University of Jordan

Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 1
LAB EQUIPMENT FAMILIARIZATION

Lab Supervisors: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 1
LAB EQUIPMENT FAMILIARIZATION

PROCEDURE A - CIRCUIT BOARD FAMILIARIZATION

In this PROCEDURE section, you will examine and use the two oscillator circuit blocks in the
ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board.

An oscillator circuit is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive signal, in this case a
sinusoidal wave. A special oscillator, called a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO), is an
oscillator circuit that is designed in such a way its output frequency is controlled by an input
DC voltage. This allows us to change the output frequency of the oscillator by simply changing
its input voltage. It also allows a VCO to work as an FM modulator since the frequency of the
output carrier can be controlled by the voltage of the modulating message signal.

The ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board contains two VCO circuit blocks. They are
called VCO-LO (produces low frequencies) and VCO-HI (produces high frequencies).

The VCO-LO circuit block can output a sinusoidal signal in the 452 kHz range or in the
1000 kHz range. It can also be used to output an FM signal. The VCO-HI circuit block, on the
other hand, outputs a sinusoidal signal in the 1455 kHz range.

1. Locate the VCO-LO circuit block on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board.
Insert a two-post connector in the 1000 kHz terminals as shown in Figure 1-21.

2. Set the oscilloscope channel 1 to 10 mV/DIV and set the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV. Connect the
channel 1 probe to OUT on the VCO-LO circuit block, and connect the probe ground clip to a
ground terminal on the circuit board (Figure 1-21). Set Trigger Source to CH1.

NOTE: Whenever you make oscilloscope measurements or observations, be sure to connect the
probe’s ground clip to a ground terminal on the circuit board.

Two-post
connector

VCO-LO
potentiometer
knob

0-1
3. On the VCO-LO circuit block, set the potentiometer knob completely clockwise (CW) and
then counterclockwise (CCW). Does this potentiometer adjust the VCO-LO frequency or the
VCO-LO amplitude?
....................................................................................

4. Set the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob (which is located on the top left side of the base unit)
completely CW and then completely CCW. Does the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob adjust the
VCO-LO frequency or the VCO-LO amplitude?
....................................................................................

NOTE: The probe used in this experiment is x10 probe, which means that vertical readings on
the oscilloscope should be multiplied by 10 to obtain the correct reading. For example a
reading of 100 mV on the oscilloscope is actually 1 V. Time (horizontal) readings are not
affected, though.

5. With channel 1 set to 10 mV/DIV, and VCO-LO generating a sinusoidal signal that is
300 mVpk-pk, calculate how many vertical oscilloscope graticule divisions will equal the
300 mVpk-pk?
....................................................................................

6. Slowly turn the VCO-LO potentiometer knob until the output signal on channel 1 is
300 mVpk-pk.

7. With a sweep setting of 0.5 μs/DIV, calculate how many horizontal oscilloscope graticule
divisions equal one cycle of a 1000 kHz signal?
....................................................................................

NOTE: To adjust the VCO-LO frequency, adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the base
unit. This knob controls the amount of input DC voltage to the VCO. Use the top portion of the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob for fine adjustments, and use the bottom portion for coarse
adjustments.
8. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob so that the VCO-LO output frequency is 1000 kHz.
Does the signal shown on the oscilloscope match the signal shown in Figure 1-22 or not?
....................................................................................

0-2
9. Remove the two-post connector from the 1000 kHz terminals and insert it in the 452 kHz
terminals. Adjust the VCO-LO potentiometer knob to set the output signal on channel 1 to
300 mVpk-pk.

10. With a sweep setting of 0.5 μs/DIV, calculate how many horizontal oscilloscope graticule
divisions equal 1 cycle of a 452 kHz signal?

....................................................................................

11. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob so that the VCO-LO frequency is 452 kHz. Does the
signal shown on the oscilloscope look like the signal shown in Figure 1-23 or not?

....................................................................................

12. Locate the VCO-HI circuit block on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board, and
set its potentiometer knob (which adjusts the amplitude) completely CCW.

NOTE: To adjust the VCO-HI frequency, adjust the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob, which is located
on the top right corner of the base unit.

13. Set oscilloscope channel 1 to 10 mV/DIV and set the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV. Connect the
channel 1 probe to OUT on the VCO-HI circuit block, and connect the probe ground clip to a
ground terminal on the circuit board (Figure 1-24).

14. Slowly turn the VCO-HI potentiometer knob CW until the output signal on channel 1 is
300 mVpk-pk.

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15. While observing the signal on channel 1, slowly turn the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob in the
CW direction. Did the VCO-HI frequency increase or decrease?

....................................................................................

16. Set the oscilloscope sweep to 0.2 μs/DIV. Calculate how many horizontal oscilloscope
graticule divisions equal one cycle of a 1455 kHz signal.

....................................................................................

17. Adjust the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob completely CW and then completely CCW. Use the top
portion of the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob for fine adjustments and the bottom portion for coarse
adjustments. What is the range of frequencies that the VCO-HI on your kit can provide?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B – THE OSCILLOSCOPE

This PROCEDURE section aims at reminding you of some of the main features of the
oscilloscope. Such concepts will be helpful to you as you execute the different experiments of
this lab.

An oscilloscope (see Figure 1) is a measurement device designed to measure voltages. Unlike a

voltmeter, however, an oscilloscope does not display a single number. Instead, it displays
signals (voltages) that are functions of time. Such a signal shape allows you to measure certain
signal parameters, such as its frequency, period, peak-to-peak voltage, DC offset value, phase
shift, etc.

The oscilloscope consists of four subsystems (Figure 1): Horizontal subsystem controls,
Vertical subsystem controls, Trigger subsystem controls, CRT subsystem controls.

Figure 1.

0-4
1. On your oscilloscope, identify the four different subsystems mentioned above. List all the
knobs and controls you can see within each subsystem? Also list the possible settings for each
such control or knob? Notice that your answer might vary depending on the type of
oscilloscope you are using.

....................................................................................

2. Locate the VCO-LO circuit block on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board.
Insert a two-post connector in the 1000 kHz terminals as shown in Figure 1-21.

3. Set the oscilloscope’s “Volts/Division” knob for Channel 1 to 20 mV/DIV (this knob is
located within the Vertical subsystem), and set the sweep (i.e., “Seconds/Division” knob) to
0.5 μs/DIV (this knob is located within the Horizontal subsystem). Connect the channel 1
probe to the output (OUT) of the VCO-LO circuit block, and connect the probe ground clip to a
ground terminal on the circuit board (Figure 1-21).

4. Set the Vertical Mode to CH1, and set the Trigger Source (in the Trigger subsystem) also to
CH1 (i.e., the signal on channel 1 is triggered internally by its own signal).

5. While observing the signal on the oscilloscope, turn the VCO-LO potentiometer knob
completely in the CW direction. This will give you maximum peak-to-peak voltage in the
output signal. Also, adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob to get an output signal frequency of
exactly 1000 kHz.

6. Turn the “Volts/Division” knob for channel 1 in the CW and then CCW directions. How
does that affect what you see on the oscilloscope?

....................................................................................

7. Now, turn the “Seconds/Division” knob in the CW and then CCW directions. How does
that affect the signal you see on the oscilloscope?

....................................................................................

0-5
PROCEDURE C – OSCILLOSCOPE TRIGGER

The oscilloscope is suitable for displaying signals that are periodic (i.e., repeat themselves in
time), such as sinusoidal, triangular and square wave signals.

The way a periodic signal is displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope is through a Trigger
subsystem, which is used to display a portion of the signal over and over again by successive
sweeps that start at corresponding points on that periodic waveform. This operation is
schematically illustrated in Figure 2.
Oscilloscope
Screen

Trigger
Level

Periodic Signal being displayed by the Oscilloscope

Sweep starting points
Figure 2.

To get a stable diagram of a periodic signal on the oscilloscope’s screen, each sweep on the
screen should start at a similar point of the periodic signal. This is why the signal used to
trigger the sweeping system should have the exact same frequency as the signal to be
displayed (or at least exact multiples of the signal’s frequency). Otherwise, you will not be able
to see a stable signal on the screen.

Figure 3 shows both an un-properly triggered (unstable) signal and a properly triggered
(stable) signal both being displayed on the oscilloscope screen.

Figure 3.

The LEVEL knob in the Trigger subsystem controls the voltage at which the trigger starts the
successive sweeps. The SLOPE button in the Trigger subsystem is used to specify whether the
signal should have a positive or negative slope at the sweep start.

0-6
The source of the trigger signal (Trigger Source) is chosen with a set of switches on the
oscilloscope. You may choose as your source of trigger the signals applied to the vertical
channels (by clicking on CH1 or CH2 buttons), or you may choose as your source of trigger the
50 Hz sinusoidal signal on power lines (by clicking on the LINE button), or you may choose as
your source of trigger the signal applied to the EXT input connector (by clicking on the EXT
button).

Choosing the Trigger Source to be CH1 or CH2 is the more common option, and the one you
will often use in this lab. You may choose to use CH1 or CH2 for triggering, independently of
which channel you are actually displaying on the oscilloscope’s screen. There is also an ALT
sweep, which selects the trigger from whichever channel is supposed to be displayed next on
the screen.

8. Make sure that channel 1 is set to 20 mV/DIV and that the sweep is set to 0.5 μs/DIV. Also
make sure that VCO-LO output is connected to the oscilloscope’s channel 1 probe, and the
Trigger Source is set to CH1. Is the signal you see now on the oscilloscope’s screen a stable
signal or not? Explain why it is stable, or why it is not stable. Note: If you get an unexpected
result, try adjusting the LEVEL knob in the Trigger subsystem.

....................................................................................

9. Set the Trigger Source to EXT. Use a BNC cable to connect the oscilloscope external trigger
port (EXT port) to the output of the VCO-LO block. Is the signal you see on the oscilloscope a
stable signal or not? Explain? Note: The EXT port is located on the bottom right corner in some
oscilloscopes, and on the rear panel in some other oscilloscopes.

....................................................................................

10. Now connect the channel 2 probe to the output of the VCO-HI circuit block, and connect
the probe ground clip to a ground terminal on the circuit board. Set the Vertical Mode to
DUAL (some oscilloscopes call this ALT mode). This will display both signals (channel 1 and
channel 2) on the oscilloscope simultaneously. Set the Trigger Source to CH2.

11. Slowly turn the VCO-HI potentiometer knob CW until the output signal on channel 2 is
400 mVpk-pk, and slowly turn the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob until the signal’s frequency is 1455
kHz?

12. Which of the two signals: VCO-LO or VCO-HI is stable? Explain?

....................................................................................

13. Switch the Trigger Source to EXT. Which of the two signals: VCO-LO or VCO-HI is stable?
Explain?

....................................................................................

0-7
14. What is the only Trigger Source setting that will ensure that both signals VCO-LO and
VCO-HI are stable at the same time? Explain?

....................................................................................

15. Keep the Trigger Source at EXT, and use a BNC cable to connect the oscilloscope external
trigger port to the output of the function generator. Set the function generator output to
roughly 1200 kHz and its voltage to around quarter turn of the amplitude signal on the
function generator. [You do not need to measure these values; rough values are acceptable].
Which of the two signals: VCO-LO or VCO-HI is stable now? Why?

....................................................................................

16. Disconnect all wiring from the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board.

PROCEDURE D – OSCILLOSCOPE COUPLING

For each of the vertical inputs (channels 1 and 2), the Oscilloscope provides three possible
coupling choices: GND, DC and AC. This allows you to select either a ground signal, direct
(DC) coupled signal or a capacitive (AC) coupled signal based on your needs.

17. Set the oscilloscope channel 1 to 50 mV/DIV and set the sweep to 0.5 ms/DIV, the Vertical
Mode to CH1, and the Trigger Source to CH1. Connect the channel 1 probe to the function
generator output.

18. Set the coupling of channel 1 to GND. Adjust the "Vertical Position" knob of channel 1 on
the oscilloscope so that the beam is in the middle of the screen. Now set the coupling of
channel 1 to DC.

19. Pull the "Offset" knob of the function generator outward and turn it to half way through.
This will add zero offset to the output signal of the function generator. While observing the
signal on the oscilloscope, adjust the function generator output signal to 2 Vpk-pk and 1 kHz
frequency.

20. Now slowly turn the "Offset" knob of the function generator further in the CW direction
and notice what happens to the signal on the oscilloscope. Explain your observations.

....................................................................................

21. While the offset knob is completely in the CW direction, set the coupling of channel 1 to
AC. What happens to the signal shown on the Oscilloscope?

....................................................................................

22. What circuit element does the oscilloscope use in AC coupling to block DC signals (offsets)?
Explain.

....................................................................................

0-8
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 2
AM TRANSMISSION

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 2
AM TRANSMISSION
OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the generation of
amplitude-modulated (AM) signals and explain how the message signal affects the shape of
the AM signal. You will also be able to calculate the modulation index, and describe 100%
modulation, under-modulation, over-modulation, and transmission efficiency.

DISCUSSION

There are many different ways to produce an AM signal, but all of them must allow the
amplitude variations of the message signal to be impressed onto the carrier signal. As shown
in Figure 2-4, a balanced modulator integrated circuit (IC) can function as the amplitude
modulator. The message and carrier signals are inputs to the amplitude modulator.

The balanced modulator is an IC that is designated as MC1496 (Figure 1-30). There are six
MC1496 ICs used on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board. Each IC consists of
eight NPN transistors (Q1 to Q8) as Figure 1-30 shows. These transistors are configured as dual
differential amplifiers and a constant current source. The upper four transistors are a cross-
coupled, dual-differential amplifier. The lower two transistors are a differential amplifier that
drive the upper amplifier. The bottom two transistors and associated bias circuitry form a
constant current source for the lower differential amplifier.

There are two inputs to the balanced modulator: a carrier signal input and a message
(modulating) signal input. There are also two outputs: The positive output at pin 6, and the
negative output at pin 12. Usually, the pin 12 output connects to the circuits following the
balanced modulator.

A null potentiometer is provided in the message signal input to adjust the base voltages at Q5
and Q6. This potentiometer adjusts the amount of modulation at the output and permits the
same IC to be used as an AM modulator (with the carrier frequency present) or as a DSB
modulator (with the carrier frequency suppressed).

1-2
The input carrier signal is usually set to a high amplitude to drive amplifiers Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4
into saturation so that they operate in a switching mode. The input message signal to the lower
differential amplifier is set to a low amplitude so that the amplifier operates in a linear mode.

The output is the full-wave multiplication of the input signals. For sine wave signal inputs
and suppressed carrier operation, the balanced modulator's output voltage (Vo) may be
expressed by the simplified expression shown below. The expression shows that Vo contains
the sum frequency of the inputs and the difference frequency of the inputs.

Vo  K  Vm cosm t  m   Vc cosc t  c 
 K  Vm  Vc   cosc  m  t  P   cosc  m  t  P  

When input signals have equal frequencies but are out of phase, the output difference
component is a dc voltage that varies with the cosine of the phase difference.

When the balanced modulator functions as an amplitude modulator, you adjust the amount of
modulation with the null potentiometer in the message signal input circuit. You can also adjust
the null potentiometer to suppress the carrier frequency to output a DSB signal.

The balanced modulator can also be used as a mixer that combines two frequencies to obtain a
higher or lower frequency. When a mixer is balanced to suppress the carrier signal, the sum
and difference frequencies are present in the output. A filter at the output of the mixer can
remove either sideband to obtain a higher or lower frequency.

1-3
Increasing or decreasing the amplitude of the message signal causes higher and lower peaks
and valleys in the envelope of the AM signal. Figure 2-5 illustrates this concept.

The modulation index (m) is a parameter that quantifies the peaks and valleys in the AM
signal. The modulation index is the ratio of the message signal m(t) peak amplitude to the
carrier signal peak amplitude, i.e., m = m(t) / carrier peak. With reference to Figure 2-8, the
calculation method for determining the modulation index (m) from the AM signal is shown
below.

message peak  A  B  2 A  B
m  
carrier peak A  B 2 A  B

For example, if A equals 4 V and B equals 1 V, the modulation index (m) is 0.6.

As the modulation index is increased, the power level of the sidebands (PSB) increases while
the carrier power (PC) remains constant. Because useful information contained in the AM
signal is located in the sidebands, maximizing the sideband power by increasing the
modulation index is desirable. However, in AM, the modulation index must not be greater
than 1, or distortion and interference will occur.

1-4
The AM waveform shown in Figure 2-12 is 100% modulated (modulation index equals 1.0).
You can see that the valleys touch the zero reference line. 100% modulation is desirable in AM
communications for maximum sideband power.

When over-modulation occurs (modulation index m > 1), both sides of the modulation
envelope cross over the zero reference line, as Figure 2-13 shows. In AM communications, over
modulation causes fake sideband frequencies called sideband splatter. This splatter causes
distortions in the receiver and interference with other radio stations.

The total power (PT) in an AM signal is the sum of the carrier power (PC) and the sideband
power (PSB)
PT = PC + PSB

Transmission efficiency (μ) is the fraction of total power that is contained in the sidebands:

PSB

PT
If the total power is 100 kW and the transmission efficiency is 0.242, the sideband power is
PSB = μ × PT = 24.2 kW.

Transmission efficiency is also related to the modulation index by the following equation:

m2

2  m2

which applies for the case of tone modulation (i.e., when the modulating signal is a sinusoidal
signal). For example, when the modulation index (m) is 0.8, the transmission efficiency (μ) is
0.242.

1-5
Refer to Figure 2-18 that shows a full AM transmitter. The RF power amplifier is the stage after
the modulator and before the transmitting antenna. It provides the power amplification
necessary for the antenna to radiate the RF signals over long distances.

Figure 2-19 shows a schematic of the amplifier section in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit
block in your kit. This section consists of an RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1) and an ANTENNA
MATCHING NETWORK.

The RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1) is a common emitter amplifier. Q1 is always forward biased
because of the constant Q1 dc base voltage. Consequently, Q1 operates as a class A amplifier.
The Q1 collector circuit contains coil L1. Because the dc voltage drop across L1 is very small,
the dc collector voltage essentially equals VCC (15.0 Vdc). The Q1 emitter resistors, R4 and R6,
provide dc bias stability. The emitter circuit has a bypass capacitor (C3) that connects R4 (10)
to ground to provide a high amplifier gain for ac signals. R2 and R3 function as a voltage
divider to provide a constant dc base voltage of about 4.8 Vdc for the amplifier. Capacitor C1
isolates the dc base voltage from R1.

The ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK connects to the Q1 collector through dc isolation

capacitor C2. The antenna matching network (a -network made up of reactive components
L2, C4, C5, and L3) has an impedance equal to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER output impedance,
which is equal to 330. The ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK helps transfer maximum
power to the low-impedance antenna (simulated by the resistance R5 = 51).

NOTE: To get the maximum output power, the antenna impedance should match that of the
RF amplifier.

1-6
In this experiment, you will make the power measurements with only the carrier signal,
which is a sine wave, because the AM signal is a complex waveform and power calculations
are difficult in such case with just oscilloscope measurements.

NOTE: To make power and current calculations you will need to convert your pk-pk voltage
measurements from the oscilloscope to rms values by multiplying the pk-pk values by
1 2 2  0.3535 .

Refer to Figure 2-23 as necessary. The input power to the Q1 circuit is the product of the input
current (Ii) and voltage (Vi). You calculate input current (Ii) from the voltage drop across R1
(6.8 kΩ), and you measure the input voltage (Vi) at the base of Q1. To get the input power,
multiply the input current by the input voltage:

Pi = Ii x Vi

The Q1 output power (Po) is the Q1 collector output voltage (Vo) squared and divided by the
load impedance (330Ω):
Po = Vo2/330

The Q1 power gain (Ap) is the output power (Po) divided by the input power (Pi).

Ap = Po / Pi

Power levels in communication systems are usually expressed in terms of decibels related to a
reference power level. A commonly used reference is 1 milliwatt (mW), which results in the
unit dBm. The following equation relates dBm to power (P) in watts:

dBm = 10 x log10 (P / 1 mW )

A dBm is an actual amount of power, whereas a dB represents a ratio of power. The use of
dBm is convenient when dealing with a number of stages. The difference between the dBm
level at the stage output and stage input is the power gain in dB.

1-7
PROCEDURE A - AM SIGNALS

In this PROCEDURE section, you will observe the effect of the message signal on the AM
signal.
1. Locate the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER and VCO-LO circuit blocks on the ANALOG
COMMUNICATIONS circuit board, and connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-6. Be sure to
place a two-post connector in the 1000 kHz position on the VCO-LO circuit block. Set switches
S1, S2, and S3 to OFF.
Note: The ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board contains three switches S1, S2 and S3:
 S1: Automatically balances the MODULATOR in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit. In
other words, the modulator starts generating a DSB-SC signal instead of a DSB-LC signal
 S2: Automatically balances the MIXER in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit.
 S3: Automatically adjusts the capacitor value in the ANTENNA MATCHING CIRCUIT so
that maximum power is transferred to the ANTENNA.

2. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the message signal input (M) of the
MODULATOR. Set channel 1 to 5 mV/DIV and set the sweep to 0.2 ms/DIV. Set the trigger
source to CH1. While observing the signal on channel 1, adjust the function generator for a 200
mVpk-pk, 2 kHz sine wave signal at M (Note: You can pull the amplitude knob or press the
Attenuation (ATT -20dB) button if you cannot reach 200 mVpk-pk).
3. Connect the channel 2 probe to the carrier signal input (C) of the MODULATOR. Set
channel 2 to 5 mV/DIV and set the sweep now to 0.5 µs/DIV. Set the trigger source to CH2.
While observing the signal on channel 2, adjust VCO-LO for a 300 mVpk-pk, 1000 kHz signal.
You can adjust the carrier frequency with the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the base unit, and
you can adjust the carrier amplitude with the potentiometer knob on the VCO-LO circuit
block.

NOTE: You have to be aware of the circuit loading effect. This is why you must do your
measurements only after you have completed connecting the above circuit. For example, if you
adjust VCO-LO level to around 550 mVpk-pk before you connect it to the modulator input, the
VCO-LO voltage will drop to around 300 mVpk-pk once you connect it to the modulator.

4. Now, connect the channel 2 probe to the output of the MODULATOR. Set the oscilloscope
vertical mode to DUAL (this is called ALT in certain oscilloscopes), and trigger on channel 1
(i.e., the message signal).

1-8
5. Adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that the AM waveform on oscilloscope
channel 2 has 2.0 V between the upper and lower peaks, as shown in Figure 2-7.

6. Does the AM signal envelope (channel 2) have the same shape and frequency as the message
signal?
....................................................................................

7. You have set the carrier signal frequency (fc) to 1000 kHz and the message signal frequency
(fm) to 2 kHz. Sketch the frequency spectrum of the resulting AM signal?

....................................................................................

8. Change the function generator signal from a sine wave to a square wave. Did the envelope
of the AM output signal change from a sine wave to a square wave or not?

....................................................................................

9. Set the function generator signal back to a sine wave. While observing the AM output signal
on channel 2, vary the function generator's FREQUENCY control knob to vary the message
signal frequency. Did the frequency of the AM signal envelope change to correspond to the
frequency of the message signal or not?

....................................................................................

10. Readjust the message signal frequency to 2 kHz. While observing the AM output signal,
vary the amplitude of the message signal by varying the function generator's amplitude knob.
Did the amplitude of the AM signal envelope change to correspond to the amplitude of the
message signal or not?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B - MODULATION INDEX

In this PROCEDURE section, you will make oscilloscope measurements of AM signals and
calculate the modulation index (m).

1. Make sure that switches S1, S2 and S3 are OFF.

1-9
2. On oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the peak-to-peak voltage of the message signal to
200 mVpk-pk. If necessary, adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that the AM
waveform shown on channel 2 has 2.0 V between the upper and lower peaks. The 2.0 V is
measurement A in Figure 2-8 (see the DISCUSSION section).

3. On oscilloscope channel 2, measure (in volts) the vertical height between the upper and
lower valleys of the modulated waveform (measurement B in Figure 2-8).

....................................................................................

4. Calculate the modulation index (m).

....................................................................................

5. Is this signal under-modulated or over-modulated?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE C - 100% MODULATION AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

In this PROCEDURE section, you will observe 100% modulation, observe over modulation,
and calculate transmission efficiency (μ).

1. Make sure that switches S1, S2, and S3 are OFF. Readjust the oscilloscope Volts/DIV and
Sec/DIV so that the AM signal on channel 2 appears as shown in Figure 2-14.

2. While observing the AM signal on channel 2, increase the amplitude of the message signal
until the AM signal envelope waveform touches the zero reference line, as shown in
Figure 2-12. The distance represented by B on the AM signal waveform is now 0.0 V.

1-10
3. On oscilloscope channel 2, measure (in volts) the vertical distance between the upper and
lower peaks of the modulated waveform (measurement A in Figure 2-11).

....................................................................................

4. Calculate the modulation index (m).

....................................................................................

5. Calculate the transmission efficiency (μ) in the case of 100% modulation.

....................................................................................

6. In the case of m = 1, if the total power in the AM signal (PT) is 50 kW, calculate the sideband
power (PSB) by using your calculated value of transmission efficiency μ.

....................................................................................

7. Now increase the message signal amplitude on channel 1 by adjusting the LEVEL knob on
the function generator until the AM signal appears as shown in Figure 2-15. Is this AM signal
under-modulated or over-modulated?

....................................................................................

8. Is the modulation index of the AM signal greater than or less than 1?

....................................................................................

9. Is an over-modulated signal desirable in AM communications? and why?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE D - RF POWER AMPLIFIER AND POWER GAIN

In this PROCEDURE section, you will study the RF power amplifier and measure the input
power, output power, and power gain.

29. Set S1 and S2 OFF. Set S3 ON which will automatically adjust the variable capacitor C4 so
that the ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK impedance is 330 Ω at 1 MHz frequency.

1-11
30. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-24(a). The circuit schematic is also shown in Figure
2-24(b). Connect the output of VCO-LO to the carrier input (C) of the MODULATOR. Also
connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the carrier signal input (C), and trigger on CH1.

31. While observing the signal on channel 1, adjust the VCO-LO output for a
300 mVpk-pk, 1 MHz signal.

32. Connect the function generator (Figure 2-25) and the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the
MODULATOR message signal input (M). Trigger on CH2.

33. While observing the signal on channel 2, adjust the function generator for a 100 mVpk-pk,
2 kHz sine wave signal at the message input of the MODULATOR.

34. Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope probe to the output of the MODULATOR. Set the
oscilloscope vertical mode to DUAL (or ALT in other oscilloscopes) and trigger on channel 2
(the message signal). Adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that the AM waveform
is 100% modulated.

1-12
35. Now DISCONNECT the function generator from the MODULATOR message signal input
(M) so that you only have the carrier signal.

36. Measure the voltage drop across R1 by first measuring the voltage at the input of R1 and
the voltage at the output of R1 (use the oscilloscope, not the multimeter) then subtract these
two values to get VR1. What is VR1(pk-pk)?
....................................................................................

37. Convert VR1(pk-pk) value that you calculated in step 36 to an rms value.
(VR1(rms) = VR1(pk-pk) x 0.3535)

....................................................................................
38. Calculate the current (IR1(rms)) in resistor R1 (6.8 kΩ), which is also the current to the RF
POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).
IR1(rms) = VR1(rms) /6.8 kΩ
....................................................................................

39. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage (VQ1(pk-pk)) at the input to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER
(Q1).
....................................................................................

40. Convert VQ1(pk-pk) value that you measured in step 39 to an rms value (VQ1(irms) = VQ1(pk-pk) x
0.3535). Use your result and the IR1(rms) value you calculated in step 38 to calculate the rms
input power (PQ1(i)) to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).
PQ1(i) = VQ1(irms) x IR1(rms)
....................................................................................

41. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the input of the ANTENNA MATCHING
NETWORK (RF POWER AMPLIFIER output). On channel 2, measure the peak-to-peak voltage
at the RF POWER MPLIFIER output (VQ1(opk-pk))
....................................................................................

42. Convert the VQ1(opk-pk) value that you measured earlier to an rms value, and use your result
to calculate the RF POWER AMPLIFIER output power (PQ1(o)):

PQ1(o) = VQ1(orms) 2/330

....................................................................................

43. Calculate the power gain (Ap) of the RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).

Ap = PQ1(o) /PQ1(i)

....................................................................................

1-13
44. Now convert the input power to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER into dBm.
dBmi = 10 x log10 (PQ1(i) / 1 mW )

....................................................................................

45. Also convert the output power from the RF POWER AMPLIFIER into dBm.
dBmo = 10 x log10 (PQ1(o) / 1 mW)

....................................................................................

46. From the input and output power in dBms, calculate the power gain of the RF stage in dB.

ApdB = dBmo  dBmi

....................................................................................

1-14
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 3
AM RECEPTION

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 3
AM RECEPTION

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the different components
of an AM receiver including the RF filter, mixer, IF filter and envelope detector.

DISCUSSION

On the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS kit, the transmitted AM signal is sent by a direct

connection to the receiver, not through the airwaves as in regular radio transmission (see
Figure 3-3). A 1 MΩ resistor (R8) in this connection reduces the AM signal power, thus
simulating the attenuation in an RF radio channel.

The basic sections of the AM receiver are shown in Figure 3-14. Refer to this figure as necessary
to follow along with the general path of the received AM signal.

NOTE: The IF AMPLIFIER is not included on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS board.

The first stage in the AM RECEIVER circuit block contains an RF FILTER and an RF
AMPLIFIER (collectively called the RF stage). The RF FILTER schematic is shown in Figure 3-8
and consists of a variable inductor and a fixed capacitor in parallel, representing an LC
bandpass filter circuit.

1-2
The 1 MΩ resistor (R8) connects to a tap in inductor L4 that is positioned to give a 7.7 turns
ratio. Because of this ratio, the RF filter's input impedance is about 50Ω when the filter is
running at 1000 kHz. A voltage divider is formed by R8 (1 MΩ) and the 50Ω antenna input
impedance of the inductor. Because of the voltage divider, the voltage of the signal to R8 will
be reduced by a ratio of 50 to 1,000,050 at the inductor tap (simulating losses on the
transmission channel).

When the input signal frequency equals the resonant frequency (fr) of the RF FILTER, L4
impedance equals that of C7, and the circuit becomes purely resistive and the output signal
passes with minimum attenuation. All frequencies far from the resonant frequency (i.e.,
outside the RF FILTER bandwidth) are rejected.

The RF FILTER bandwidth is designed such that it is wide enough to pass the upper sideband
(USB) and lower sideband (LSB) frequencies of the AM signal, which are on each side of the
1000 kHz carrier frequency (fc) (see Figure 1-17). For this to happen, the filter's resonant
frequency must be tuned to fc. Remember that the USB = fc + fm and the LSB = fc - fm. With a
1000 kHz carrier signal (fc) that carriers a 2 kHz message signal (fm), the sideband frequencies
are 1002 kHz and 998 kHz.

AM Signal Spectrum

RF FILTER transfer function

The RF FILTER variable inductor (L4) is already adjusted for you so that the center frequency
of the RF FILTER is set to 1000 kHz.

The RF AMPLIFIER schematic is shown in Figure 3-5, which is a single-ended differential

amplifier composed of two transistors: Q2 and Q3. The input connects to the bases of Q2; the
base of Q3 is grounded for ac signals. The emitters of Q2 and Q3 connect to the collector of Q4,
which functions as a constant-current source. Q3 is a common base amplifier.

1-3
The Q3 collector is coupled to the base of Q5, which functions as an emitter-follower buffer.
The RF amplifier output is at C10 in the Q5 emitter circuit. The power gain of the RF
AMPLIFIER is very high so that the amplifier can greatly increase the power level of the AM
signal selected by the RF FILTER. The RF AMPLIFIER increases the AM signal’s power level
by about 72 dB (power gain of about 16,000,000).

The Q3 collector is connected to an RLC network, which contains a variable inductor (L5). The
variable inductor L5 is adjusted for you so that the RLC network is tuned to give maximum
gain at 1000kHz frequency. When the input frequency is 1000kHz, the inductive and capacitive
reactances in the RLC circuit cancel, and the circuit becomes purely resistive impedance.

The role of the MIXER (see Figure 3-14) is to join the RF stage to the IF stage. The MIXER
combines the 1000 kHz AM signal from the RF stage with a 1455 kHz local oscillator signal to
produce a 455 kHz difference signal for the IF stage.

The same type of IC (MC1496) used for the balanced modulator is used for the mixer. There
are two inputs to the mixer: M (message) and C (carrier). The MIXER'S (M) input is from the
RF AMPLIFIER output. The mixer's local oscillator input (C) is a 1455 kHz signal from the
VCO-HI circuit block.

The mixer converts (or translates) the AM signal frequency (1000 kHz) to the fixed IF signal
frequency (455 kHz) by the process of multiplication. This will also generate, in addition to the
455 kHz difference frequencies, the sum frequencies (around 2455 kHz) and the local oscillator
frequency (1455 kHz) (see Figure 3-22). You will later balance the mixer to suppress the
1455kHz local oscillator frequency in the mixer's output.

The IF FILTER in the IF stage is a ceramic filter, which has a higher attenuation outside of the
filter's bandwidth than LC filters do (see Figure 3-16). The IF FILTER is designed to pass a
455kHz signal with a bandwidth that includes the AM sidebands: the LSB at 453 kHz and the
USB at 457 kHz. The bandwidth of the IF FILTER is 20 kHz. Frequencies outside of this range
are greatly attenuated.

1-4
 Difference Sum
frequencies frequencies
(an AM signal) (an AM signal)

Local oscillator
frequency

As shown in Figure 3-17, the message detector used here is the envelope detector formed by a
diode (CR1) in series with the parallel RC network. The circuit is designed to have a fast charge
time and a slow discharge time, with the resistor (R12) controlling the discharge time constant
(see Figure 3-18). There is an optimum value for the RC circuit discharge time constant
depending on the carrier frequency and the modulating signal frequency. A rule of thumb is:

1
R12C10 
fc

1-5
When an AM signal is applied to the envelope detector circuit input, the diode conducts only
during the positive portion of the AM signal. The charging and discharging output signal of
the envelope detector RC circuit closely follows the positive envelope of the AM signal, thus
recovering the original message signal (see Figure 3-19).

On the positive half-cycles of the input signal, the capacitor charges to the peak input voltage.
Therefore, the voltage across R12 and C10 will equal that of the input signal (minus the diode
voltage drop) because the diode is forward biased. When the input signal drops below this
value, the diode turns off, and the capacitor (C10) starts to slowly discharge through the
resistor (R12) at the rate determined by the RC time constant.

On the next positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode turns on, and C10 again charges to
the new value determined by the input signal. The process repeats itself.

A major drawback of the envelope detector is that approximately 0.4V to 0.6V voltage drop
must exist across the diode before the diode conducts. This drawback is more pronounced for
weak signals or 100% modulated signals. The effect of the diode's forward voltage drop is
shown in Figure 3-31.

1-6
PROCEDURE A - RF FILTER AND RF AMPLIFIER

1. Connect the AM transmitter circuit as shown in Figure 3-6.

2. On the VCO-LO circuit block, insert the two-post connector in the 1000 kHz position.

3. Set switches S1 and S2 OFF. Set S3 ON.

4. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the MODULATOR carrier signal input (C), and
trigger on CH1.

5. While observing the signal on channel 1, set the carrier signal amplitude to 300 mVpk-pk, and
its frequency to 1000 kHz.

6. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the MODULATOR message signal input (M),
and trigger on CH2.

7. While observing the signal on oscilloscope channel 2, adjust the function generator for a
100 mVpk-pk, 2 kHz sine wave signal.

8. Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope probe to the output of the antenna (R5). Set the sweep to
0.1 ms/DIV, and trigger on channel 2. Adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that
the AM waveform is 100% modulated, as shown in Figure 3-7.

9. With a two-post connector, connect the TRANSMITTER to the 1MΩ resistor (R8) at the
AM/SSB RECEIVER circuit block input (see Figure 3-9). Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope
probe to the R8 input.

1-7
10. If the receiver is properly configured to receive your AM signal, what is the resonant
frequency (fr) of the RF FILTER?

....................................................................................

11. With the 1000 kHz carrier signal and a 2 kHz message signal, what is the frequency of the
LSB that the RF filter has to pass?

....................................................................................

12. With a 1000 kHz carrier signal and a 2 kHz message signal, what is the RF FILTER'S
minimum bandwidth (BW) necessary to pass the received AM signal?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B - MIXER, IF FILTER, AND ENVELOPE DETECTOR

14. Connect the oscilloscope external probe to the (M) input of the MODULATOR block in the
AM Transmitter circuit, and trigger on EXT. Set the oscilloscope sweep to 0.2 ms/DIV.

15. As shown in Figure 3-23, connect the output of the 1455 kHz VCO-HI circuit block to the
local oscillator (C) input of the MIXER. Set the VCO-HI potentiometer knob fully CW.
CONNECT the MIXER to the IF FILTER with a two-post connector.

16. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the MIXER'S output. Adjust the MIXER’S
balance potentiometer knob until the MIXER’S output signal appears as shown in Figure 3-25.
This adjustment suppresses the 1455 kHz local oscillator frequency in the mixed signal.

NOTE: Two AM signals and a suppressed carrier are shown in the MIXER’S output signal in
Figure 3-25.

1-8
17. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the MIXER'S output, and connect the channel 1
probe to the MIXER'S M input. Adjust the MIXER'S potentiometer one last time for a clear,
sharp output signal. Compare the MIXER'S output signal on channel 2 with the MIXER'S input
signal on channel 1. Is there another modulation envelope within the AM signal at the
MIXER’S output (similar to what is shown in Figure 3-25)?

....................................................................................

18. What are the frequencies present in the signal at the MIXER'S input?

....................................................................................

19. What are the frequencies present in MIXER'S output signal? Hint: The two envelopes
present in the MIXER'S output signal (see Figure 3-25) are two AM modulated signals.

....................................................................................

20. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the output of the IF FILTER. While observing
the IF FILTER output, adjust the 1455 kHz VCO-HI frequency using the POSITIVE SUPPLY
knob on the base unit you receive maximum IF FILTER peak-to-peak signal. If the VCO-HI
frequency is not exact, the AM signal will not appear at the output of the IF FILTER.

21. Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope probe to the IF FILTER output. Channel 2 should be
connected to the IF FILTER input. Trigger on external.

22. Compare the IF FILTER output on channel 1 with the IF FILTER input on channel 2. How
many modulation envelopes are there in the IF FILTER output?

....................................................................................

23. While observing the IF FILTER output signal on channel 1, slightly vary the frequency of
the 1455 kHz signal to the MIXER by adjusting the POSITIVE SUPPLY fine tune knob on the
base unit. Why does the IF FILTER output signal disappear when the frequency of the 1455
kHz signal to the MIXER is slightly increased or decreased?

....................................................................................

1-9
24. While observing the IF FILTER output signal on channel 1, slightly vary the frequency of
the 1455 kHz signal to the MIXER by adjusting the POSITIVE SUPPLY fine tune knob on the
base unit to get the signal back at the IF FILTER output.

25. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the MODULATOR message signal input on the
AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit block, and connect the channel 2 probe to the ENVELOPE
DETECTOR output. Trigger on channel 1. Observe the ripple on the ENVELOPE DETECTOR
output.

26. Does the signal at the ENVELOPE DETECTOR output have the same frequency as the
message signal?

....................................................................................

27. At the function generator, vary the frequency of the message signal. Did the ENVELOPE
DETECTOR output frequency vary with the frequency of the message signal?

....................................................................................

28. The distorted flattened negative peaks of the message signal are caused by the 100%
modulated signal at the ENVELOPE DETECTOR. Reduce the modulation index of the
transmitted AM signal by slowly turning the potentiometer knob on the MODULATOR in
the CCW direction, while observing the negative peaks of the recovered message signal
become normal. Explain your observations.

....................................................................................

29. Explain how does changing the value of the RC discharge time constant of the envelope
detector affects the ripple in the recovered message signal?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE C - DESIGN A RECEIVER

30. Another method for recovering an AM signal is using a PRODUCT DETECTOR instead of
an envelope detector. A PRODUCT DETECTOR is simply a multiplying device (i.e., a mixer).
Show the connections you need to perform in the following figure to be able to recover the
message signal from an AM modulated signal.

1-10
31. Test your design on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board and see the
resulting signals using the oscilloscope. Did you obtain the recovered signal from the output of
the PRODUCT DETECTOR or the output of the AUDIO FILTER (which is a LPF)? and why?

....................................................................................

32. Change the function generator’s output amplitude and frequency (i.e., the message signal).
How does that affect the recovered signal?

....................................................................................

1-11
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 4
Frequency Modulation and PLL

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 4
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND PLL

OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe FM modulation and
demodulation along with their respective circuits including the VCO, quadrature detector and
phase-locked loop (PLL).

DISCUSSION

The three frequency modulation (FM) concepts you need to remember are:
1. The carrier frequency deviates in proportion with the message signal amplitude.
2. The message signal's frequency does not affect the carrier frequency but does affect the rate
of frequency deviation.
3. Amplitude variations of the FM carrier contain no message signal intelligence; only
frequency deviations contain the intelligence.

As illustrated in Figure 6-5, the carrier frequency in the FM signal is at its greatest or smallest
when the message signal's amplitude is at its maximum or minimum values. When the
message signal is at its zero reference, the carrier frequency deviation is zero, because the carrier
is at its center frequency.

If the peak amplitude of the message signal is constant but its frequency increases (for
example, from 2 kHz to 4 kHz), the maximum frequency deviation of the carrier signal does
not change. However, the same frequency deviation will occur 4000 times per second (4 kHz)
instead of 2000 times per second (2 kHz).

Because amplitude variations of the FM signal do not contain any message signal intelligence,
the FM carrier's amplitude can be limited within desired values (see Figure 6-6). Consequently,
noise amplitude spikes can be reduced by limiter circuits. Efficient class C amplifiers, which
may affect amplitude but not frequency, can also be used in FM equipment.

2-1
The bandwidth required by an FM signal depends upon two factors: the peak frequency
deviation of the carrier (f) and the frequency of the message signal itself (fm). Figure 6-8
shows the FM spectrum of a 450 kHz carrier signal with a 5 kHz modulating sinusoidal
message signal.

In the FM spectrum, two sidebands that are spaced equally above and below the carrier's
center frequency are called a sideband pair. The energy contained in each sideband pair
decreases as the sideband pair get further from the center frequency. A point is reached at
which a sideband pair contains so little energy that they can be disregarded. The point is
determined by the modulation index.

The FM modulation index () is the ratio of carrier peak frequency deviation (f) to the
maximum message signal frequency (fm):

 = f / fm

For example, if a 5 kHz message signal (fm) causing a carrier frequency deviation of ± 10 kHz
(i.e., f = 10 kHz), the modulation index would be:

 = 10/5 = 2

The maximum number of significant sideband pairs (SSP) for FM signals is given by Carson’s
rule which states that SSP =  + 1. The FM signal with a modulation index of 2, for example,
would have 3 significant sideband pairs. If a 450 kHz FM carrier signal were modulated by a
5 kHz message signal, it would have the sidebands spaced 5 kHz apart for 15 kHz on each side
of the 450 kHz center frequency. Even thought the frequency deviation is f = 10 kHz, the FM
bandwidth would be 30 kHz (435 kHz to 465 kHz). In other words the bandwidth of an FM
signal is BW = 2 (fm) ( + 1) = 2 (fm) (SSP + 1).

2-2
Advantages of FM modulation include good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the ability to use
more efficient class C amplifiers because amplitude distortion does not affect the signal
quality. The FM modulation disadvantage is the requirement of wider bandwidth than AM
modulation.

One way to generate an FM signal is using a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) circuit. In a

previous experiment, you used the VCO-LO circuit block to generate a 452 kHz or a 1000 kHz
sine wave, depending on the position of the two-post connector used. In this PROCEDURE
section, you will use the VCO-LO block to generate an FM signal.

Remember that the potentiometer knob on the VCO-LO circuit block adjusts the output
amplitude. To adjust the VCO-LO output frequency, you can adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY
knob on the top left side of the base unit.

A simplified schematic of the VCO-LO circuit block is shown in Figure 6-12. The oscillator
block consists of two transistors that are connected in a cross-coupled oscillator configuration.
The oscillator's frequency is determined by the tuning of the LC network shown. You can tune
the LC network by changing the value of the voltage applied at the anode of the varactor diode
CR2. The voltage is applied by the NEGATIVE SUPPLY voltage source. The value of the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY voltage affects the CR2 capacitance which, in turn, affects the tuning of
the LC network. As the NEGATIVE SUPPLY voltage becomes more negative, VCO-LO's
output frequency increases. At 0 Vdc, the output frequency is about 310 kHz. At -10 Vdc, the
output frequency is about 510 kHz. The VCO-LO feeds its output through a buffer to the VCO-
LO potentiometer, which acts as a simple voltage divider. You adjust the potentiometer to set
the VCO-LO output amplitude.
Test Point
(T) LC Tuning
Network

At test point T, you can measure the DC voltage at CR2's anode. To use the VCO-LO as an FM
modulator, the message signal is fed at terminal (M), and it causes the voltage at CR2 to vary.
You can observe the FM signal at the (FM) OUT terminal.

FM demodulators are referred to as discriminators or frequency detectors. A quadrature

detector is one of several circuits that can demodulate FM signals. Other FM demodulator
circuits include the Foster-Seeley discriminator, the ratio detector, the pulse counting detector,
and the phase-locked loop detector. All of these circuits convert FM frequency variations into
the amplitude of the message signal.

2-3
The QUADRATURE DETECTOR circuit block on your kit includes a PHASE SHIFTER, a
LIMITER, a PHASE DETECTOR (MIXER), and a FILTER. A simplified schematic of the
quadrature detector is shown in Figure 6-24.

At the quadrature detector's input, the FM signal takes two paths. In one path, the FM signal is
input to a phase shifter (which is simply a resonant LC circuit). The phase shifter converts
frequency deviations into phase deviations (slightly above and slightly below 90°). The phase
shifter signal is then fed to a LIMITER.

The phase shifter circuit is composed of an amplifier, a capacitor and an LC network (see
Figure 6-24). The FM signal goes first through an amplifier, which is a non inverting op amp
with a gain of about 2. The capacitor shifts the FM signal by 90°. Because the resonant
frequency (fr) of the LC network equals the FM center frequency, it is a purely resistive
impedance to the FM center frequency. Consequently, the 90° phase shift of the center
frequency is not affected by the LC network.

However, frequencies greater or less than fr are shifted less or more than 90°, respectively,
from the original FM signal. In reference to the original FM signal, frequency deviations on
each side of the FM center frequency will be greater than or less than 90° out of phase because
the frequency deviations produce the phase deviations.

The original FM signal and the phase-shifted/limited FM signal are then fed to a phase
detector, which is a balanced modulator. The balanced modulator combines the input
frequencies to produce sum and difference frequencies. Because the FM inputs have equal
frequencies, the sum frequency is twice the FM frequency. However, the difference frequency
component becomes a DC voltage that varies with the phase difference between the two inputs
(around 90°). Because FM frequency deviations are converted to phase differences at the
output of the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER, the phase detector's difference dc voltage
component varies directly with the message signal. Therefore, the output of the phase detector
contains the sum frequency and the message signal.

A low pass filter (RC network) at the phase detector's output removes the high-frequency
signal and passes the varying dc output voltage as the recovered message signal.

The phase-shifted FM signal is input to a LIMITER (shown in Figure 6-25). The limiter has two
Zener diodes connected from the output to ground with their polarities reversed: anodes
connect to cathodes. The reversed-polarity diodes limit the output amplitude and minimize
any amplitude changes that the phase shifter may cause.

2-4
The following components (see Figure 7-3) make
up the PHASE-LOCKED LOOP circuit block on
your kit:
 PHASE DETECTOR
 FILTER
 AMPLIFIER
 VCO

The PHASE DETECTOR, which is detailed in Figure 7-4, is an MC1496 balanced modulator
whose function is similar to that of the phase detector on the QUADRATURE DETECTOR
circuit block. It performs a full-wave multiplication of the RF and VCO input signals. When the
RF input frequency (fi) equals the VCO output frequency (fvco), the phase detector's output
includes the sum frequency of the inputs (fi + fvco) and a difference component, which is a dc
voltage.

The low-pass RC filter removes the sum frequency and passes the dc voltage of the PLL's
output signal, which is also the feedback signal. In order for the PLL to operate in a closed
loop, you must insert a two-post connector on your circuit board to connect the filter and
amplifier, as shown in Figure 7-4. The amplifier increases the feedback signal's voltage to the
VCO. The DC voltage feedback signal controls fvco to match fi, by changing the capacitance of a
varactor diode in the VCO circuit.

When fi changes, there is an initial phase change between the PHASE DETECTOR'S RF and
VCO input signals. The phase change causes the PHASE DETECTOR'S dc output voltage
(difference component) to change. The amplified change in the dc output voltage that is fed
back to the VCO causes fvco to match the change in fi.

2-5
Any PLL has three characteristics that you need to know about (see Figure 7-2):
 Free-running frequency fo (about 456 kHz on your kit)
 Capture range (between 454 kHz and 458 kHz approximately on your kit)
 Lock range (between 400 kHz and 480 kHz approximately on your kit)

Usually the lock range of a PLL is

greater than the capture range, and
the free-running frequency is in the
middle of both ranges. The PLL
operates as follows: Once fi goes
within the capture range, fvco can
track fi for all values of fi so long as it
is within the lock range. If fi leaves
the lock range fvco reverts back to the
free-running frequency.

The dynamic range of the PHASE DETECTOR'S difference component dc voltage determines
the lock range. This is because when the dc voltage reaches its limit and does not change with
an input phase change, it can no longer cause fvco to match the change in fi; fvco then reverts to
the free-running frequency fo. And since the phase detector's difference component is a dc
voltage, it is not affected by the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter.

Notice, however, that if fi doesn’t go inside the capture range of the PLL in the first place,
which is about  2 kHz around the VCO's free-running frequency (fo), then fvco will remain at
fo, and the PLL will not follow the input frequency.

The filter cut-off frequency determines the capture range. This is because when fi and fvco are not
equal, the sum and difference frequencies are output from the phase detector. To capture fvco
the difference frequency (fi – fvco) has to be within the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter. If
the difference frequency is greater than the filter's cutoff frequency, the filter will remove the
difference frequency and prevent a feedback signal to the VCO.

When the filter's output is not connected to the amplifier (open loop), there is no feedback
signal to the VCO. With an open loop, fvco is set by the dc bias voltage (about -4.8 Vdc) to the
free-running frequency (fo) of the VCO.

When a PLL is locked, the phase detector's input frequencies (fi and fvco) are equal but 90° out
of phase. When fi changes, the 90° phase difference between fi and fvco changes (see
Figure 7-15). The initial phase change between fi and fvco causes the phase detector's dc voltage
difference component to change. Every variation in fi causes a phase change with fvco, which
then causes the dc voltage difference component to change. The dc voltage, or the feedback to
the VCO, causes fvco to change so that it equals fi .

After capture, if the bandwidth of the FM signal stays within the PLL's lock range, the PLL
recovers the message signal. However, if the bandwidth of the FM signal becomes greater than
the PLL's lock range, fvco returns to its free-running frequency (fo).

2-6
PROCEDURE A - FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

In this PROCEDURE section, you will frequency modulate a carrier signal, measure its
parameters, and observe its characteristics.

1. Locate the VCO-LO circuit block. Insert the two-post connector in the 452 kHz terminals
(Figure 6-13). Set the VCO-LO amplitude potentiometer fully CW.

2. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to (FM) OUT on VCO-LO. Set channel 2 for
20 mV/DIV and the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV, and trigger on channel 2.

NOTE: Whenever you make oscilloscope measurements, be sure that you connect the probe's
ground clip to a ground terminal on the circuit board. Also remember that the probe is x10.

3. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to test point T. Set channel 1 for 100 mV/DIV and
its coupling to DC. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob for (-4.0) Vdc at T.

4. After you have measured the 4 Vdc, adjust the vertical position of channel 1 and 2
oscilloscope traces so they are not overlapping. You might need to adjust the VCO-LO
potentiometer knob slightly to get the appropriate signal on channel 2.

5. Accurately measure the period (T) between the peaks of the unmodulated FM carrier signal
on channel 2. From the period (T), calculate the center frequency (f) in kHz of the unmodulated
FM carrier signal (f = 1/T).

....................................................................................

2-7
6. You will determine the frequency deviation of the FM carrier when the message signal
amplitude changes by 1 Vdc. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW to change the voltage at
test point T on the VCO-LO circuit block to (5.0) Vdc.

7. Accurately measure the period (T) between the peaks of the modulated FM carrier signal on
channel 2. From T, calculate the frequency of the modulated FM carrier signal. Record f in kHz.
....................................................................................

8. Calculate the VCO sensitivity (kf) which is the frequency deviation when the message
signal’s amplitude decreases by 1 Vdc. The FM center frequency is the value you calculated in
step 5, and the frequency with a (1) Vdc message signal is the value you just calculated in the
previous step. Record your answer in kHz/Volt.
....................................................................................

9. To return the carrier frequency to the center frequency, adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob
to (4.0) Vdc.

10. You will now observe the effect of a 2.0 Vpk-pk, 5 kHz message signal on the FM carrier
frequency. Connect the FUNCTION GENERATOR to (M) on the VCO-LO circuit block, as
shown in Figure 6-15.

11. Set the sweep to 50 µs/DIV, and trigger on Channel 1. Adjust the FUNCTION
GENERATOR for a 2.0 Vpk-pk, 5 kHz sine wave at T. This adjustment is equivalent to varying
the voltage at T by ± 1V. Now, set the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV and trigger on channel 2. Observe
channel 2, which shows an FM signal like the one in Figure 6-16.

2-8
12. Explain why doesn’t the FM signal shown in Figure 6-16 look similar to the FM signal
shown earlier in Figure 6-5.

....................................................................................

13. Since the message signal is 2.0 Vpk-pk (i.e., its peak is 1 V), the frequency deviation (f) of the
FM signal is equal to kf × 1 V = kf. Calculate the modulation index () for the FM signal that has
a sensitivity (kf) of the amount you determined in step 8 and with a 5 kHz message signal (fm).

....................................................................................

14. Using the  you calculated above, find the number of significant sideband pairs (SSP). If 
is not a whole number, use the next highest  to find the number of SSP.

....................................................................................

15. Now calculate the bandwidth (BW) of your FM signal in kHz.

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B – FM DETECTION USING QUADATURE DETECTOR

In this PROCEDURE section, you will study the FM quadrature detector by observing how a
phase shifter changes the phase of an FM carrier signal and how the phase detector and filter
recover the message signal.

1. On the VCO-LO circuit block, insert the two-post connector in the 452 kHz terminals, and
disconnect the FUNCTION GENERATOR from the message (M) input if it is already
connected (see Figure 6-26).

2. Connect (FM) OUT on the VCO-LO circuit block to the FM input on the QUADRATURE
DETECTOR circuit block.

3. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to FM on the QUADRATURE DETECTOR circuit

block, and trigger on channel 1.

2-9
4. Set channel 1 for 10 mV/DIV and the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV. With the potentiometer knob on
VCO-LO, adjust the unmodulated FM carrier signal at FM for 300 mVpk-pk.

5. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the output of the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER on
the QUADRATURE DETECTOR circuit block. Set channel 2 for 20 mV/DIV. Adjust the FM
frequency by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the left side of the base unit until the
waveform on channel 2 has a maximum amplitude.

6. Count how many horizontal divisions represent one cycle (360°) on channel 1 signal.
....................................................................................

7. When the output amplitude of the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER is maximum, the FM center
frequency is equal to what frequency: the LC network resonant frequency (fr) or the message
signal frequency?
....................................................................................

8. Measure the phase difference between the unmodulated FM carrier signal on channel 1 and
the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER output signal on channel 2? Note: You know how many
horizontal divisions represent 360° from step 6 above.
....................................................................................
9. In the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER circuit, what component causes a phase shift of 90°
between the input and output signals: the amplifier, the capacitor, the LC network, or the
limiter?
....................................................................................

10. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the base unit CW and then CCW to vary the FM
frequency. Why do you think the phase difference between the input and output signals
increase and decrease:
(a) because the LC network causes a different phase shift when the FM frequency varies, or
(b) because the 90° phase shift caused by the capacitor is changing?
....................................................................................

11. Why does the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER output signal on channel 2 have flattened peaks
and valleys:
(a) because the limiter restricts the amplitude of the output signal, or
(b) because the output signal is out-of-phase with the input signal?
....................................................................................

12. While observing the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER output signal (channel 2), reduce the
amplitude of the input signal (channel 1) to about 100 mVpk-pk and then back to 300 mVpk-pk by
turning the potentiometer on the VCO-LO circuit block CCW and then CW. When you
reduced the input signal to 100 mVpk-pk, did the PHASE SHIFTER/LIMITER output signal
(channel 2) become a sine wave or more flattened?
....................................................................................

2-10
13. The circuit is now connected as shown in Figure 6-29.

14. Make sure that the channel 1 signal is adjusted for 300 mVpk-pk, and adjust the NEGATIVE
SUPPLY knob on the BASE UNIT so that the channel 2 waveform is 90° out-of- phase with the
channel 1 signal (see Figure 6-30).

15. What is the PHASE DETECTOR'S output signal on channel 2: (a) the sum frequency or (b)
the difference frequency or (c) both?

....................................................................................
16. What is the PHASE DETECTOR output difference component (which is also the output of
the FILTER): the FM signal or a dc voltage?

....................................................................................

17. Use a voltmeter to measure dc volts. Connect the voltmeter lead to the FILTER’S output,
and connect the common lead to ground. With a 90° phase difference between the input
signals, measure and record the dc voltage at the FILTER’S output (V90°)

....................................................................................

18. Set the phase difference between the signals on channels 1 and 2 to 135° by adjusting the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY voltage knob CCW. With a 135° phase difference between the input
signals, measure and record the dc voltage at the FILTER’S output (V135°).

....................................................................................

19. Set the phase difference between the signals on channels 1 and 2 to 45° by adjusting the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY voltage knob CW. With a 45° phase difference between the input signals,
measure and record the dc voltage at the FILTER’S output (V45°).

....................................................................................

20. When the phase difference was increased or decreased from 90°, did the dc output voltage
change?
....................................................................................

2-11
21. Set the phase difference between the signals on channels 1 and 2 back to 90° (Figure 6-30)
by adjusting the FM frequency with the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob.

22. Now, you will modulate the FM carrier with a 300 mVpk-pk, 3 kHz message signal. Connect
the FUNCTION GENERATOR to (M) on the VCO-LO circuit block (Figure 6-32).

23. Connect the channel 1 probe to T on VCO-LO. Set channel 1 for 10 mV/DIV, set the sweep
to 0.1 ms/DIV, and trigger on channel 1.

24. Adjust the FUNCTION GENERATOR (message signal) for a 300 mVpk-pk, 3 kHz sine wave
at T on VCO-LO (channel 1).

25. Connect the channel 2 probe to the PHASE DETECTOR'S output (just before the FILTER) to
observe the sum and difference frequency signals. Set channel 2 for 20 mV/DIV. Set the
vertical mode to DUAL (or ALT depending on your oscilloscope), and keep trigger on
channel 1. On channel 2, is the dc level, which is the zero reference (midpoint) of the sum
frequency signal changing?

....................................................................................

26. Compare the message signal on channel 1 with the dc variations of the PHASE DETECTOR
output on channel 2. Do the dc variations of the PHASE DETECTOR output have the same
frequency as the message signal?

....................................................................................

27. Connect the channel 2 probe to the output of the FILTER. Set channel 2 to 5 mV/DIV.
Observe the message signal on channel 1 and the QUADRATURE DETECTOR output on
channel 2. Vary the message signal frequency and amplitude. Does the recovered message
signal on channel 2 vary with the message signal amplitude and frequency on channel 1?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE C - PHASE-LOCKED LOOP

In this PROCEDURE section, you will study the characteristics of the phase-locked loop on
your Analog Communications Lab Kit.

2-12
1. You will first determine the VCO's free-running frequency. Do not insert a two-post
connector between the FILTER and AMP in the PHASE-LOCKED LOOP circuit block just yet.
Set oscilloscope channel 2 to 20 mV/DIV, and set the sweep to 0.5 μS/DIV. Connect the
channel 2 probe to the VCO output, and trigger on channel 2. Connect the voltmeter to the
VCO input, and connect the voltmeter common lead to a ground terminal on the circuit board
(See Figure 7-5.)

2. Accurately measure the period (T) between the peaks of the waveform. Each horizontal
division is 0.5 μs. Record your answer below.
....................................................................................

3. From the period (T) of the VCO output signal, calculate the free-running frequency
(fo = 1/T). Record your answer in kHz.

....................................................................................

4. Set the voltmeter to measure volts dc. Measure and record the VCO dc input voltage (Vi).

....................................................................................

5. Does Vi control the VCO output's amplitude or its frequency?

....................................................................................

6. On the VCO-LO circuit block, insert a two-post connector in the 452 kHz position. Connect
the (FM) OUT terminal on VCO-LO to the RF terminal at the PHASE DETECTOR input on the
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP circuit block, as illustrated in Figure 7-7.

7. Set oscilloscope channel 1 to 5 mV/DIV. Connect the channel 1 probe to the RF input of the
PLL. Adjust the potentiometer knob on the VCO-LO circuit block for a 150 mVpk-pk signal at
RF.

2-13
8. Set the oscilloscope vertical mode to DUAL, and trigger on ALT. The signals should appear,
as shown in Figure 7-8.

9. While observing the RF and VCO signals on the oscilloscope screen, slowly increase the RF
frequency (the period decreases) by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob completely CW.
Slowly decrease the RF frequency (the period increases) by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY
knob completely CCW.

10. Did the change in the RF frequency (fi) on channel 1 affect the VCO frequency (fvco) on
channel 2? Why or why not?

....................................................................................

11. Place a two-post connector in the terminals between the FILTER output and the AMP input
to close the feedback loop.

12. While observing the RF and VCO signals on the oscilloscope, slowly increase fi (channel 1)
by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW. When the VCO signal starts to track (follow)
the RF signal, stop turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW. The signals should appear, as
shown in Figure 7-9.

13. What is the name of the frequency range in which the VCO signal starts to track the RF
input signal?

....................................................................................

14. What determines that range of the PLL?

....................................................................................

2-14
15. On the oscilloscope screen, compare fvco and fi by overlaying the signal traces. Are the
frequencies about equal?

....................................................................................

16. While observing the oscilloscope screen, turn the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob slightly CCW,
and then slightly CW. Does fvco track fi?

....................................................................................

17. While observing the VCO's dc input voltage (Vi), vary fi by turning the NEGATIVE
SUPPLY knob slightly CCW, and then slightly CW. When fvco tracks fi, does Vi change?

....................................................................................

18. What is the name of the frequency range over which fvco tracks fi?

....................................................................................

19. While observing the RF and VCO inputs to the PHASE DETECTOR, slowly increase fi by
turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW. When fvco stops tracking fi, stop turning the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW. This is the point at which the VCO signal snaps back to its
free-running frequency. You may have to repeat this step to obtain the exact frequency at
which tracking stops.

20. On the oscilloscope screen, compare fvco to fi by overlaying the signal trace. Are the
frequencies equal?

....................................................................................

21. On channel 1, accurately measure the period (T) between peaks of the RF input signal
waveform. Each horizontal division is 0.5 μs.

....................................................................................

22. From T, calculate the frequency of the RF input signal (fi = 1/T).

....................................................................................

23. Turn the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob completely CW. While observing the inputs to the
PHASE DETECTOR, slowly decrease fi (channel 1) by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob
CCW, When the VCO signal starts to track (follow) the RF signal, stop turning the NEGATIVE
SUPPLY knob CCW.

24. While observing the RF and VCO inputs to the PHASE DETECTOR, slowly decrease fi by
turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CCW. When fvco stops tracking fi stop turning the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob. This is the point at which the VCO signal snaps back to its free-
running frequency. You may have to repeat this step to obtain the exact frequency at which
tracking stops.

2-15
25. On channel 1, accurately measure the period (T) between peaks of the RF input signal
waveform. Each horizontal division is 0.5 μs.

....................................................................................

26. From T, calculate the frequency (KHz) of the RF input signal (fi = 1/T).

....................................................................................

27. You determined that when fi is between the frequencies you calculated in steps 22 and 26,
fvco tracks fi. What is the width of the lock range of the PLL?

....................................................................................

28. Place a two-post connector between the FILTER and AMP on the PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
circuit block.

29. On the PHASE-LOCKED LOOP circuit block, connect the channel 1 probe to RF at the
PHASE DETECTOR input, and connect the channel 2 probe to the VCO output. Set channel 1
to 50 mV/DIV, set channel 2 to 200 mV/DIV, and set the sweep to 0.5 μs/DIV. Trigger on
channel 1.

30. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the base unit completely CCW.

31. Slowly increase fi (channel 1) by turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW. When the fvco
signal starts to track fi and Vi is about -4.0 Vdc, stop turning the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob CW.
The signals should appear, as shown in Figure 7-23.

32. Connect the FUNCTION GENERATOR'S output to the (M) terminal on the VCO-LO circuit
block. Connect the channel 1 probe to (M), Adjust the FUNCTION GENERATOR for a
150 mVpk-pk, 3 kHz sine wave message signal at (M).

33. Connect the channel 2 probe to the PHASE DETECTOR output. Set channel 2 to 1.0 V/DIV
and the oscilloscope sweep to 0.2 ms/DIV. The oscilloscope signals should appear, as shown in
Figure 7-24.

2-16
34. What signals compose the PHASE DETECTOR output signal on channel2?

....................................................................................

35. Is the varying dc voltage: the FM carrier signal, or the recovered message signal?

....................................................................................

36. Connect the channel 2 probe to the FILTER output on the PHASE-LOCKED LOOP circuit
block. Set channel 2 to 500 mV/DIV.

37. Slightly vary the frequency and amplitude of the message signal from the FUNCTION
GENERATOR. Do the frequency and amplitude of the recovered message signal vary with the
message signal?

....................................................................................

38. Connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe to the VCO input. Set channel 2 to 1 V/DIV. Does
the message signal feedback to VCO change fvco or not?

....................................................................................

39. Now connect the channel 2 oscilloscope probe back to the FILTER output. Set channel 2 to
500 mV/DIV and channel 1 to 100 mV/DIV. At the FUNCTION GENERATOR, increase the
message signal amplitude on channel 1 to 500 mVpk-pk. Is the signal on channel 2 the recovered
message signal or not? Explain?

....................................................................................

2-17
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 6
Using the Spectrum Analyzer

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Eng. Noor Awad Revised and updated by: Dr. Mohammed Hawa
 EXPERIMENT 5
USING THE SPECTRUM ANALYZER

DISCUSSION
A spectrum analyzer is a measurement device used to examine the spectral composition of an
electrical waveform (i.e., display its power spectral density).

There are analog and digital spectrum analyzers: An analog spectrum analyzer uses a variable
bandpass filter whose mid-frequency is automatically swept through the range of frequencies
of which the spectrum is to be measured. A digital spectrum analyzer computes the Fast
Fourier transform (FFT), a mathematical process that transforms a waveform into the
components of its frequency spectrum.

The figure below shows the HP 8568A spectrum analyzer you will use in this lab.

This spectrum analyzer has the following features:

Frequency range: 100Hz to 1.5 GHz.
Amplitude range: -137dBm (0.02 pW) to +30 dBm (1000 mW).
Coupling: Input 1 (DC coupled), Input 2 (AC coupled).

THE FRONT PANEL

The front panel keys on the spectrum analyzer provide convenient control over what you see
on the spectrum analyzer’s DISPLAY, such as the center frequency, frequency span, reference
level, resolution bandwidth, sweep time, etc. Any of these function can be selected by pressing
its corresponding key and then changed by using the data controls.

1-2
THE FUNCTION KEYS
The available FUNCTION KEYS are shown in the Figure below. They are:

CENTER FREQUENCY: this key changes the center frequency on the

display.

FREQUENCY SPAN: this key changes the total display frequency range
symmetrically about the center frequency. Frequencies within the
frequency span are shown on the display.

START and STOP FREQUENCY: If you do not want to specify a center

frequency and a frequency span, you can still specify the frequency
range on the display using the Start Frequency (left-most frequency on
the display graticule) and Stop Frequency (right-most frequency on the
display graticule) keys. Start and Stop Frequencies are mutually
exclusive with the Center Frequency and Frequency Span functions.

REFERENCE LEVEL: this key changes the absolute amplitude level of the top graticule line.

THE DATA CONTROLS

The DATA controls are located to the right and left of the FUNCTION keys. They are used to
change the values of the center frequency, frequency span, start/stop frequency and reference
level. These controls are:

The Data knob allows the continuous change of center frequency,

frequency span or start/stop frequencies, reference level, and the position of the marker.
Clockwise rotation of the DATA knob will increase the function value.

The DATA STEP Keys allow rapid increase or decrease of

the active function value. The step size is dependent upon the analyzer's measurements range.
Each press results in a single step.

The DATA Number/Units Keyboard allows

exact value entries to center frequency, frequency span, start/stop frequency, reference level,
log scale and the positions of the markers and display line.

THE MARKER
The NORMAL button in the MARKER group (see Figure below)
activates the marker, which is a bright spot that lies directly on the
display trace. The horizontal position of an activated marker is
controlled by the Data controls. It is used for direct readout of
amplitude and frequency of the trace. You can deactivate the marker
by activating another function, such as CENTER FREQUENCY.

1-3
PROCEDURE A – AM/FM Radio Stations
Each AM/FM radio station occupies a predetermined bandwidth around a government-
allocated center frequency. In this procedure, you will pick up a radio station on the spectrum
analyzer and observe its characteristics:

1. Switch the spectrum analyzer ON.

2. Connect one end of a BNC probe to the spectrum analyzer’s input, and hold the other end in
your hand. This probe will act as an antenna to pick up radio signals present on the air. You
should see a group of signals appearing on the display. Each signal represents a radio station.

3. Press the CENTER FREQUENCY button and use the keyboard to set the frequency to
99MHz (“Amman FM” radio station). Set the FREQUENCY SPAN to 2 MHz.

4. You will see a single chunk of frequencies appear on the display.

5. To measure the actual frequency and power of the signal, activate the marker by pressing
the NORMAL button. Using the bright spot (marker) you now see on the display read the
center frequency of the station, its bandwidth and maximum power level. Record your
answers.

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B – A single sinusoidal Signal

1. Use the VCO-HI block on your ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS kit to generate a pure
sinusoidal signal. What does the power spectral density of a sinusoidal signal look like?

....................................................................................

2. Connect the spectrum probe to the output of the VCO-HI (make sure you also connect the
GND of the probe to a GND terminal on the kit).

3. Turn the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob on the kit fully CW and the VCO-HI potentiometer knob
fully CW.

4. Set the CENTER FREQUENCY of the spectrum analyzer to 1455 kHz, and its FREQUENCY
SPAN to 700 kHz.

5. Activate the marker by pressing the NORMAL button, and move the bright spot to the top
of the pulse. Read the actual frequency of the sinusoidal signal generated by VCO-HI.

....................................................................................

6. Turn the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob on the kit fully CCW, and read the frequency of the signal
one more time.

....................................................................................

1-4
7. Turn the potentiometer (amplitude) knob on the VCO-HI block CCW and then CW. How
does this affect the signal you see on the display?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE C – An FM modulated Signal

1. Use the function generator combined with the VCO-LO block on the ANALOG
COMMUNICATIONS kit to generate an FM-modulated
signal just like you did in Experiment 2 (see Figure).

2. Connect a two-post connector on the 452 kHz terminal.

Turn the potentiometer (amplitude) knob of VCO-LO fully
CW. Turn the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob fully CW.

3. Set the frequency of the function generator (message signal frequency) to 40 kHz and the
amplitude to maximum.

4. Connect the spectrum analyzer probe to the FM output on VCO-LO.

5. Set the spectrum’s CENTER FREQUENCY to 534.9 kHz, and its FREQUENCY SPAN to
437.1 kHz.

6. Explain what you see on the spectrum display.

....................................................................................

7. How many Significant Side Pairs (SSP) appear on the display?

....................................................................................

8. With the help of the marker, measure the frequency of each one of the SSP’s.

....................................................................................

9. What is the distance between each impulse in the FM spectrum?

....................................................................................

10. What is the bandwidth of this FM spectrum?

....................................................................................

1-5
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 7
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Ahmad Mustafa
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa and Eng. Noor Awad

 EXPERIMENT 7
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)
OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the
principles of ASK signal generation and detection.

DISCUSSION

Modulation mixes the baseband digital signals with a high-frequency carrier signal. The
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulator produces amplitude changes in the modulated
signal in response to a baseband binary signal.

In a typical ASK signal a larger carrier amplitude represents a binary 1, and a smaller carrier
amplitude represents a binary 0.

A special type of ASK modulation is called on-off keying (OOK), in which the presence of the
carrier represents a binary 1, and the absence of the carrier (zero volts) represents binary 0.

ASK OOK

To generate ASK, the DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 2 circuit board first shifts (offsets) the
input baseband Unipolar NRZ signal by adding a positive DC voltage using a summer circuit.
At the output of the summer, the logic low of the Unipolar NRZ signal is above the 0 V level.
This output is multiplied by a carrier using a balanced modulator (mixer).

3-2
A simplified schematic of the ASK modulator in the ASK/PSK block is shown below. It
consists of three components:
 The leftmost circuit works as a summing amplifier. It consists of a non-inverting
operational amplifier with a dc OFFSET adjust.
 The balanced modulator is an MC1496 Gilbert cell. The output of the offset amplifier is
connected to one input of the balanced modulator. The other input to the balanced
modulator is a carrier signal whose DC offset is controlled by the BAL control knob. The
balanced modulator functions as an ASK modulator with positive and negative outputs.
 The rightmost op-amp represents a buffer amplifier. The modulated signal is AC coupled
from the + terminal of the balanced modulator to the input of the buffer amplifier.

When the OFFSET is adjusted to 0 Vdc, the special case of on-off keying (OOK) is obtained.

The following is a simplified schematic of the MC1496 integrated circuit (IC) balanced
modulator along with associated external resistors. The output is the result of multiplying the
amplitude of the carrier signal (CH 1) and NRZ logic levels (CH 2). The circuit consists of three
main sections:
 An upper quad differential amplifier operated in either the linear or saturated mode.
 A linear differential amplifier
 Dual current sources

The output collectors are cross-coupled resulting in full-wave balanced multiplication of the
input signals. With the NRZ signal greater than approximately 0.4V, the gain at either the + or
 OUTPUT is fixed. With the NRZ signal less than approximately +0.4V, the gain at either the
+ or  OUTPUT is a function of the product of the input signals.

3-3
Hence, in this experiment, you will make sure that the logic 0 level of the NRZ signal is below
+0.4V (say for example +0.2V) and the logic 1 level of the NRZ signal is above +0.4V.

With the NRZ modulating signal at the logic 1 level, the balanced modulator (saturated mode)
multiplies the input carrier signal by approximately 3. With the NRZ modulating signal at the
logic 0 level, the balanced modulator (linear mode) output signal is a function of the
amplitudes of the input carrier signal and NRZ modulating signal.

Detection, or demodulation, is the process of recovering the transmitted digital signal from a
modulated signal. ASK demodulators can be either asynchronous or synchronous. An
asynchronous detector does not use a reference carrier to recover the ASK amplitude changes.
A synchronous detector recovers the ASK amplitude changes using a reference carrier that
agrees in frequency and phase with the original ASK carrier signal.

The following schematic is that of an ASK asynchronous detector circuit. It consists of:
 Full-wave rectifier to rectify the ASK signal.
 Low-pass filter to smooth the output of the rectifier.
 Voltage comparator to restore the low-pass filter’s NRZ output signal to proper logic levels.

A simplified schematic is shown below:

The FWR is composed of two operational amplifiers. The first op amp works as a half-wave
rectifier. The second op amp functions as a summer which allows scaling of the two inputs
before addition. The output of the half-wave rectifier is connected to one input of the scaling
summer. The other input is the modulated ASK signal.

3-4
The output of this scaling summer equals: Vout = 8.2 k × [(VD / 20 k) + (VASK / 12 k)].
This results in a full-wave rectifier.

The FWR output is input to the LOW PASS FILTER circuit (LPF). The LPF smoothes the DC
peaks into voltage levels that represent the original NRZ encoded data.

The LPF in this circuit block is an integrated circuit. It is a unity gain switched-capacitor low
pass filter. A switched-capacitor is an active LPF that eliminates the need for an external
resistor and replaces that with a capacitor which is switched at the clock frequency. The
tunable cutoff frequency (fc) of the filter equals the clock frequency (fCLK) divided by 50.

The output of the LPF is input to the voltage comparator (VOLT COMP). The voltage
comparator restores the NRZ encoded data from the LPF output to 5V logic levels. The
following is a simplified schematic of the voltage comparator used in your kit.

A reference voltage is established by the VARIABLE POSITIVE SUPPLY and applied to the
NEGATIVE (-) input of the comparator. The output of the LPF is applied to the POSITIVE (+)
input. The voltage comparator outputs a 0V logic low when the low-pass filter signal is below
the reference voltage, and outputs a 5V logic high when the low-pass filter signal is above the
reference.

Notice that the output transistor is off when the voltage comparator output (OUT) is at logic
high?

Synchronous demodulation recreates a copy of the carrier that agrees in frequency and phase
with the original modulated ASK carrier signal. This can be done using a SYNCHRONIZER
circuit consisting of a PLL and a phase shifter.

3-5
The essential circuit sections of the SYNC DETECTOR are the:
 synchronizer
 mixer
 low-pass filter
 voltage comparator

The regenerated carrier and the ASK modulated signal are input to the mixer. The last two
circuit blocks: LPF and VOLT COMP, are the same as in the asynchronous detector circuit. The
LPF smoothes the output of the mixer. The voltage comparator restores the low-pass filter’s
NRZ output signal to proper logic levels.

This is a simplified schematic of the PLL synchronizer circuit on your circuit board. In the
locked condition, the synchronizer circuit produces a VCO frequency that is in sync with the
ASK input signal.

The ASK IN signal passes through the BIAS AMP circuit to one input of the exclusive-or phase
detector (PHASE DET). The BIAS AMP converts ASK input signal swings to standard +5V
logic levels. The other input to the XOR phase detector is the VCD signal.

In the locked condition, the PLL circuitry recreates a VCO signal equal to the incoming ASK
carrier frequency but shifted by 90°. The XOR -SHIFTER circuit eliminates this phase
difference in order to recreate a copy of the ASK carrier.

This is a simplified schematic of the MIXER circuit. The output-signal from the BALANCED
MODULATOR is amplified differentially by the operational amplifier to increase the circuit
gain.

3-6
The mixer is a balanced modulator whose output signal will contain sum and difference
frequency components. The output amplitude is a function of the product of two input signal
amplitudes.

PROCEDURE A: ASK Modulation

In this PROCEDURE section, you will generate an ASK modulated signal from a Unipolar
NRZ signal. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.

1. In the ENCODER block, connect the CH 1 probe to the CLK terminal and the CH 2 probe to
the SYNC terminal. Connect the EXT probe to the SYNC terminal, and trigger on EXT.

Note: Whenever you attach an oscilloscope probe to a terminal, always ground the probe’s
ground-clip to the nearest ground terminal.

2. Set oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to 5 V/DIV, and set the horizontal TIME/DIV setting to 1
ms/DIV so you can see more than 8 bits on the oscilloscope screen at a time.

3. How many clock cycles are there between two successive sync pulses?

....................................................................................

4. Remove the CH 1 and CH 2 probes but leave the EXT probe. External triggering is used
throughout this exercise.

5. In the ASK/PSK block insert a two-post connector to select the ASK modulator. Insert a
second two-post connector to input the encoded NRZ signal. Turn the OFFSET knob fully
CCW and center the BAL knob (corresponding to the carrier DC offset).

3-7
6. Connect the CH 1 probe to the NRZ two-post connector-and CH 2 to the ASK/PSK terminal.
Set up ground references for both channels and set the oscilloscope’s vertical coupling to DC.
Set the oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to 2 V/DIV.

7. Is the summing amplifier’s output signal (CH 2) offset below the 0V reference line or above
the 0V reference line?

....................................................................................

8. Slowly turn the OFFSET knob fully CW and then back to the fully CCW position. The
output signal’s (CH 2) logic 0 varies (above and below/only above/only below) the 0V
reference?

....................................................................................

9. Move CH 1 to the CARRIER terminal and change the oscilloscope settings for channel 1 to
AC coupling at 1 V/DIV. Measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the carrier signal (CH 1).

....................................................................................

10. Is the logic 0 level greater than 0.4 V at the input (CH2) of the balanced modulator? What is
the significance of this condition? (See DISCUSSION).

....................................................................................

3-8
11. Move CH 1 to the  output terminal of the balanced modulator and change the oscilloscope
settings for channel l to AC coupling at 2 V/DIV.

12. What is the name of the output signal at (CH 1)?

....................................................................................

13. Turn the OFFSET knob all the way CCW, and then slowly turn the OFFSET knob CW to
obtain the output waveform shown on CH 1 below. Make sure you do not turn the OFFSET
knob too much CW since this might cause 180 phase shifts between 1’s and 0’s in the resulting
ASK signal.

14. Observe the NRZ modulating signal (CH 2) and the ASK Output signal (CH 1). During this
modulation process, the NRZ ‘1’ level is represented how by the modulated signal?

....................................................................................

15. Slowly turn the OFFSET knob so that the NRZ logic 0 level (CH 2) offset is reduced to
0 Vdc. What is the name of the output modulated signal at (CH 1)? How is different than ASK?

....................................................................................

16. Move CH 2 to the output terminal, move CH 1 to +, and change the Oscilloscope settings
for both channels to AC coupling at 2 V/DIV. Leave the OFFSET control adjusted for OOK
modulation. Center the BAL control.

3-9
17. Observe the buffer's input (CH 1) and output (CH 2) signals. What are the two differences
between these signals?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE B: ASK Asynchronous Detection

In this procedure section, you will use an asynchronous detector circuit to demodulate an ASK
signal. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.

1. Keep the ASK modulator circuit you connected in the previous procedure. Connect a patch
lead from the output of the ASK/PSK block to the input of the ASYNC DETECTOR circuit
block.

2. Connect the CH 1 probe to the input terminal of the asynchronous detector. Connect the
CH 2 probe to the D terminal of the full-wave rectifier (FWR). Set up ground references for
both channels. Set the oscilloscope vertical coupling to DC. Set oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to
2 V/DIV.

3. Slowly turn the OFFSET knob CW to obtain the ASK output waveform on CH1 such that
ASKLOW = 1 Vpk.

3-10
4. Compare the input (CH 1) and output waveform (CH 2) of the first op amp. What is the
function of this op amp?

....................................................................................

5. Change the sweep to 0.l ms/DIV. Measure the larger negative peak amplitude of the VD
signal (CH 2).

....................................................................................

6. Measure the larger positive peak amplitude of the VASK signal (CH 1).

....................................................................................

7. Using the above values of VD and VASK calculate the output of the scaling summer Vo (see
DISCUSSION).

....................................................................................

8. Move the CH 1 probe to the output terminal of the scaling summer circuit. Adjust the BAL
knob in the MODULATORS circuit block to even out the peaks.

9. Move CH 2 to the FWR input and change the sweep to 0.5 ms/DIV.

10. Observe the input (CH 2) and output (CH 1) waveforms. Describe the FWR circuit output:

....................................................................................

11. Connect CH 1 to the LP FILTER output. Observe the output (CH 1).

3-11
12. The LPF on your kit is a switched-capacitor LPF, with a clock frequency fCLK of 76.8 kHz.
Determine the cutoff frequency (fc) of the LPF.

....................................................................................

13. What happens at the output of the filter to both: the high-frequency component (5 kHz) of
the rectified signal, and the envelope shape (600 Hz)? Explain why.

....................................................................................

14. Connect the CH 2 probe to the original NRZ signal in the MODULATORS circuit block. Do
the original NRZ (CH 2) and recovered NRZ (CH 1) signals have the same voltage levels?

....................................................................................

15. Move CH 1 to the output terminal of the VOLT COMP block. Adjust the base unit
POSITIVE SUPPLY control CCW until the voltage comparator output resembles the NRZ
signal displayed on CH 2.

16. Move CH 2 to the input terminal of the VOLT COMP block. Did the voltage comparator
restore 5V logic levels to the low pass filter output?

....................................................................................

3-12
PROCEDURE C: ASK Synchronous Detection

In this procedure section, you will use a synchronous detector circuit to demodulate an ASK
signal. You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.

1. Keep the ASK modulator circuit you connected in the procedure A. Disconnect the patch
lead from the output of the ASK/PSK block to the input of the ASYNC DETECTOR circuit
block, and connect a patch lead from the output of the ASK/PSK block to the input of the
SYNC DETECTOR circuit block.

2. On the SYNC DETECTOR circuit block insert three two-post connectors as shown below.

3. Connect the CH 1 probe to the input terminal of the synchronous detector. On the ASK/PSK
block, adjust the OFFSET and BAL controls so that the smaller ASK signal amplitude is about
0.5 Vpk-pk.

4. Move CH 1 to the NRZ terminal, and CH 2 to A/P terminal.

5. Adjust the BAL POT in the MIXER block for the waveform shown.

3-13
6. Move CH 2 to the SYNC DETECTOR volt comp output. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY
knob on the F.A.C.E.T. base unit to recover the NRZ signal at the SYNC DETECTOR output.
The synchronous detector is now locked to the incoming ASK signal.

7. Move CH 1 to the SYNC DETECTOR input terminal to monitor the ASK input signal, and
move CH 2 to the VCO terminal.

8. Compare the VCO frequency (CH2) with the carrier frequency of the ASK input (CH1). Does
the VCO frequency match the ASK carrier frequency? or is it twice as much?

....................................................................................

9. Move the CH 2 probe to the VCD terminal.

3-14
10. In the locked condition, what is the relationship between the frequency and phase of the two
inputs to the XOR phase detector?

....................................................................................

11. Connect a DMM (digital multi-meter), set for DC, to the Input of the VCO (VCIN). In other
words, connect the (+) of the DMM to VCIN and (-) of the DMM to GND.

12. The average voltage at the input of the VCO (VCIN) is the result of the phase differences
between the two inputs of the phase detector. Measure the DC voltage at the input of the VCO.

....................................................................................

13. Shown is a graph of the average voltage at the input to the VCO (VCIN) versus input phase
differences from the phase detector. Approximately what value of phase difference does your
value of VCIN represent?

....................................................................................

14. Would your measured value of VCIN change if the ASK carrier signal increased or
decreased slightly in frequency?

....................................................................................

15. Remove the DMM. Move CH 1 to the VCO terminal and CH 2 to the VCD terminal.
Observe and compare these two input signals to the -SHIFTER circuit. Through the action of
the XOR function, the output signal frequency will be the same as the VCD signal, or the
VCO signal?

....................................................................................

3-15
16. Move the CH 1 probe to the 90° terminal and compare the waveforms. Notice that the
output waveform (CH 1) is shifted by 90° from the VCD waveform (CH 2).

17. Move the CH 2 probe to the ASK IN signal. Is the PHASE SHIFTER output (CH 1) equal in
frequency and in phase with the ASK carrier (CH 2)?

....................................................................................

18. Move the CH 2 probe to the output of the synchroni2er circuit. Set CH 2 to 100 mV/DIV.
Does the LEVEL SHIFTER circuitry invert the signal?

....................................................................................

3-16
19. Move CH 1 to the ASK input terminal. CH 2 is connected to the other input of the MIXER
block. Set the sweep to 0.2 ms/DIV.

20. What frequency(s) will be at the modulator output?

....................................................................................

21. Does the output waveform amplitude follow the ASK modulation signal?

....................................................................................

22. Move CH 2 to the output of the MIXER block. Set CH 2 to 2 V/DIV and the sweep to 0.2
ms/DIV. Does the output waveform resemble a full-wave or half-wave rectified signal?

....................................................................................

3-17
23. Move CH 1 to the NRZ terminal and CH 2 to the output of the LP FILTER. Set CH 2 to 200
mV/DIV. Does the LP FILTER smooth the DC peaks of the MIXER circuit into levels that
represent the original NRZ encoded data?

....................................................................................

24. Move the CH 2 probe to the output of the voltage comparator. Does the voltage comparator
restore the NRZ encoded data from the LP FILTER output to Polar or Unipolar signals?

....................................................................................

3-18
 University of Jordan
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 7
PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Jamal Rahhal
Lab Engineer: Eng. Noor Awad

Prepared by: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 7
PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)
OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to explain and demonstrate the
principles of PSK signal generation, carrier synchronization, and PSK synchronous detection.

DISCUSSION

Phase shift keying (PSK) is a form of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal shifts
each time the baseband digital signal changes state. The figure below shows that when the NRZ
signal is high, the PSK signal is at 180° (out of phase) with the carrier signal, while when the
NRZ is low, the PSK signal is at 0° (in phase) with the carrier signal.

The figure below shows how the digital baseband signal is PSK-modulated in your Lab kit.
The NRZ digital baseband signal has logic levels of 0V and +5V. First, a level shifter changes
the logic levels to −5V and +5V, respectively. After that, the resulting signal is inverted (inside
the level shifter) and multiplied with the carrier sinusoidal signal in an MC1496 balanced
modulator to produce the PSK signal. Hence, when the data is 1, the carrier signal is multiplied
by −5V. The PSK signal is out of phase with the carrier signal during this interval.

The following figure shows the ASK/PSK block on your Lab kit along with its simplified
schematic. The BALANCED MODULATOR multiplier has two inputs: One is the sinusoidal
carrier signal, whose DC offset is controlled by the BAL potentiometer. The other input to the
balanced modulator is selected by a two-post connector in the A (ASK) or P (PSK) position.

8-2
With P selected, the Unipolar NRZ digital signal passes through a LEVEL SHIFTER so it is
converted to a Polar NRZ signal (and inverted) before going to the balanced modulator. Notice
that the input digital signal does not have to be Unipolar NRZ; it could be Unipolar RZ or
Unipolar Manchester. On the other hand, when A is selected, a DC offset voltage, controlled by
an OFFSET potentiometer, is added to the digital signal before it goes to the balanced
modulator. Notice that the normal (+) and inverted (−) balanced modulator outputs are
brought out as test points. The modulator’s (+) output is also buffered to drive other circuit
blocks.

In demodulating a PSK signal, it is necessary to regenerate the carrier signal at the receiver
end. This is accomplished by feeding the received PSK signal to a CARRIER
SYNCHRONIZER. The figure below shows the components of the carrier synchronizer that
regenerates a carrier signal from the received PSK signal.

The first stage of the synchronizer doubles the frequency of the incoming PSK signal. This is
followed by a PLL. The final stage of the carrier synchronizer divides the PLL output signal
frequency by two and shifts it by 90° to produce the regenerated carrier signal. Hence, the
frequency of the regenerated carrier signal is equal in frequency to (and in phase with) the
PSK signal.

The following is a simplified schematic of the frequency-doubler circuit used in the

synchronizer. First, the PSK signal is input to a full-wave rectifier. The rectified output has the
same number of peaks, but they are all arranged in the same direction. Because of this, the
phase shift information (intelligence) is eliminated from the waveform. A bandpass filter (BPF)
converts the rectified signal to a sine wave with a frequency equal to twice the frequency of the
original carrier signal.

The following figure is a simplified schematic of the PLL, ÷2 and PHASE SHIFTER blocks on
your Lab kit. Notice the two-post connector that is programmed for PSK modulation. The
CARRIER IN signal (SIN) has already been doubled in frequency by the frequency-doubler.
The output from the PLL, D flip-flop (÷2 block), and XOR gate (phase shifter block) is actually
a signal whose frequency is equal to that of the input carrier signal.

8-3
The D flip-flop is the one that divides the frequency by two. The XOR gate XORs the PLL
output with the divided signal to produce a 90° phase shift, which opposes the PLL phase
shift. Hence, the recovered carrier at the 90° test point is in phase with the CARRIER IN input
signal, as required for synchronous detection. The last stage of the carrier synchronizer is an
op-amp that attenuates the signal for compatibility with the mixer circuits.

Finally, the regenerated carrier signal is combined with the PSK signal in a product detector
(balanced demodulator). The product detector output is low-pass filtered, and the resulting
pulses are shaped by a voltage comparator to recover the original digital baseband NRZ
signal.

The following block diagram shows the entire SYNC DETECTOR circuit block as configured
for PSK demodulation. The PSK signal is fed to a doubler, PLL, and phase shifter to recreate
the carrier, which is then combined with the PSK signal in the mixer (followed by the LPF and
Voltage Comparator).

Remember that PSK signals can only be detected synchronously. This is because
asynchronous detectors do not recognize phase shifts.

8-4
PROCEDURE A: PSK Modulation

In this PROCEDURE section, you will generate PSK modulated signals from Unipolar RZ,
Unipolar NRZ, and Unipolar Manchester encoded signals. You will verify your results with an
oscilloscope.

1. Connect the oscilloscope EXT probe to the SYNC terminal in the ENCODER circuit block,
and trigger on EXT.

Note: Whenever you attach an oscilloscope probe to a terminal, always ground the probe’s
ground-clip to the nearest ground terminal.

EXT

2. Connect oscilloscope CH 1 probe to the NRZ terminal in the MODULATORS circuit block.
Connect scope CH 2 to the ASK/PSK test point. Set oscilloscope channels 1 and 2 to 2 V/DIV,
and set the horizontal TIME/DIV setting to 1 ms/DIV so you can see more than 8 bits on the
oscilloscope screen at a time.

3. In the MODULATORS circuit block, install the NRZ two-post connector at the input to the
ASK/PSK block. Install a second two-post connector to select PSK modulation. Turn the
OFFSET knob fully CCW and the BAL knob to its mid-range position.

CH1 CH2

EXT

4. Compare the NRZ (CH 1) and the level-shifted (CH 2) signals on the scope. How does the
level-shifted signal differ from the NRZ signal?

....................................................................................

5. Connect oscilloscope CH 1 probe to the Carrier terminal. Now observe the scope as you
move the CH 2 probe to the balanced modu1ator’s “+” output, then the “−“ output. Which
output (“+” or “−“) is at 0° phase shift with respect to the carrier just after NRZ switches to a
low level? If needed, you can move oscilloscope CH 1 between the carrier and NRZ terminal.

....................................................................................

8-5
6. Move the CH 2 probe to the ASK/PSK output. Observe the output signal on the scope as
you rotate the BAL knob fully CCW and then fully CW. What changes in the PSK signal when
you turn the BAL knob?

....................................................................................

CH1 CH2

EXT

7. The BAL pot compensates for circuit imbalances. For best results, adjust the knob until the
peaks of all the sine wave cycles line up.

8. Remove the NRZ two-post connector from the ASK/PSK block input. Connect a patch lead
from RZ to the ASK/PSK block input.

EXT CH1 CH2

9. Move the CH 1 probe to the balanced modulator input. Adjust the scope controls to view the
waveforms shown here. Notice that the LEVEL SHIFTER inverts the input digital signal.

10. How many different phases can the PSK modulated signal assume? Why?

....................................................................................

11. Move the patch lead from RZ to MAN.

EXT CH1 CH2

8-6
12. Adjust the scope controls to view the waveforms shown here.

13. How many data bits can you see on the oscilloscope screen in the figure shown above?

....................................................................................

14. You can see that even though the encoding method changes, the carrier phase shift still
occurs only at the transitions of the digital signal.

15. Expand the sweep to 50 µs/DIV and adjust the scope to view the waveforms shown. Notice
that the LEVEL SHIFTER has inverted the Manchester signal, so +5V is low and -5V is high.

16. You can see that the PSK signal phase is 180° (compared to the carrier) just after the digital
signal switches low (i.e., becomes +5V). The PSK signal completes one full cycle, and the phase
returns to 180° (compared to the carrier) when the digital signal switches high. What is the
PSK phase immediately after this transition?

....................................................................................

17. Your circuit board uses 0° and 180° (with respect to the carrier) for the sine wave phases at
the digital transitions. These values were chosen to maintain the continuity of the modulated
waveform in order to maximize noise immunity.

8-7
PROCEDURE B: PSK Synchronous Detection

In this PROCEDURE, you will use the carrier synchronizer to regenerate a carrier signal from
the received PSK signal. You will use this carrier to synchronously demodulate the PSK signal.
You will verify your results with an oscilloscope.

1. In the MODLLATORS circuit block, use two-post connectors to select NRZ as the input
signal and PSK as the modulation type. Connect a patch lead from the PSK output to the
CHANNEL input and connect the CHANNEL output to the SYNC DETECTOR with a two-
post connector. Use three more two-post connectors to configure the SYNC DETECTOR circuit
block for PSK demodulation as shown below.

2. Connect the EXT scope probe to SYNC and the CH 1 probe to NRZ in the ENCODER circuit
block. Adjust the scope to 250 µs/DIV to view the first two bits of NRZ data in the width of the
screen.

EXT

CH1

CH2

3. Connect the CH 2 probe to the CARRIER test point in the MODULATORS circuit block.
How many carrier cycles occur during each bit time?

....................................................................................

4. Move the CH 1 probe to CARRIER and the CH 2 probe to the DOUBLER input.

EXT

CH1

CH2

8-8
5. Adjust the scope controls and the BAL knob in the MODULATORS circuit block to view the
carrier and PSK signals shown below. NOTE: The NRZ signal is shown here for reference,
although it does not appear on your scope.

6. During which NRZ logic level (high or low) is the PSK signal in phase with the carrier?

....................................................................................

7. Move the CH 1 probe to the RECT (rectifier) output in the DOUBLER block. Sketch the PSK
(CH 2) and rectifier output (CH 1) signals on the scope.

CH2 CH1

8. Comparing the PSK (CH 2) and rectifier output (CH 1) signals, which statement correctly
describes the result of rectifying the PSK signal?
a. Positive PSK peaks are converted to negative peaks.
b. Negative PSK peaks are converted to positive peaks.

....................................................................................

9. Notice that this is how the rectifier circuit removes intelligence (phase shift information)
from the PSK signal. Since the purpose of the carrier synchronizer is to regenerate only the
carrier, the phase shift information is not required at this point.

10. Move the CH 1 probe to CARRIER and CH 2 to the DOUBLER output. Describe the
relationship between the CARRIER (CH 1) and the DOUBLER output (CH 2). Set both CH 1
and CH 2 to 1 V/DIV.

....................................................................................

CH2

8-9
11. Move the CH 2 probe to VCO in the PLL block. Is the VCO output (CH 2) a sine wave or a
square wave? Does the VCO output (CH 2) have the same frequency as the CARRIER (CH 1)?

....................................................................................

CH2

12. Move the CH 2 probe to VCD (VCO divided by 2). Sketch the CARRIER (CH 1) and VCD
(CH 2) waveforms you see on the scope. You can see that the two signals on the scope now
have the same frequency.

CH2

13. What is the phase shift between the carrier sine wave and the VCD waveform? In order to
regenerate the carrier signal, all that remains is to create an opposite phase shift to match the
original phase of the carrier.

....................................................................................

CH2

14. Move the CH 2 probe to the attenuated phase shifter output, which is also the lower input
to the MIXER. What signal is at the other MIXER input?

....................................................................................

CH2

8-10
15. Increase the CH 2 sensitivity to 50 mV/DIV to view the attenuated PHASE SHIFTER
output. Set CH 2 coupling to DC. Use the CH 2 Y POSITION control to overlay this signal onto
the carrier signal (CH 1) to verify that the two signals have the same frequency and phase.
What type of polarity does the PHASE SHIFTER output signal have: Polar or Unipolar?

....................................................................................

16. Move the CH 1 probe to the PSK signal at the MIXER input. Sketch the two input signals to
the mixer (CH1) and (CH 2).

CH1

CH2

17. The mixer is a balanced modulator whose

output is the product of the two input signals, both
of which are polar. Therefore, the mixer multiplies
the PSK signal by a positive number for high phase
pulses and a negative number for low phase
pulses. For example, the first negative PSK peak is
multiplied by a negative number (phase shifter
pulse below 0V) which results in a positive peak at
the mixer output. The first positive PSK peak is
multiplied by a positive number (phase shifter
pulse above 0V) which also results in a positive
peak at the mixer output. Which waveform shown
to the right (A, B, C or D) correctly represents the
complete product of the PSK and phase shifter signals shown?

....................................................................................

8-11
18. Move the CH 2 probe to the MIXER output, and set it to 1 V/DIV. Adjust the scope
controls and the BAL knob in the MIXER block to obtain the waveforms shown here.

CH2
CH1

19. The MIXER output consists of several positive peaks followed by several negative peaks.
When does the polarity of the peaks change in relation to the PSK signal?
a. at each zero crossing of the PSK signal
b. each time the PSK peaks change polarity
c. when the PSK signal phase shifts

....................................................................................

CH2

CH1

20. Move the CH 1 probe to the LP FILTER output. Change the CH 1 vertical gain to 0.5
V/DIV. By observing the CH 1 waveform, does the LP FILTER attenuate the output signal or
not?

....................................................................................

21. Move the CH 2 probe to the VOLT COMP output, and set it to 2 V/DIV. Turn the
NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the Lab Kit fully CCW. Slowly turn the NEGATIVE SUPPLY
knob CW to obtain the CH 2 signal shown (Remember that the NEGATIVE SUPPLY
potentiometer sets the voltage comparator threshold).

CH1
CH2

22. What is the function (purpose) of the voltage comparator?

....................................................................................

8-12
23. Move the CH 1 probe to NRZ. Adjust the TIME/DIV and CH 1 V/DIV controls to display
at least 8 bits. NOTE: If necessary, remove and replace the two-post connector at the
CHANNEL output to obtain the correct signal on CH 2. Sketch the resulting waveforms on
CH1 and CH2.

EXT

CH1

CH2

24. The waveforms show that the SYNC DETECTOR circuit block has synchronously
demodulated the PSK signal. Now, remove the two-post connector from the CHANNEL
output. Use a patch lead to connect the CHANNEL output to the input of the ASYNC
DETECTOR circuit block. Move the CH 2 probe to the VOLT COMP output of the ASYNC
DETECTOR circuit block.

25. Observe the scope as you rotate the POSITIVE SUPPLY knob on the Lab kit from fully
CCW to fully CW. Did the asynchronous detector manage to demodulate the PSK signal or
not? Why?

....................................................................................

8-13