RESEARCH METHODS
CHAPTER 1: METHODS OF KNOWING
INTUITION
• Relying on guts, emotions, and instincts
• Instead of examining facts or using
rational thoughts, it involves believing
on what is true
• Intuitions can be wrong because they
are driven by biases rather than logical
reasoning
AUTHORITY
• Accepting new ideas because an
authority figure states that they are true
• Using authority to gain knowledge is we
don’t have time to question and
independently research every piece of
knowledge we learn through
RATIONALISM
• Using logic and reasoning to acquire
new knowledge
• Using this method premises are stated
and logical rules are followed to arrive
at sound conclusions
• Problem with this method is that if the
premises are wrong or there is an error
in logic then the conclusion will not be
valid
EMPIRICISM
• Acquiring knowledge through
observation and experience
• Limited in what we can experience and
observe and our senses can deceive us
prior experiences can alter the way we
perceive events
• Heart of the scientific method
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Process of systematically collecting and
evaluating evidence to test ideas and
answer questions
• Problem is that it is not always feasible
to use; this method can require
considerable time and resources
• It cannot be used to answer all
questions; only be used to address
empirical questions
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Sciences have a general approach to
understanding the natural world. Psychology is a
science since it uses the scientific method to
understand one aspect of the natural world:
HUMAN BEHAVIOR.
FEATURES OF SCIENCE
a. SYSTEMATIC EMPIRICISM
• Refers to learning based on
observation, and scientists learn about
the natural world systematically, by
carefully planning, making, recording,
and analyzing observations of it
b. EMPIRICAL QUESTIONS
• These are questions about the way the
world actually is and, therefore, can be
answered by systematically observing
it
• There are important questions that are
not empirically testable (ex. VALUES)
c. PUBLIC KNOWLEDGE
• scientists publish their work
• usually means writing an article for
publication in a professional journal
d. ESSENCE OF PUBLICATION
• one is that science is a social process
• allows science to be self-correcting,
correcting. Individual scientists
understand that, despite their best
efforts, their methods can be flawed
and their conclusions incorrect
• Replication - a very important aspect
of science when it comes to self-
correcting
PSEUDOSCIENCE
• Refers to activities and beliefs that are
claimed to be scientific by their
proponents and may appear to be
scientific at first glance but are not
• A set of beliefs or activities can be said
to be pseudoscientific
• If (a) its adherents claim or imply that it
is scientific but (b) it lacks one or more
of the three features of science
• Scientific claims must be falsifiable
RESEARCH METHODS
WHY MUST WE CONCERN OURSELVES?
• Helps bring the fundamental features of
science and their importance into sharper
focus
• Many other scientific beliefs are widely held
and promoted on the internet, television,
books, and magazines.
• Many pseudosciences purport to explain
some aspect of human behavior and
mental processes.
• Learning what makes them
pseudoscientific can help us to identify and
evaluate such beliefs.
CHAPTER 3: GOALS OF SCIENCE
TO DESCRIBE
• is achieved by making careful
observations
• only be used to address empirical
questions
TO PREDICT
• Once we have observed with some
regularity that two behaviors or events
are systematically related to one
another we can use that information to
predict whether an event or behavior
will occur in a certain situation
• will not be 100% accurate but if the
relationship between variables is strong
then it will have greater than chance
accuracy.
TO EXPLAIN
• involves determining the causes of
behavior
BASIC RESEARCH - conducted primarily for
the sake of achieving a more detailed and
accurate understanding of human behavior,
without necessarily trying to address any
particular practical problem (ex: sex differences
in talkativeness could eventually have an effect
on how marriage therapy is practiced)
APPLIED RESEARCH - conducted primarily to
address some practical problem (ex: effect of
cell phone use on driving could produce new
insights into basic processes of perception,
attention, and action)
CHAPTER 4: SCIENCE AND COMMON
SENSE
FOLK PSYCHOLOGY - intuitive beliefs about
people’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings
HEURISTICS - What psychologists call “mental
shortcuts” that we tend to rely on
CONFIRMATION BIAS - focus on cases that
confirm our intuitive beliefs and not on cases that
disconfirm them
SKEPTICISM - pausing to consider alternatives
and to search for evidence especially
systematically collected empirical evidence
when there is enough at stake to justify doing so
TOLERANCE FOR UNCERTAINTY - scientists
accept that there are many things that they
simply do not know
CHAPTER 5: EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS
PSYCHOLOGY - scientific study of behavior and
mental processes and the application of
scientific research to help people, organizations,
and communities’ function better
CLINICAL PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGY -
diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders and related problems
EMPIRICALLY SUPPORTED TREATMENTS -
treatments that have been shown to work in this
way
** Good research must begin with a good
research question
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CHAPTER 7: MODEL OF SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 8: FINDING RESEARCH TOPICS
INFORMAL OBSERVATIONS - include direct
observations of our own and others’ behavior
SECONDHAND OBSERVATIONS from non-
scientific sources such as newspapers, books,
blogs, and so on
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS - inspire research
ideas, leading directly to applied research in
such domains as law, health, education, and
sports
PREVIOUS RESEARCH - most common
inspiration for new research ideas; novice
researchers can find inspiration by consulting
with a more experienced researcher
RESEARCH LITERATURE - in any field is all
the published research in that field
REVIEWING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE -
finding, reading, and summarizing the published
research relevant to your topic of interest
PROFESSIONAL JOURNALS - periodicals that
publish original research article
TWO BASIC TYPES OF PROFESSIONAL
JOURNAL
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH REPORTS - describe
one or more new empirical studies conducted by
the authors, they introduce a research question,
explain why it is interesting, review previous
research, describe their method and results, and
draw their conclusions
REVIEW ARTICLES - summarize previously
published research on a topic and usually
present new ways to organize or explain the
results
THEORETICAL ARTICLE - when a review
article is devoted primarily to presenting a new
theory
META-ANALYSIS - when a review article
provides a statistical summary of all of the
previous results
DOUBLE-BLIND PEER REVIEW -
when researchers who want to publish
their work turn sends it to two or three other
experts
SCHOLARLY ARTICLES - books written by
researchers and practitioners mainly for use by
other researchers and practitioners
MONOGRAPH - written by a single author or a
small group of authors and usually, gives a
coherent presentation of a topic much like an
extended review article
EDITED VOLUMES - have an editor or a small
group of editors who recruit many authors to
write separate chapters on different aspects of
the same topic
PsycINFO - a comprehensive, covering
thousands of professional journals and scholarly
books going back more than 100 years that for
most purposes its content is synonymous with
the research literature in psychology
THINGS TO HELP YOU ON RESEARCH
a. Refine your research question
b. Identify appropriate research methods
c. Place your research in the context of
previous research
d. Write an effective research report
RESEARCH METHODS

CHAPTER 9: GENERATING GOOD HOW TO DERIVE HYPOTHESES FROM

RESEARCH QUESTIONS THEORIES?

Once you have a research idea, use it to • Generate a research question

generate empirically testable research • Focus on some component of the
questions. theory that has not yet been directly
observed.
EVALUATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

INTERESTINGNESS
**Hypothesis is often a prediction based on a
• the answer is in doubt, the answer fills a theory but some hypotheses are theoretical
gap in the research literature, and the and only after a set of observations have
answer has important practical been made, is a theory developed
implications
**Theories and hypotheses always have this
FEASIBILITY
if-then relationship
• successfully answering research
questions
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD -
primary way that scientific researchers use
CHAPTER 10: DEVELOPING A HYPOTHESIS theories
THEORY

•a coherent explanation or interpretation

of one or more phenomena; go beyond
the phenomena they explain by
including variables, structures,
processes, functions, or organizing
principles that have not been observed
directly.
• hierarchical foundation
• Theory of mind: cognitive ability, not a
theory.
• Outside of science, theory often implies
that it is untested.
HYPOTHESIS

• is a specific prediction about a new

phenomenon that should be observed if 1. Construct a theory/set a phenomena
a particular theory is accurate; specific 2. Make a prediction - that should be
predictions about what will happen in a observed if theory is correct
particular study; developed by 3. Conduct an empirical study
considering existing evidence and using 4. Re-evaluate theory
reasoning to infer what will happen in
the specific context of interest
• Often but not always derived from
theories.
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INCORPORATING THEORIES INTO VARIABLE - is a quantity or quality that varies

RESEARCH across people or situations.

Two basic ways to include theory: - Examples: height of students, chosen

● Raise a research question, conduct a
new study, offer theories to explain
results. (Applied Research)
● Describe existing theories, derive
hypotheses, test in new study,
reevaluate theory. (Descriptive
Research)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS
• Must be testable and falsifiable.
• Should be logical, informed by previous
theories or observations.
• Typically generated through deductive
reasoning from broad theories.
• Occasionally formed through inductive
reasoning based on specific
observations.
• Should make a positive statement about
the existence of a relationship or effect.
• Good rationale
• If-Then relationship
• Clear description of the variables
Scientists aim to find evidence
supporting existence rather than absence of
effects. Scientific method involves assuming
non-existence and seeking evidence to disprove
it.
CHAPTER 11: DESIGNING A RESEARCH
STUDY
IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING THE
VARIABLES AND POPULATION
Variables and Operational Definitions:
Generating hypotheses involves identifying and
defining variables for study.
major.
- Variables can be (a) quantitative
(e.g., height, level of talkativeness) or
(b) categorical (e.g., chosen major,
nationality).
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE - is typically
measured by assigning a number to each
individual.
CATEGORICAL VARIABLE - is typically
measured by assigning a category label to each
individual
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION - precisely how a
variable is measured. Many variables can't be
directly observed, requiring operational
definition. Operational definition transforms
abstract constructs into measurable entities.
GENERAL GOALS OF RESEARCH
1. Draw a conclusion
2. Make a valid generalization
SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT
• POPULATION - very large group of people
• SAMPLE - small subset of the population
• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING - every
member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected for the sample;
probability is default
o Sample size is important when it comes
to generalization.
o Random sampling: mahirap in
psychology kasi less-clearly defined
ang population (go for convenience
sampling)
o More samples, the better.
o Large sample size: histogram
o Sample size is less than 50: Shapiro-
Wilk (normality)
o p < .05: non-normal distribution (dapat
greater than .05)
RESEARCH METHODS
o Small sample size: z-scores,
skewness & kurtosis (normality of
distribution); interpret - z is greater than
1.96, p is less than .05 (non-normal
distribution)
• CONVENIENCE SAMPLING - which the
sample consists of individuals who happen
to be nearby and willing to participate; test
normality.
EXPERIMENTAL VS NON-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
A. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH - the only
method that allows us to determine causal
relationships.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - the variable the
experimenter manipulates (presumed CAUSE)
DEPENDENT VARIABLE - is the variable the
experimenter measures (presumed EFFECT)
EXTRANEOUS / NUISANCE VARIABLE - any
variable other than the dependent variable;
threatening in making valid generalization
FOUR GENERAL APPROACHES IN
CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
1. Statistical conclusion validity: malaki ang
random error, mali sa paggamit ng statistical
tool
2. Internal validity: IV is responsible for the
variation of the DV
3. Construct validity: causes and effects;
how you operationalize your variables;
instrument used to measure variable
4. External validity: generalizability; sample
result can be used to generalize population
CONFOUNDS - a specific type of extraneous
variable that systematically varies along with the
variables under investigation and therefore
provides an alternative explanation for the
results.
- are bad, they disrupt our ability to make
causal conclusions about the nature of
the relationship between variables
B. NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH -
simply measures variables as they naturally
occur, but they do not manipulate them
- non-experimental does not mean non-
scientific
LABARATORY VS FIELD RESEARCH
• The next major distinction between research
methods is between laboratory and field
studies.
LABORATORY STUDY - is a study that is
conducted in the laboratory environment.
Typically have high internal validity.
FIELD STUDIES - a study that is conducted in
the real-world, in a natural environment
INTERNAL VALIDITY - refers to the degree to
which we can confidently infer a causal
relationship between variables
EXTERNAL VALIDITY - simply refers to the
degree to which we can generalize the findings
to other circumstances or settings, like the real-
world environment. When internal validity is
high, external validity tends to be low
Laboratory experiments: High internal validity
due to controlled environment, manipulates one
variable, ensuring observed effects are
attributed to it. Low external validity.
Field studies: Lower internal validity as real-
world settings have less control over extraneous
variables, making causal conclusions less
appropriate. High external validity.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS - independent variable is
manipulated in a natural setting and extraneous
variables are controlled
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CHAPTER 12: DESIGNING A RESEARCH
STUDY
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - are used to
organize or summarize a set of data
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
(a) MODE - is the most frequently occurring
score in a distribution
(b) MEDIAN - is the midpoint of a
distribution of scores
(c) MEAN - is the average of a distribution
of scores
MEASURES OF DISPERSION - they are used
to describe the degree of spread in a set of
scores
RANGE - a measure of dispersion that
measures the distance between the highest and
lowest scores in a distribution
STANDARD DEVIATION - is a more
sophisticated measure of dispersion that
measures the average distance of scores from
the mean
VARIANCE - is just the standard deviation
squared. So, it also measures the distance of
scores from the mean but in a different unit of
measure
Experimental research: Means and standard
deviations calculated for groups with
manipulated independent variables, compared
for differences.
Non-experimental research: Often uses simple
percentages for behaviors or beliefs, or
computes correlations between variables.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT - describes the
strength and direction of the relationship
between two variables
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - to determine
whether their effects are statistically significant.
- Inferential statistics help researchers
make conclusions about a population
using data from a sample. They're
important because differences found in
a study could be due to random chance
or real effects.
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT EFFECT - is
one that is unlikely due to random chance and
therefore likely represents a real effect in the
population
TYPE I ERROR
• False positive conclusion.
• Occurs when researcher claims
statistically significant results,
suggesting an effect in the population,
but it's actually due to chance.
• Results are a fluke; no real effect exists.
• Conventionally set at 5% threshold to
limit chances of Type I error.
• Lowering the threshold increases
chances of Type II error.
TYPE II ERROR
• Concluding results aren't statistically
significant when there's a real effect in
the population, missed opportunity
• More likely when threshold set too low
(e.g., 1% instead of 5%) or sample size
too small
CHAPTER 13: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
AND REPORTING THE RESULTS
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
• Statistics are probabilistic, leading to type I
or type II errors; single study results don't
confirm theory.
• Theories are supported, refuted, or modified
based on research results.
• If statistically significant and consistent with
hypothesis/theory, theory is supported,
accounting for new phenomenon.
• Disconfirmation weakens theory; inaccurate
prediction suggests new phenomenon not
accounted for.
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COMPLICATIONS:
1.) Confirming a hypothesis can
strengthen a theory but it can never
prove a theory
Scientists avoid using "prove"
due to potential type I errors and the
existence of multiple plausible theories.
The philosophical problem of induction
highlights the uncertainty inherent in
scientific conclusions.
2.) Has to do with what it means when a
hypothesis is disconfirmed
Disconfirmation of a
hypothesis doesn't necessarily disprove
the theory; it could result from errors in
research design or minor unmet
assumptions. Scientists revise theories
based on new evidence but must
address repeated disconfirmations.
The bottom line here is that because statistics
are probabilistic in nature and because all
research studies have flaws there is no such
thing as scientific proof, there is only
scientific evidence.
REPORTING THE RESULTS
The final step in the research process involves
reporting the results,
● The most prestigious way to report
one’s findings is by writing a manuscript
and having it published in a peer-
reviewed scientific journal.
ORAL PRESENTATION - involve getting up in
front of an audience of fellow scientists and
giving a talk that might last anywhere from 10
minutes to 1 hour and then fielding questions
from the audience
POSTER PRESENTATIONS - summarizing the
study on a large poster, presenting at a
conference is a great way to get feedback from
one’s peers before attempting to undergo the
more rigorous peer-review process involved in
publishing a journal article
CHAPTER 15: MORAL FOUNDATIONS OF
ETHICAL RESEARCH
• Ethics is the branch of philosophy that is
concerned with morality—what it means to
behave morally and how people can achieve
that goal. It can also refer to a set of
principles and practices that provide moral
guidance in a particular field.
A FRAMEWORK FOR THINKING ABOUT
RESEARCH ETHICS
MORAL PRINCIPLES
1. Weighing Risks against Benefits
2. Acting Responsibly with Integrity
3. Seeking Justice
4. Respecting People’s Rights & Integrity
1. Weighing Risks against Benefits
Scientific research in psychology can be ethical
only if its risks are outweighed by its benefits.
Among the risks to research participants are that
a (a) treatment might fail to help or even be
harmful, (b) a procedure might result in physical
or psychological harm, (c) and their right to
privacy might be violated.
Among the potential benefits are (a) receiving a
helpful treatment, (b) learning about psychology,
(c) experiencing the satisfaction of contributing
to scientific knowledge, (d) and receiving money
or course credit for participating.
Risk to science: If a research question is
uninteresting or study is poorly designed, then
the time, money, and effort spent on the
research could have been spent on a more
productive research.
RESEARCH METHODS
Risk to society: Research results could be
misunderstood or misapplied with harmful
consequences.
Benefits to science & society: It advances
scientific knowledge and can contribute to the
welfare of society.
It is not necessarily easy to weigh the
risks of research against its benefits because the
risks and benefits may not be directly
comparable. For example, it is common for the
risks of a study to be primarily to the research
participants but the benefits primarily for science
or society.
Confederate of the researcher—a helper who
pretended to be a real participant (ex. Milgram
study).
2. Acting Responsibly with Integrity
• Researchers must act responsibly and with
integrity.
• Acting with integrity is important because it
promotes trust, which is an essential
element of all effective human relationships.
• An important issue here is the use of
deception.
• Acting with integrity can conflict with doing
research that advances scientific knowledge
and benefits society.
3. Seeking Justice
• Researchers must conduct their research in
a just manner.
• They should treat their participants fairly, for
example, by giving them adequate
compensation for their participation and
making sure that benefits and risks are
distributed across all participants.
• Tragic example: Tuskgee syphilis study
4. Respecting People’s Rights and Dignity
• Researchers must respect people’s rights
and dignity as human beings.
Elements of Respecting:
a. Autonomy—their right to make their own
choices and take their own actions free
from coercion.
• Informed consent, this means that
researchers obtain and document people’s
agreement to participate in a study after
having informed them of everything that
might reasonably be expected to affect their
decision.
b. Privacy—their right to decide what
information about them is shared with
others.
• This means that researchers must maintain
confidentiality, which is essentially an
agreement not to disclose participants’
personal information without their consent or
some appropriate legal authorization.
• Even more ideally participants can maintain
anonymity, which is when their name and
other personally identifiable information is
not collected at all.
UNAVOIDABLE ETHICAL CONFLICT
Although it may not be possible to
eliminate ethical conflict completely, it is possible
to deal with it in responsible and constructive
ways. In general, this means thoroughly and
carefully thinking through the ethical issues that
are raised, minimizing the risks, and weighing
the risks against the benefits. It also means
being able to explain one’s ethical decisions to
others, seeking feedback on them, and
ultimately taking responsibility for them.
CHAPTER 16: FROM MORAL PRINCIPLES
TO ETHICS CODE
HISTORY OVERVIEW
Nuremberg Code
• One of the earliest ethics codes
• Set of 10 principles written in 1947 in
conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians
accused of shockingly cruel research on
concentration camp prisoners during World
War II.
RESEARCH METHODS
• Particularly clear about the importance of
carefully weighing risks against benefits and
the need for informed consent.
Declaration of Helsinki
• Similar ethics code that was created by the
World Medical Council in 1964.
Protocol — a detailed description of the
research—that is reviewed by an independent
committee.
Belmont Report
• Concerns about the Tuskegee study and
others led to the publication in 1978 of a set
of federal guidelines
Belmont Report Recognized:
1. Principle of seeking justice, including the
importance of conducting research in a way
that distributes risks and benefits fairly
across different groups at the societal level.
2. Recognized the importance of respect for
persons, which acknowledges individuals’
autonomy and protection for those with
diminished autonomy (e.g., prisoners,
children), and translates to the need for
informed consent.
3. Recognized the principle of beneficence,
which underscores the importance of
maximizing the benefits of research while
minimizing harms to participants and
society.
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human
Subjects
• Apply to research conducted, supported, or
regulated by the federal government.
• An extremely important part of these
regulations is that universities, hospitals,
and other institutions that receive support
from the federal government must establish
an institutional review board (IRB).
Institutional review board (IRB)
- a committee that is responsible for reviewing
research protocols for potential ethical problems.
- consist of at least five people with varying
backgrounds, including members of (a) different
professions, (b) scientists and nonscientists, (c)
men and women, and (d) at least one person not
otherwise affiliated with the institution.
- make sure that the risks of the proposed
research are minimized, the benefits outweigh
the risks, the research is carried out in a fair
manner, and the informed consent procedure is
adequate.
The federal regulations also distinguish research
that poses THREE LEVELS OF RISK:
1. Exempt research
Lowest level or risk and includes research on the
effectiveness of normal educational activities,
the use of standard psychological measures and
surveys of a nonsensitive nature that are
administered in a way that maintains
confidentiality, and research using existing data
from public sources.
It is called exempt because once approved, it is
exempt from regular, continuous review.
2. Expedited research
• poses a somewhat higher risk than
exempt, but still exposes participants to
risks that are no greater than minimal
risk (those encountered by healthy
people in daily life or during routine
physical or psychological
examinations).
• Done by by one member of the IRB or
by a separate committee under the
authority of the IRB that can only
approve minimal risk research (many
departments of psychology have such
separate committees).
3. Greater than minimal risk research
• research that does not qualify for
exempt or expedited review
• reviewed by the full board of IRB
members.
RESEARCH METHODS
ETHICS CODES
1. The Nuremberg Code
2. The Declaration of Helsinki
3. The Belmont Report
4. Federal Policy for the Protection of Human
Subjects
APA ETHICS CODE
• The APA’s Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct.
• It includes about 150 specific ethical
standards that psychologists and their
students are expected to follow.
• For our purposes, the most relevant part
is Standard 8: Research and
Publication.
• Most important aspects— (a) informed
consent, (b) deception, (c) debriefing,
(d) the use of nonhuman animal
subjects, (e) and scholarly integrity.
1. INFORMED CONSENT
• Standards 8.02 to 8.05 are about
informed consent.
• Includes details of the procedure, the
risks and benefits of the research, the
fact that they have the right to decline to
participate or to withdraw from the
study, the consequences of doing so,
and any legal limits to confidentiality.
• Involves having participants read and
sign a consent form, it is important to
understand that this is not all it is.
Situations in which informed consent is not
necessary:
• the research is not expected to cause
any harm
• the procedure is straightforward or the
study is conducted in the context of
people’s ordinary activities.
2. DECEPTION
• Can take a variety of forms:
misinforming participants about the
purpose of a study, using confederates,
using phony equipment and presenting
participants with false feedback about
their performance.
• Includes not informing participants of
the full design or true purpose of the
research even if they are not actively
misinformed.
• APA Ethics Code takes a more
moderate approach—allowing
deception when:
a. the benefits of the study outweigh the
risks
b. participants cannot reasonably be
expected to be harmed
c. the research question cannot be
answered without the use of deception
d. and participants are informed about
the deception as soon as possible
3. DEBRIEFING
• The process of informing research
participants as soon as possible of the
purpose of the study, revealing any
deception, and correcting any other
misconceptions they might have as a
result of participating.
• Involves minimizing harm that might
have occurred.
• Debriefing would be the time to return
participants’ moods to normal.
4. NONHUMAN ANIMAL SUBJECTS
• Standard 8.09 is about the humane
treatment and care of nonhuman animal
subjects.
• The APA acknowledges that the
benefits of research on nonhuman
animals can outweigh the costs, in
which case it is ethically acceptable.
• However, researchers must use
alternative methods when they can.
When they cannot, they must acquire
RESEARCH METHODS
and care for their subjects humanely
and minimize the harm to them.
5. SHOLARLY INTEGRITY
• Standards 8.10 to 8.15 are about
scholarly integrity.
• Include the obvious points that
researchers must not fabricate data or
plagiarize.
• Plagiarism means using others’ words
or ideas without proper
acknowledgment. Proper
acknowledgment generally means
indicating direct quotations with
quotation marks and providing a citation
to the source of any quotation or idea
used.
• Self-plagiarism is also considered
unethical and refers to publishing the
same material more than once.
Remaining standards make some less obvious
but equally important points:
• Researchers should not publish the
same data a second time as though it
were new
• they should share their data with other
researchers, and as peer reviewers
• they should keep the unpublished
research they review confidential.
• Note that the authors’ names on
published research—and the order in
which those names appear—should
reflect the importance of each person’s
contribution to the research
CHAPTER 17: PUTTING ETHICS INTO
PRACTICE
KNOW AND ACCEPT YOUR ETHICAL
RESPONSIBILITIES
• As the American Psychological
Association (APA) Ethics Code notes in
its introduction, “Lack of awareness or
misunderstanding of an ethical
standard is not itself a defense to a
charge of unethical conduct.”
• At a minimum, this means (a) reading
and understanding the relevant
sections of the APA Ethics Code, (b)
distinguishing minimal risk from at-risk
research, (c) and knowing the specific
policies and procedures of your
institution.
1. IDENTIFY AND MINIMIZE RISKS
• Identify and minimize risks to
participants
• Once you have identified the risks, you
can often reduce or eliminate many of
them. One way is to modify the
research design.
• A second way to minimize risks is to use
a pre-screening procedure to identify
and eliminate participants who are at
high risk.
• A third way to minimize risks is to take
active steps to maintain
confidentiality.
2. IDENTIFY AND MINIMIZE DECEPTION
• Deception can take a variety of forms,
not all of which involve actively
misleading participants. It is also
deceptive to allow participants to make
incorrect assumptions (e.g., about what
will be on a “memory test”) or simply
withhold information about the full
design or purpose of the study. It is best
to identify and minimize all forms of
deception.
• Remember that according to the APA
Ethics Code, deception is ethically
acceptable only if there is no way to
answer your research question
without it. Therefore, if your research
design includes any form of active
deception, you should consider whether
it is truly necessary.
• In general, it is considered acceptable
to wait until debriefing before you reveal
your research question as long as you
describe the procedure, risks, and
RESEARCH METHODS

benefits during the informed consent c) create an informed consent form that
process. covers
all the points in Standard 8.02a that
participants can read and sign after you
3. WEIGH RISKS AGAINST THE BENEFITS have described the study to them.
• Once the risks of the research have
been identified and minimized, you
need to weigh them against the
5. GET APPROVAL
benefits.
• This will generally require writing a
• Requires identifying all the benefits
protocol that describes the purpose of
• Remember to consider benefits to the:
the study, the research design and
a) research participants
procedure, the risks and benefits, the
b) to science
steps taken to minimize risks, and the
c) to society.
informed consent and debriefing
procedures.
If the research poses minimal risk, even a
small benefit to participants, science, or society
6. FOLLOW THROUGH
is generally considered enough to justify it.
• Stick to the protocol you submitted or to
If it poses more than minimal risk, then there seek additional approval for anything
should be more benefits. other than a minor change.
• During the research, you should monitor
If the research has the potential to upset your participants for unanticipated
some participants, for example, then it reactions and seek feedback from them
becomes more important that the study is well during debriefing.
designed and can answer a scientifically
• Be alert also for potential violations of
interesting research question or have clear
confidentiality.
practical implications.
• Keep the consent forms and the data
In general, psychological research that safe and separate from each other and
has the potential to cause harm that is more than make sure that no one, intentionally or
minor or lasts for more than a short time is rarely unintentionally, has access to any
considered justified by its benefits. participant’s personal information.
• Finally, you must maintain your integrity
through the publication process and
beyond. Address publication credit—
4. CREATE INFORMED CONSENT AND
who will be authors on the research and
DEBRIEFING PROCEDURES
the order of authors—with your
• Start by deciding whether informed
collaborators early and avoid plagiarism
consent is necessary according to APA
in your writing.
Standard 8.05. If informed consent is
necessary.
Things you should do: Your scientific goal is to learn about
the way the world actually is and that your
a) when you recruit participants provide
scientific duty is to report on your results
them with as much information about
honestly and accurately.
the study as you can
b) prepare a script or set of “talking
points” to help you explain the study to
your participants in simple everyday
language
RESEARCH METHODS
CHAPTER 18: TAKEAWAYS
• A wide variety of ethical issues arise in
psychological research. Thinking them through
requires considering how each of four moral
principles (weighing risks against benefits,
acting responsibly and with integrity, seeking
justice, and respecting people’s rights and
dignity) applies to each of three groups of people
(research participants, science, and society).
• Ethical conflict in psychological research is
unavoidable. Researchers must think through
the ethical issues raised by their research,
minimize the risks, weigh the risks against the
benefits, be able to explain their ethical
decisions, seek feedback about these decisions
from others, and ultimately take responsibility for
them.
• There are several written ethics codes for
research with human participants that provide
specific guidance on the ethical issues that arise
most frequently. These codes include the
Nuremberg Code, the Declaration of Helsinki,
the Belmont Report, and the Federal Policy for
the Protection of Human Subjects.
• The APA Ethics Code is the most important
ethics code for researchers in psychology. It
includes many standards that are relevant
mainly to clinical practice, but Standard 8
concerns informed consent, deception,
debriefing, the use of nonhuman animal
subjects, and scholarly integrity in research.
• Research conducted at universities, hospitals,
and other institutions that receive support from
the federal government must be reviewed by an
institutional review board (IRB)—a committee at
the institution that reviews research protocols to
make sure they conform to ethical standards.
• Informed consent is the process of obtaining
and documenting people’s agreement to
participate in a study, having informed them of
everything that might reasonably be expected to
affect their decision. Although it often involves
having them read and sign a consent form, it is
not equivalent to reading and signing a consent
form.
• Although some researchers argue that
deception of research participants is never
ethically justified, the APA Ethics Code allows for
its use when the benefits of using it outweigh the
risks, participants cannot reasonably be
expected to be harmed, there is no way to
conduct the study without deception, and
participants are informed of the deception as
soon as possible.
• It is your responsibility as a researcher to know
and accept your ethical responsibilities. • You
can take several concrete steps to minimize
risks and deception in your research. These
include making changes to your research
design, prescreening to identify and eliminate
high-risk participants, and providing participants
with as much information as possible during
informed consent and debriefing. • Your ethical
responsibilities continue beyond IRB approval.
You need to monitor participants’ reactions, be
alert for potential violations of confidentiality, and
maintain scholarly integrity through the
publication process.
RESEARCH METHODS

FOUNDATIONS OF SAMPLING GENERALIZABILITY - The process of making

an inference that the results observed in a
SAMPLING - process of selecting units from sample would hold in the population of interest.
population of interest, by studying the sample
you can generalize your results to the population
from which the units were chosen. 2 MAJOR APPROACHES TO SUPPORT
GENERALIZABILITY
POPULATION The group you want to
generalize and the group you sample from. 1. Sampling Model
• For generalizing in which you identify
your population, draw a fair sample,
2 KINDS OF POPULATION conduct your research, and finally
generalize your sample to the
1. THEORETICAL POPULATION
population.
A group which ideally, you would like to sample
• Because the sample it representative of
from and generalize to.
the population, you can automatically
Contrasted to accessible population.
generalize your results to the
population.
2. ACCESSIBLE POPULATION
A group that reflects the theoretical population of
interest and that you can get access to when
sampling.
Contrasted to theoretical population.

SAMPLING FRAME - From the accessible

population wherein you will derive the sample
size.
SAMPLE - Will generalize your sample. The
Ways it can become difficult:
group of people you select to be in your study.
a) At the time of your study, you might not
know what part of the population you will
ultimately want to generalize to.
b) You may not be able to draw a fair or
representative sample easily.
c) It is impossible to sample across all times
that you might like to generalize to.

2. Proximal Similarity Model

• Proximal means nearby
• Similarity means similarity
• You begin by thinking about different
contexts you might want to generalize
to, and which are more similar to your
EXTERNAL VALIDITY study and which are less to.
Gradient of similarity
BIAS - Systematic error in an estimate. It can be
a result of any factor that leads to an incorrect • Technical term for when some
estimate. combinations of people, places, and
times are “close” to those in your study,
while some are “distant’. There are
RESEARCH METHODS
some groups who are more similar to
your sample and would be close along
this gradient.
SAMPLING METHODS
Can be classified:
1. Probability Sampling
• Every member of the population has a
known probability of being included in
the sample.
• Involve random selection
• you can estimate confidence intervals
(CIs) for the statistic
• High external validity
• Lower chance of bias/ merely locally
valid
• We take much of the guessing out of the
question of the sample
2. Non-probability sampling
- Samples are selected on the basis of
the researcher.
- Purposive in nature
- Approached with a specific plan in mind
- No basis for generalization
- Does not involve random selection
- 2 broad types: accidental and purposive
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Convenience/Accidental/Haphazard
Sampling
- Most Convenient
- Traditional Street Interviews
- Quick, Non-Representative
2. Purposive Sampling
- You sample with a purpose related to
the kind of participant you are looking
for.
- Useful for reaching targeted sample
quickly
3. Modal Instance Sampling
- Modal means mode (frequently
occurring)
- sampling the most frequent/typical case
4. Expert Sampling
- Involves assembling a sample with
known expertise in an area.
- Common example are panel experts.
- Used when there is insufficient data on
a particular topic. Expert sampling
serves as a means to synthesize the
(limited) available knowledge.
5. Quota Sampling
- You sample until you achieve a specific
number of sampled units for each
subgroup of a population.
Proportional Quota Sampling
- Proportions in each group are the same.
Non-Proportional Quota Sampling
-Specify the minimum per category.
-Less restrictive
-Can over-represent
-Similar to stratified sampling
6. Heterogeneity Sampling
- Sampling for diversity or variety
- Almost opposite of modal instance
sampling
- Broad spectrum of ideas
7. Snowball Sampling
- You sample from participant-based ipon
referral from prior participants
- Meets The Criteria
- Biggest disadvantage of this method is
that because the respondents are not
randomly selected, snowball samples
re likely to be biased.
8. Respondent-Driven Sampling
- Designed to overcome some of these
limitations by providing breadth of
coverage with statistical validity
RESEARCH METHODS

• Combines snowball sampling with a of samples and, on this planet, infinite is

mathematical system for weighing the not a number we can reach
sample to compensate for its not having - Why use it? Because you need to
been drawn as a simple random realize that while the statistic from your
sample. sample I probably near the center of the
• Hard to reach populations can now be sampling distribution, you could have
studied with confidence that gotten one extreme sample just by
approaches that of probabilistic chance.
methods.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Response

- A Specific Measurement Value

Statistic

- When you summarize the numerical responses

from a group of people.

Statistics

- Wide variety of tools

Population Parameter

- If you measure the entire population and Standard Deviation

calculate a value like a mean or average
- Indicator of the variability of a set of
scores in a sample around the mean of
that sample.
- Tells us something about how different
samples would be distributed. In
statistics it is referred to as standard
error.
Standard Error

- How precise your statistical estimate

Sampling Distribution
- The theoretical distribution of the infinite
number of a sample
- You don’t ever actually construct a
sampling distribution because you
would have to take an INFINITE number
- The spread of the averages around the
average of the averages in a sampling
distribution.
- SD is the spread of scores around the
average in a single sample. SE is the
spread of the averages in a sampling
distribution of sample averages.
HOW TO MEASURE SAMPLING ERROR
1. Based on standard deviation of the sample
2. Greater SD, greater sampling error
3. Greater sample size, less SD (greater
sample size the closer to the population)
RESEARCH METHODS

Normal Curve Proportionate stratified random sampling:

- A common type of distribution where the - Same sampling fraction within strata.
value of a variable have a bell shaped
histogram or frequency distribution.
Bell Curve Disproportionate stratified random
sampling:
- Also known as normal curve. A type of
distribution where the values of a - Different sampling fractions within
variable have a smoothed histogram or strata.
frequency distribution that is shaped like
a bell.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING: PROCEDURES

Initial Definitions:

3. Systemic Random Sampling

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- Where you determine randomly where you
1. Simple Random Sampling want to study from the sampling frame. Steps:
- A method of sampling that involves drawing as
sample from the population so that every
possible sample has an equal probability of
being selected.

- Simplest form of P.S.

- Select n units from N.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

- Sometimes called proportional/quota
random sampling.

- Dividing population to homogeneous

subgroups and then taking a simple random
sample in each subgroup.
4. Cluster/Area Random Sampling
- Assures you will be able to represent not only
- Geographical
the overall population, but also key subgroups
- Population to clusters
of the population, especially small minority
- Randomly sample clusters
groups.
- When you have to sample a population
that’s spread across a wide geographic
region, is that you will have to cover a
lot of ground geographically to get to
each of the units you randomly sample.
RESEARCH METHODS

5. Multistage Sampling 2. Ordinal

- Mostly applied in social research. - can be ranked
- Combining sampling methods to create - “Likert Scale” --> behavioral sciences
a more effective sample. treat this as ratio-interval for the
purpose of analysis.
3. Interval
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY - Interval between attributes is
- Any factors that can lead you to make an interpretable
incorrect generalization. - represents the same increment of the
thing being measured
IMPROVING TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY - e.g. temperature
4. Ratio
Replicate/Replication
- In interval, ratio does not make sense
- A study that is repeated in a different - absolute zero (weight, age, no. of..)
place, time or setting - construct a meaningful fraction
- Your external validity will be stronger - most count variables are zero
the more you replicate
WHY IS LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT IMPORTANT?

Applied Social Research
• Abstract (happiness, depression,
anxiety)
Psychological Measurement
• How to translate these abstract
concepts that we can observe them
consistently and accurately.
Measurement
• Observing the observations collected
as part of research method.
Construct
• Idea, concept,
4 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Relationship between numerical values on a
measure
1. Nominal
- Name, placeholder
- value just for analysis
- dummy coding
Examples:
So that we know how to interpret the data from
the variable.
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
- Operational definition
- Instrument
QUALITY OF MEASUREMENT
1. RELIABILITY
- Consistency, dependability, stability
- we have to lay the groundwork/foundation:
True Score Theory (x = T+e)
• Essentially, maintains that every
variable
observable scores is the sum of two
components: true ability and random
error.
• Realize the theories that are not yet
proven. They are only a model on how
they operationalize a word.
• Score a person receive only if it is
perfectly accurate.

- Variable: Political Affiliation

- Attributes: Pro-gov, neutral, anti-gov
- Value: 1, 2, 3
RESEARCH METHODS

Measurement error 2. VALIDITY

• Degrades reliability • Accuracy
• What if all error is not random? Isn’t it • Focus on construct validity
possible that some errors are (generalizability)
systematic, that they hold across most
or all of the members of a group? One
way to deal with this notion is to revise NO MEASURE IS PERFECT!!!
the simple true score model by dividing
the error component into two
subcomponents, random error and
systematic error.

RANDOM ERROR - Caused by any factors that

randomly affect measurement of the variable
across the sample; does not affect the average

SYSTEMIC ERROR

- Caused by any factors that

systematically affect measurement of
the variable across the sample.
- Affects the average
- Bias

Cronbach's alpha, McDonald’s omega: are a

way of assessing reliability.

WHY IS TRUE SCORE IMPORTANT?

1. Simple yet powerful measurement

2. Foundation of reliability theory
3. Can be used in computer simulations as a
basis

A measure that has no random error is perfectly

reliable.

A measure that has no true score has zero

reliability. Nothing but random.
RESEARCH METHODS