Chapter 2: Human being’s most important food:

Bread
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mecit Halil Öztop
Wheat
• Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed,
a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple
food. Wheat is divided into mainly two
subtypes which are for bread making and
pasta making.
• Bread making à Triticum aestivum
• Pasta making à Triticum durum
• Triticum durum • Triticum aestivum
The modern wheat crop is the staple food of
millions of people and it's origins can be traced
back almost 10,000 years.
 History of Wheat
• Wheat’s beginnings can be traced to a clan of
wild grasses called Triticeae, the seeds of
which had a flavor that was pleasing to
primitive people.
• Triticeae included wheat, barley, rye, their
wild relatives, and a number of important wild
grasses.
• The Fertile Crescent, at the core of western
Asia and northern Africa, is the center of
origin and early diversification of this clan.
• Wild einkorn and emmer, which have been
known for roughly 75,000 years, are credited
as wheat’s earliest ancestors.
• The ripple effect of these grains has been
immense, since wheat is the most widely
produced and consumed cereal grain in the
world.
History of Wheat
• People parched, simmered, and ground these grains and prepared flat cakes.
• Thus, using grains as food changed the way early ancestors lived their daily
lives, in addition to providing basic sustenance.
• Einkorn (Triticum monococcum) is considered to have been the first wheat
gathered and cultivated.
• Its centers of early distribution were Armenia, Georgia (in the former Soviet
Union), and Turkey, where it is still grown and eaten.
• Impressions of einkorn are found in Neolithic pottery as far north as Great
Britain and Ireland, but there are no prehistoric records of it in India, China, or
Africa.
Composition of Wheat
Einkorn Wheat (Siyez Buğdayı)
Einkorn is a diploid hulled wheat, is the first wheat species cultivated in
Karacadağ, Şanlıurfa and strictly related to durum and bread wheats.

Many farms in northern Turkey, especially the province of Kastamonu, continue

to cultivate the oldest type of wheat still in existence, Triticum monococcum.

Although there is great potential for breeding, it’s production and consumption
has been locally limited and cultivation quantity has been very low. However
nowadays, today’s consumer demands to traditional or regional food products
and grains have been increased einkorn cultivation in Kastamonu, and cultivation
area has been reached to approximately from 5 thousand decares to 35
thousand decares. Einkorn is cultivated two times a year in Kastamonu
Today's commercial bread wheats are not 48, but 42 chromosomes. Researching wheat types
in Anatolia for years, Assoc. Alptekin Karagöz says that the increase in chromosome
numbers is not made by human hand, on the contrary, this change occurs spontaneously in
nature: “There are also wheat with 14, 28 and 42 chromosomes in nature. There is also a
large number of wheat with 42 chromosomes among the self-grown wild wheats and old
peasant varieties. A mutant of Kavılca wheat, durum wheats, has 28 chromosomes. Bread
wheat, the last link in the evolution of wheat, has 42 chromosomes. The 14 chromosomes
that he acquired later gave wheat some characters, especially resistance to cold. Therefore,
the change in chromosome number of wheat has nothing to do with breeding. Since the
wheat with 42 chromosomes is suitable for agriculture, their production has increased in the
last century.
Göbeklitepe

Göbeklitepe Excavations showed that the transition to a sedentary social lifestyle took place
around 10 000 BC.
Göbeklitepe excavations also showed that in this region transition from hunter-gatherers
way of life to agricultural production took place.

Cereals are the first produced agricultural product in this area.

Source : www.usf.org.tr (by Prof. Hamit Köksel)

Göbeklitepe

Fermented cereals and wheat grains were detected in the remains of plates found in
excavations.
It was concluded that the agricultural products were processed into food deliberately.
Grinding to flour : millstones that were turned by hand during.
Source : www.usf.org.tr (by Prof. Hamit Köksel)
Some crops such as corn and soy contain GMOs but not
wheat. Because wheat is a unique plant due to its genetic
structure. You cannot produce GMOs in wheat with high
profitability. Anatolia is the homeland of wheat. First
grew up here. When we go out into nature, we see their
alien forms here. There is no need for GMO in wheat.
There is so much variety that we can choose among them
and use them for different products as we wish. The
genes of wheat were not tampered with. Unfortunately,
those who talk about this issue say numbers like 43, 49. It
is not possible to have an odd number of genes. “

Prof. Dr. Hamit KOKSEL

(Retired faculty of Hacettepe University Food Eng)
Whole vs White Wheat Flours
Comparison of whole wheat flour and white wheat flour in
terms of nutritional values (100g)
Nutrition Value Whole Wheat Flour White Wheat Flour
Energy (kcal) 339 364
Pulp (g) 12.2 2.7
Minerals
Calcium (mg) 34 15
Iron (mg) 3.9 1.2
Magnesium (mg) 138 22
Phosphor (mg) 346 1.8
Potassium (mg) 405 1.7
Zinc (mg) 2.9 0.7
Selenium (mg) 70.7 33.9
Bulgur
Bulgur is a cereal food made from the cracked parboiled groats of
several different wheat species, most often from durum wheat. It
originates in Middle Eastern cuisine.
– Bulgur is sometimes confused with cracked wheat,
which is crushed wheat grain that, unlike bulgur, has
not been parboiled.
– Bulgur is a common ingredient in cuisines of many
countries of the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin
– Bulgur is available in a range of grinds, typically fine,
medium, coarse and extra coarse. The highest quality
bulgur has particle sizes that are uniform
– Bulgur is recognized as a whole grain
Bulgur
Quinoa
Quinoa is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant
grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are rich in protein, dietary
fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals in amounts greater than in many grain.

Some chemical component percentages of quinoa and

some cereals
Components (%) Quinoa Wheat Corn Rice
Protein 14.4 10.5 11.1 9.1
Fat 6.0 2.6 4.9 2.2
Carbohydrate 72.6 78.6 80.2 71.2
Crude Fiber 4.0 2.5 2.1 10.2
Ash 2.9 1.8 1.7 7.2
Chia Seed
Energy and nutrition value composition of chia seed
Nutrition Component Amount (100g) Chia seeds are rich in fat, protein, dietary fiber,
Energy (kcal) 486
Carbohydrates (g) 42.1
minerals and phenolic compounds. Phenolic
Protein (g) 16.5 compounds such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic
Leucine (g) 1.371
Phenylalanine (g) 1.016 acid, myricetin, quartz, campferol and
Lysine (g) 0.970
Valine (g) 0.950
tocopherol, phytosterol, carotenoids in chia
Isoleucine (g)
Threonine (g)
0.801
0.709
seeds can have antioxidant effects.
Methionine (g) 0.588 Chia seeds can have a protective effect against
Histidine (g) 0.531
Tryptophane (g) 0.436 cardiovascular diseases, hypertension,
Fat (g)
Saturated Fatty Acids (g)
30.7
3.3
inflammatory diseases and some types of
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (g) 2.3 cancer due to their polyunsaturated fatty acids
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (g) 23.6
Linoleic Acid (18:2) (g) 5.8 and especially omega-3 fatty acid content.
Alpha Linoleic Acid (18:3) 17.8
Dietary Fiber (g) 34.4
Calcium (mg) 631 Chia seeds can be added to many foods, such as
Iron (mg) 7.7
Magnesium (mg) 335 yoghurt and cakes, simply by turning them into
Phosphor (mg) 860
Potassium (mg) 407 flour and separating the oil. It can also be used
Sodium (mg)
Zinc (mg)
16
4.5
as a water retainer, emulsifier and thickener in
Vitamin C (mg) 1.6 the food industry. Nowadays, as a result of the
Thiamine (mg) 0.62
Riboflavin (mg) 0.2 increase in research on the nutritional
Niacin (mg)
Vitamin A (IU)
8.8
54
component content and health effects of chia
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 0.5 seeds, it is considered as a functional food.
The glycemic index (GI) is a relative ranking of carbohydrate in foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels
Proteins
• Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the
body.
• They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure,
function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.
• Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called
amino acids, which are attached to one another in long chains.
• There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be combined to make a
protein.
• The sequence of amino acids determines each protein’s unique 3-
dimensional structure and its specific function.
Amino Acids
• Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl
(-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to
each amino acid.
• The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains
of certain amino acids.
• About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20
appear in the genetic code)
One of the Most Popular Protein: Gluten

• Gluten is a group of seed storage proteins found

in cereal grains. Although, "gluten" pertains
only to wheat proteins, this term is frequently
used to refer to the combination of prolamin
and glutelin proteins naturally occurring in
other grains.
• Chew on a small piece of dough, and it becomes
more compact but persists as a gum-like, elastic
mass, the residue that the Chinese named “the
muscle of flour” and that we call gluten.
• It consists mainly of protein, and includes what
may well be the largest protein molecules to be
found in the natural world.
• These remarkable molecules are what give
wheat dough its liveliness and make raised
breads possible.
 Gluten

Video: How to See and Feel Gluten

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDEcvSc2UKA
 Celiac Disease
Celiac disease is an immune disease in which people can't eat
gluten because it will damage their small intestine. If you have
celiac disease and eat foods with gluten, your immune system
responds by damaging the small intestine
Gluten and Health
Corn Bread
 REVIEW ARTICLE
Navigating the gluten-free boom
Glenn A. Gaesser, PhD; Siddhartha S. Angadi, PhD
ABSTRACT
Gluten-free diets have gained popularity with the public
at a rate greater than would be expected based on the
prevalence of gluten-related disorders such celiac disease,
nonceliac gluten sensitivity, and wheat allergy. This article
reviews gluten-related disorders, indications for gluten-free
diets, and the possible health benefits of gluten. Despite the
health claims for gluten-free eating, no published experi-
mental evidence supports weight-loss with a gluten-free
diet or suggests that the general population would benefit
from avoiding gluten.
Keywords: gluten, celiac disease, nonceliac gluten sensitivity,
wheat allergy, microbiota, autoimmunity
Gluten-free diets have gained considerable popularity in
America. According to a 2013 survey by the NPD Group,
30% of American adults were interested in avoiding
gluten or at least reducing the amount of gluten in their
diets.1 The gluten-free food market is now $4.2 billion
per year and is expected to reach $6.6 billion by 2017.2
As of May 18, 2015, Amazon.com listed 16,527 book
entries for “gluten-free,” more than three times the num-
ber in 2012.3 A Google search in May 2015 for “gluten-
free” produced more than 81 million results. A 2013
survey by Mintel indicated that 65% of American adults
say they eat gluten-free products because they think they
and gluten avoidance in otherwise healthy people, and
potential adverse reactions to gluten avoidance in otherwise
healthy people without gluten-related diseases.
GLUTEN-RELATED DISORDERS
Gluten refers to a family of storage proteins (gliadins and
glutenins) found in wheat and related grains such as barley
and rye. Gluten-related disorders are wheat allergy, non-
celiac gluten sensitivity, and celiac disease.7,8
Wheat allergy An IgE-mediated reaction to wheat proteins,
wheat allergy has an estimated prevalence of about 0.1%.7
Wheat allergy is treated with wheat avoidance and is not
as restrictive as a gluten-free diet because patients typically
do not become symptomatic from eating gluten-containing
grains such as rye and barley.7 Although symptoms of
wheat allergy can be similar to celiac disease, wheat allergy
does not cause permanent gastrointestinal (GI) damage as
in celiac disease. Finally, wheat allergy typically develops
during early infancy or toddlerhood, and children typically
outgrow it between ages 3 to 5 years; celiac disease is a
lifelong disorder.7
Nonceliac gluten sensitivity This condition, also called
gluten sensitivity and nonceliac gluten intolerance, is
associated with GI symptoms such as gas, bloating, and
diarrhea, as well as extraintestinal signs and symptoms
such as fatigue, headaches, dizziness, and ataxia. Symp-
toms frequently improve with the adoption of a gluten-free

Butterball’s foodservice division has reformulated its turkey product line, including these turkey meatballs; the full line is now completely
gluten-free.
cider vinegar, sea salt, and raw
unfiltered honey. This product also
contains organic psyllium husk
powder, a functional ingredient
known for its high fiber content and
digestion benefits.
Psyllium has been studied “for
the ability to reduce inflammation
and cholesterol and regulate blood
sugar levels in people with diabe-
tes,” states SPINS in its recent
Natural Frozen Foods Trendwatch
report (SPINS 2018). “SPINS pre-
dicts [that there will be] more
functional fibers, seeds, and grains,
in frozen pizzas in the future.”
REFERENCES
AHA. 2017. “Low Gluten Diets May Be Associated genetic-engineering-eaten-safe-ge-foods-a8078866.
New certified gluten-free prod-
ucts can also be found in less
obvious categories, such as sauces
and marinades, condiments, juices,
and salad dressings. Although meat
and poultry are naturally gluten-
free, processed meat products from
sausages to meatballs frequently
contain gluten, so gluten-free
options are gaining traction in this
segment as well.
Butterball’s foodservice division
recently debuted gluten-free turkey
meatballs. The enterprise’s entire
turkey product line is now gluten-
free, according to Richie Jenkins,
Prospective Cohort Study.” BMJ, May 2. https://
crumbs as a binder, contain a vari-
ety of ingredients such as Romano
cheese, rice flour, oregano, and
rosemary extract.
“We didn’t go in trying to find a
replacement for the bread crumbs,”
Jenkins notes. “We reconfigured
the formulation from top to bottom
to get a good binder and bite.”
Gluten and Health
While people with celiac disease
can suffer severe intestinal damage
and increase their risk of cardiovas-
cular disease and other medical
conditions if they consume gluten,
adopting a gluten-free diet is not a
healthier choice for most people,
according to several recent studies.
A prospective cohort study of
more than 100,000 U.S. adults
without celiac disease, published in
BMJ in May 2017, indicated that
individuals who voluntarily mini-
mize their gluten intake may not be
consuming enough whole grains,
thereby increasing their risk for
coronary heart disease (BMJ 2017).
In addition, a Harvard University
School of Public Health study pre-
sented during an American Heart
Association scientific meeting last
year showed that eating less gluten
may be associated with a higher risk
Bread

• There are four basic steps in the making of yeast bread.

• We mix together the flour, water, yeast, and salt; we knead the mixture to
develop the gluten network;
• We give the yeast time to produce carbon dioxide and fill the dough with
gas cells; and we bake the dough to set its structure and generate flavor.
• In practice, each step involves choices that affect the qualities of the finished
loaf.
• There are many ways to make basic bread!
How to Prepare the Bread in Overall

Mixing the Kneading

Rising Baking
ingredients the dough
Ingredients of Bread

• Flour
• Water
• Salt
• Yeast
• Starters
Flour
• The texture and flavor of bread are strongly influenced by the kind of
flour used.
• “Bread flours” are milled from high protein wheats, require a long
kneading period to develop their strong gluten, and produce well-
raised loaves with a distinctive, slightly eggy flavor and chewy texture.
• Lower-protein “all-purpose” flours give breads with a lower maximum
volume, more neutral flavor, and less chewy texture, while flours from
soft wheats with weak gluten proteins make denser loaves with a
tender, cake-like crumb.
Water
• The chemical composition of the water used to make the dough influences the
dough’s qualities.
• Distinctly acid water weakens the gluten network, while a somewhat alkaline
water strengthens it.
• The proportion of water also influences dough consistency.
• Less water will produce a firmer, less extensible dough and a denser loaf, while
more water produces a soft, less elastic dough and an open-textured loaf.
• High-protein flours absorb as much as a third more water than all-purpose
flours, so water proportions and corresponding textures also depend on the
nature of the flour used.
Salt

• Though some traditional breads are made without salt, most include it,
and not just for a balanced taste.
• At 1.5–2% of the flour weight, salt tightens the gluten network and
improves the volume of the finished loaf.
• Unrefined sea salts that contain calcium and magnesium impurities may
produce the additional gluten strengthening that mineral-rich hard
water does.
• In sourdoughs, salt also helps limit the protein-digesting activity of the
souring bacteria, which can otherwise damage the gluten.
Yeast
• Baker's yeast is the common name for
the strains of yeast commonly used in
baking bread and bakery products,
serving as a leavening agent which
causes the bread to rise (expand and
become lighter and softer) by converting
the fermentable sugars present in the
dough into carbon dioxide.
• Baker's yeast is of the
species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and
is the same species (but a different
strain) as the kind commonly used in
alcoholic fermentation, which is called
brewer's yeast.
• Baker's yeast is also a single-cell
microorganism found on and around the
human body
Yeast
There are three main types of yeast:
instant/quick-rise yeast, active dry yeast, and
cake/fresh/compressed yeast, and they all result
in different flavors, last for different amounts of
time, must be moistened in some way to work,
and demand personal treatment. Instant yeast —
also known as quick-rise yeast — is a smaller form
of dry yeast that can be added directly to dry
ingredients without having to soak it beforehand.
Active dry yeast is partially dehydrated yeast that
is formed into granules. To use active dry yeast,
you must soak it with warm water and a pinch of
sugar before adding it to the dry ingredients. Cake
cake/fresh/comp instant/quick- active dry yeast yeast — also known as fresh or compressed
ressed yeast rise yeast yeast — is made from a mix of yeast and water
that has enough moisture for it to be compressed
into blocks. Apparently, fresh cake yeast is the
bomb-diggity when it comes to flavor
Starters

• A general method for incorporating yeast into bread dough that maximizes
the effective fermentation time and flavor production is the use of pre-
ferments or starters, portions of already fermenting dough or batter that are
added to the new mass of flour and water.
• The starter may be a piece of dough saved from the previous batch, or a stiff
dough or runny batter made up with a small amount of fresh yeast and
allowed to ferment for some hours, or a culture of “wild” yeasts and bacteria
obtained without any commercial yeast at all.
• This last is called a “sourdough” starter because it includes large numbers of
acid-forming bacteria.
Sourdough

Sourdough bread is made by the fermentation

of dough using naturally occurring lactobacilli
and yeast. The lactic acid produced by the
lactobacilli gives it a more sour taste and
improved keeping qualities
Wheat sourdough bread may contain less
gluten than regular yeast bread, but it's not
gluten-free. If you're on a gluten-free diet
for celiac disease, regular sourdough bread
isn't safe. Instead, buy sourdough bread made
with gluten-free grains or invest a few days
and activate your own gluten-
free sourdough starter
Chemical Leavening
Chemical leavening agents allow
bread dough to be prepared in
minutes instead of hours.
The chemical leavening agent, baking
powder, is a mixture of baking soda,
an alkaline ingredient; cream of tartar,
an acidic ingredient; and a starch,
such as cornstarch, which prevents
clumping of the powder.

Acid + Base à Carbon Dioxide

Preparing the Dough

• Mixing
• Kneading
• Rising
Mixing

• In this step, whole powdered

ingredients are mixed.
Kneading

• By kneading, the powder

products are mixed together
with the liquid ones.
Rising

• Rising means here is

fermentation of the dough.
• In other words, it is the time
given to the dough in order to be
fluffy by the yeast under warm
and humid conditions.
Preparing the Bread

• Baking
• Cooling
• Packaging (optional)
Baking

• The shaped and leavened

doughs are baked in the ovens at
240 – 270 ℃ for 14 – 17
minutes.
Cooling

• After baking, the breads exit the baking tunnel at around 95 ℃. In

order to come equilibrium, the breads are loaded to boxes and left to
cool.
 Starch

• The elastic gluten proteins are essential

to the making of raised breads.
• But proteins account for only about 10%
of flour weight, while about 70% is
starch.
• Starch granules serve several functions
in doughs and batters.
• Together with the water they hold on
their surfaces, they make up more than
half the volume of the dough, inter-
penetrate the gluten network and break
it up, and so tenderize it.
 Starch

• In the case of cakes, starch is the major structural material, the gluten
being too dispersed in the large amount of water and sugar to contribute
solidity.
• During the baking of bread and cakes, the starch granules absorb water,
swell, and set to form the rigid bulk of the walls that surround the bubbles
of carbon dioxide.
• This is called as starch gelatinization.
• At the same time their swollen rigidity stops the expansion of the bubbles
and so forces the water vapor inside.
Staling

• Staling takes place in the days

following baking, and seems to
involve the loss of moisture: the
bread interior gets dry, hard, and
crumbly.
• It turns out that bread will stale
even when there’s no net loss
of moisture from the loaf.
Staling

• This was shown in the landmark study of bread staling in

1852, when the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Boussingault
showed that bread could be hermetically sealed to prevent
it from losing water, and yet still go stale.
• He further showed that staling is reversed by reheating the
bread to 140ºF/60ºC: the temperature, we now know, at
which starch gelates.
 Retrogradation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13ICPBTnqKo
Storing Bread
• Staling proceeds most rapidly at
temperatures just above freezing, and
very slowly below freezing.
• In one experiment, bread stored in
the refrigerator at 7ºC staled as much
in one day as bread held at 30ºC did in
six days.
• Why ?
 Storing Bread

• If you’re going to use bread in a day or two, then store it at room

temperature in a breadbox or paper bag, which reduces moisture loss
while allowing the crust to remain somewhat crisp.
• If you need to keep bread for several days or more, then wrap it well in
plastic or foil and freeze it.
• Refrigerate bread (well wrapped) only if you’re going to toast or otherwise
reheat it.
Does it be edible after cutting the moldy part?
Resistant Starch
Browning Reactions

• Enzymatic browning (details in later chapters)

• Non-enzymatic browning
• Caramelization
• Maillard Browning
 Maillard Reactions
• The Maillard Reaction is commonly referred to as one of the most important
flavor producing reactions in all of cooking.
• This reaction is also commonly referred to as the browning reaction due to the
fact that the products of the chemical reactions have a brown color.
• As the chemical reaction proceeds, a series of chemical ring structures are
formed that reflect brown light, thus providing the color.
• Of course it is not the change in color that causes the change in flavor, but we can
take advantage of the color change to evaluate and quantify this reaction.
• The Maillard reactions literally can produce hundreds to thousands of different
chemical compound in small quantities that all contribute to the color and flavor
of the food.
• These compounds include an array of ring structures and the products can be
classified based upon these structure.
Maillard – sugar and protein

• Reducing Sugars
and nitrogen
atoms of amino
acids – under
higher temp!
Maillard Reactions
How to increase the reaction ?
• Dry food – water inhibits the reaction.
• Pat down the meat with a towel
• Otherwise the food has to heat longer and evaporate the moisture before browning will
take place
• High Heat – get up to about 150oC in the oven
• Let it sit! – when you move food from a hot grill, the reaction loses it’s heat
and slows down the browning
Where do these reactants come from?
• Sugar – Simple sugars (carbohydrates) found in many foods. Some sugars
brown better than others – complex carbohydrates do not brown as well
(reducing sugar…)
• Glucose: found in pasta cereals and rice
• Lactose – milk sugar
• Lactose free milk ?
Amino acids and sugars à provide diverse products!

• 20 common amino acids

• 8 commonly found reducing sugars

• >576 different possible Maillard reaction products.

• Think about which foods are rich in various sugars or amino

acids/peptides/proteins

• The kinds of flavors are nearly unending!

Speed up browning with pH!
• Baking soda (alkali)
increased pH and
reduced cooking time
to brown food!
Pretzels and some noodles are
dipped in lye (strong base; NaOH) to
speed browning
Baking soda : high pH!
Acids slow Maillard – why?