN

1. Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC)-2020

Design of Tension Member

Department of Civil Engineering

The stress in a tension member is uniform throughout the

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 1

Area of bar at section a – a = 8 x ½ = 4 in2

• Therefore, by definition the reduced area of section b – b will

Prepared by Abdullah Al Mahin, Lecturer, Dept. of CE, MEC 3

STEEL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR

• Figure indicates that the structural deflections will be small as long