SEQUENCING BATCH

REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
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 SEQUENCING BATCH
REACTORTECHNOLOG
by

PETER A. WILDERER, ROBERT L. IRVINE

AND MERVYN C. GORONSZY
and

Nazik Artan, Gunnar Demoulin, Jiirg Keller, Eberhard Morgenroth,

Geert Nyhuis, Kazuhiro Tanaka and Michel Torrijos

DIYA
Publishing
Published by IWA Publishiog io its Scientific and Technical Report series.
Published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK

Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7654 5500; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7654 5555; Email: publications@iwap.co.uk
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First published 2001

Reprinted 2001
© 2001 IWA Publishing

Typeset in 10½/12 point New Caledonia by Perfect Page Publishing Services, London, UK
Index prepared by June Morrison, Helensburgh, Scotland, UK
Cover design by Hilary Basing at Cato Street Studios, London, UK

Printed by TJ International (Ltd), Padstow, Cornwall, UK

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ISBN: 1 900222 21 3
ISSN: 1025-0913
Contents
Preface vii
List of authors ix
Acknowledgements xi
Nomenclature xiii
Glossary of tenns xv

1. Introduction 1
1.1 General assumptions 1
1.2 Process description 2
1.3 Comparison between continuous flow and SBR systems 4
1.4 HistoI)' 6
1.5 Scope and objectives of the report 10

2. Fundamentals of periodic processes 11

2.1 Microbial ecology and population dynamics 11
2.2 Process considerations 13
2.3 Practical aspects and summary 14

3. General overview of SBR applications 17

3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 The generic SBR 17
3.3 Overview of the various SBR applications 20
3.4 Physical description of an SBR 22
3.5 The cyclic activated sludge technology 25
3.6 The biofilm SBBR 26

4. Design of activated sludge SBR plants 33

4.1 General remarks 33
4.2 Design considerations 33

5. Equipment and instrumentation 37

5.1 General remarks 37
5.2 Mixing devices 37
5.3 Aeration devices 38
5.4 Tanks and covers 40
5.5 Devices for withdrawal of the treated water 41
5.6 Scum and foam removal 45
5.7 Sensors 46
5.8 Computer-aided control devices 47

6. Practical experiences 51
6.1 Evaluation of SBR facilities in Australia 51
6.2 Evaluation of SBR facilities in cold regions of the USA and Canada 53
6.3 Evaluation of SBR facilities in Gennaoy 57
6.4 Evaluation of SBR facilities in France 60
6.5 Evaluation of SBR facilities in Japan 64

7. Concluding remarks 69

References 71
Index 75

"

Preface
T his volume of the IWXs Scientific and
Technology Report Series provides an in-
depth summary of and scientific background
for periodic processes. Specifically, attention is
given to what is commonly referred to as
'Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Technology.
The report highlights various types of SBR,
design considerations and procedures, equip-
ment required, and experiences gained from
practical applications.
The term SBR is used throughout this report
as a synonym for variable volume, suspended
growth, biological wastewater treatment tech-
nolOgies that normally differ from continuous
flow activated sludge systems in the following
manner:
1. The influent and effiuent streams are
uncoupled.
2. Biomass separation occurs in the
biological reactor and not in a separate
clarifier.
3. The unit operations and unit processes
that take place in each reactor follow
each other in a time sequence that is
progressively repeated in a 'periodic' or
'cyclic' manner and not from tank to tank
as they do in space-oriented systems.
4. A portion of the treated water is
periodically discharged from each tank to
make room for a new batch of
wastewater.
Because of these features, SBRs are referred
to variously as periodic processes, single-tank
systems, fill-and-draw reactors, or variable vol-
ume reactors.
Originally, the term SBR was introduced by
R.L. Irvine at the Purdue Industrial Waste
Conference in 1971 (Irvine and Davis 1971) to
describe a specific type of activated sludge
periodic process designed to treat wastewater
generated during the manufacture of specialty
carbohydrate polymers. That system was char-
acterized by continuous repetition of periods
called fill, react, settle, draw and idle, each
period being defined according to its position
and function within the cycle. Since then the
term SBR has been widely adopted by the
Preface
community of researchers and engineers, and is
currently used universally for the various
versions of variable volume systems by a range
of abbreviations, including IDEAL, ICEAS and
even SBR itself.
Contributions to the technology and its gen-
eral acceptance were made by the combined
efforts of academic and governmental institu-
tions and industry. In addition, the first IAWQ
specialized conference on Sequencing Batch
Reactor Technology held in Munich in 1996
promoted the technology even further and
contributed to its worldwide acceptance. The
second such conference was held in Narbonne,
France, in Jnly 2000.
Factors that enabled this technologys accep-
tance by the engineering community include
the following:
• applicability to Simple automation
• the ease with which its operation is
modified to allow control over bacterial
species that cause fIlamentous bulking,
nutrient removal or the destruction of
hazardous organics
• the ability to select robust microbial
communities that maintain high
performance during periods of shock loads
• a hold, test and release character that
allows treated wastewater to be held for
testing before being released
• the ability to adjust the time and
magnitude of energy input, the fraction of
each tank's volume used and the number
of tanks placed into operation to meet
actual loading conditions
Nevertheless, inappropriate design and oper-
ation will cause these systems to fail, just as any
other technology will if the proper principles
are not applied skilfully. This report will help
both designers and operators of SBRs to under-
stand how to use this technology successfully.
The focus here is on the application of fill-
and-draw, variable volume, periodically opera-
ted, unsteady-state principles to activated sludge
systems. The same concepts have been applied
successfully to other systems including anaero-
bic reactors, biofIlm reactors, biofIltration,
vii
 Preface

gases and soils. Summarized here are results sion of open questions regarding research,
solid-phase and slurry reactors for the treat- development, application and operation that
ment of contaminated waters, wastewaters, are in search of answers.
from bench-scale, pilot-scale and full-scale Peter A. Wilderer
SBRs. Also included are a description of trends Robert L. Irvine
for technological developments and a discus- Meroyn C. Goronszy

viii
 List of authors

List of authors

NazikArtan Eberhard Morgenroth

Environmental Engineering Department Technical University of Denmark
Istanbul Technical University Department of Environmental Science and
I.T.O. Insaat Fakiiltesi Engineering
80626 Maslak-Istanbul Building 115
Turkey 2800 Lyngby
Telephone: +90 212 285 65 47 Denmark
Fax: +902122856587 Telephone: +45 45 25 16 03
E-mail: nartan@ins.itu.edu.tr Fax: +4545932850
E-mail: ebm@imt.dtu.dk
Gunnar Demoulin
SchueID & Forsthuber Consulting Geert Nyhuis
Julius-WeIser-Strasse 15 Cyklar
A-5020 Salzburg Birkenbaldenstrasse 48
Austria 8738 U etliburg
Telephone: +43 662 43 49 01 Switzerland
Fax: +43 662 43 49 018 Telephone: +41 55 293 3545
E-mail: lSFSFC@schfo.co.at Fax: +41 552933555
E-mail geert.nyhuis@cyldar.ch
Mervyn Goronszy
Tischlerweg 42 Kazuhiro Tanaka
5071 Walsietenbeim College of Science and Technology
Austria Nihon University
Telephone: +43 662 85 07 55 1-8 Kanda-surugadi Chiyoda-ku
Fax: +43 662 6689 101 Tokyo
E-mail: ttinc2000@aol.com Japan
Telephone: +81-3-3259 0875
Professor Robert L. Irvine Fax: +81-3-32590875
University of Notre Dame E-mail: tanaka@civil.cst.nihon-u.acjp
Department of Civil Engineering
Notre Dame, IN 46556 Michel Torrijos
USA INRA - Laboratoir de Biotechnologie de
Telephone: +1 219 631 5380 l'Environnement
Fax: +1 219 631 8738 Avenue des Etangs
E-mail: Robert.L.lruine.1@nd.edu 11 100 Narbonne
France
JurgKeller Telephone: +33 4 68 42 51 85
The University of Queensland Fax: +334 68 42 51 60
Advanced Wastewater Management Centre E-mail: torrijos@ensam.inrafr
Brisbane, Qld 4072
Australia Peter Wtlderer
Telephone: +61 733654727 Institute of Water Quality Control and Waste
Fax: +61 733654726 Management
E-mail: j.keller@cheque.uq.edu.au Technical University Munich
Am Coulombwall
85748 Garching
Germany
Telephone: +49 (0)8928913700
Fax: +49 (0)89 2891 3718
E-mail: wilderer@bv.tum.de
 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge contributions from the follow- Indiana, USA, lioyd H. Ketchum, Jr, Univer-
ing: Daniel P. Cassidy, Western Michigan sity of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana,
University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA, David USA, and Franz Valentin, Technical University
A. Irvioe, SBR Technologies Inc., South Bend, of Munich, Munich, Germany.
 Nomenclature

Nomenclature

Notation dVw volume of the wasted sludge m3

A cross sectional area of a plug flow reactor m2 dVd volume of the decanted effiuent m3
VSS volatile suspended solids mgl- I
aSRT aerated solids retention time h
mgl- I WAS waste activated sludge kgd-
BOD biological oxygen demand '
Cs substrate concentration gm-3 x longitudinal distance from the inlet of the
gm-3 reactor m
CS,in influent substrate concentration
C so initial substrate concentration: Cs(t = 0) XR biomass concentration during reaction phase
gm-3 kgm-3
COD chemical oxygen demand mgl- I a recycle ratio
CODT total COD mgl- I r hydraulic retention time (HRT) h
DO dissolved oxygen mgl- '
FIR fill time ratio, tit" where tr is the time for fill
Abbreviations
HRT hydraulic residence time, nV_Q-I h ADWF average daily water flow
MLSS mixed liquor suspended solids mgl- ' AnSBR anaerobic sequencing batch reactor
MLVSS mixed liquor volatile suspended solids mgl- ' ASP activated sludge process
n nwnber of tanks or reactors BNR biolOgical nutrient removal
NH3-N ammonia-nitrogen mgl- I BWL bottom water level
ORP oxidation-reduction potential V CMFR completely mixed flow reactor
PE population eqnivalent CRC cooperative research centre
Q flow rate m3 h- 1 EBPR enhanced biological phosphorus removal
Qw waste sludge flow fate m3 h- 1 EPS extracellular polymeric substances
f's,v metabolic volumetric substrate removal rate ICEAS intemrittent cyclic extended aeration system
gm-3 h- 1 IDEA internrittently decanted extended aeration
SS suspended solids mgl- I IDEAL intennittently decanted extended aeration
SVI sludge volume index mig-I lagoon
SJXo substrate to microorganism ratio O&M operation and management
SRT sludge residence time h ORP oxidation-reduction potential
t, total cycle time (t, = I'.t,) h PE populationeqnivalen~
t, time of the Ith phase h PFR plug flow reactor
tr time of the fill phase h PHA polyhydroxyalkanoates
TDS total dissolved substances mgl- I PHB polyhydroxybutyrate
TKN total Kjeldabl nitrogen mgl- I PLC programmable logic controller
TN total nitrogen mgl- I SBR sequencing batch reactor
TOC total organic carbon mgl- I SBBR sequencing batch biofilm reactor
TP total phosphorus mgl- ' SS-SBR
soil slurry sequencing batch reactor
TSS total suspended solids mgl- ' TN total nitrogen
VER volumetric exchange ratio, AVr / Vmax TP total phosphorus
Vo liqnid volume at low water level m3 VFA volatile fatty acids
dVr fill volume m3 WAST variable-volume activated sludge technology
V~ totalliqnid volume at high water level m3 WWTP wastewater treatment plant

Glossary of terms
aerated rill time during which the reactor is filled and
aerated
aerated react time during which the reactor is aerated
aerobic sludge age fraction of the mean solids
retention time during which the microorganisms
in the activated sludge are supported with oxygen
anoxic 6Il time during which the reactor is filled and
nitrate or nitrite, but no dissolved oxygen, is
present
anaerobic 6Il time during which the reactor is filled,
but neither nitrate and nitrite nor dissolved
oxygen are present
cycle time between the beginning of fill and the end of
idle (or draw if no idle phase is provided)
decanter device to withdraw the treated water from
the SBR
draw time during which the treated water is withdrawn
6Il time ratio fraction of the cycle time during which
the reactor is filled
idle time beginning with the end of draw and the
beginning of fill
phase duration of fill, react, settle, draw and idle
react time starting at the end of fill, and ending with
the beginning of settle; during this period pro-
GlossaI)' of terms
cesses such as COD removal, nitrification and
denitrification are completed
SBR concept of operating hiological reactors charac-
terized by exposure of the microorganisms to
periodically changing milieu conditions such as
(1) high and low substrate concentration, (2)
batchwise introduction of wastewater and with-
drawal of the treated water causing periodic
changes in the water level in the reactor, or (3)
execution of metabolic processes followed by
solid-liquid separation in the same tank. Typically,
activated sludge is used to perform the metabolic
processes.
SBBR application of the SBR concept to biofilm
reactors
settle time during which sedimentation of the sludge
takes place
sludge age mean residence time of the activated
sludge in the SBR
static 6Il time during which the SBR is filled, but no
mixing is provided
volumetric exchange ratio fraction of the reactor
volume which is removed during draw, and
replaced during fill

1. Introduction
1.1 General BllSumptiOns
Biological transformations of municipal and
industrial wastewater constituents, pollutants
released from landfills, and those present in
contaminated soil and groundwater require the
activity of microbial communities with vast
metabolic ranges. The microbial species form-
ing the community can differ greatly in growth
rate and yield. Complex synergistic and antago-
nistic relationships exist between the various
microbial species present. This is especially
evident when organisms are to be selected and
enriched that have their physiological states to
be adjusted in an environment alternating
between aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic condi-
tions. The maintenance of a robust population
capable of meeting desired effiuent limits is
further exacerbated when transient or shock
load conditions occur.
In the past, engineers used intnition gained
from decades of experience to design and
successfully operate both controlled and
uncontrolled unsteady-state activated sludge
treatment systems without having a funda-
mental scientific understanding of why specific
control methods worked and others did not.
Scientific explanations for the success or
failure of control methods are only now
becoming clear. The evolution of the theory of
sludge bulking control serves as an excellent
example of how basic knowledge was used to
raise the level of design and operating practice.
A breakthrough was eventually achieved as
controlled unsteady-state conditions were
superimposed on what seemed to be uncon-
trollable variations in the major influent para-
meters and environmental factors that affect
real-world wastewater treatment systems.
The typical process diagram of a continuous
flow activated sludge system shown in
Figure 1.1 illustrates one of many possible con-
trolled unsteady-state systems that are in use
today. In this representation, a cascade reactor
system consisting of three tanks in series is
presented. This three-tank cascade is an engin-
eering approximation of a plug flow reactor
(PFR) and simulates many of the nutrient
removal systems in operation today. If all three
tanks in the cascade are aerated and there is no
1. Introduction
variation in the mass flow rate of raw waste, the
resulting stepwise decrease in the substrate
concentration shown in Figure 1.1 follows the
decline in substrate expected for a PFR. Under
these conditions, the growth rate of activated
sludge microorganisms changes from high to
low in line with the substrate concentration as
the microorganisms move from the first to the
last tank in the cascade. The growth rate of the
microbes recycled from the clarifier to the first
tank will increase periodically as soon as the
recycled stream meets the influent. This
repeated recycling forces the microbial com-
munity to experience controlled unsteady-state
conditions. Additional controlled unsteady-state
conditions are also applied to the activated
sludge community when the primary electron
acceptors and concentrations vary along the
cascade by adjusting the ntixing or aeration
intensity used for each tank (for example, as is
done for nutrient removal).
As the generally observed variations in influ-
ent flow and concentration force uncontrolled
activated sludge systems into unsteady-state
behaviour, the resulting performance is often
unpredictable. In activated sludge systems,
unsteady-state environments are additionally
created by regulating key process parameters
such as the concentration of electron donors
and electron acceptors (such as dissolved oxy-
gen or nitrate), the availability of co-substrates,
and the time allowed for aerobic, anoxic and
anaerobic reactions. A major breakthrough in
activated sludge treatment technology was
achieved when it was realized that the perfor-
mance of biological wastewater treatment
systems can be effectively enhanced by gaining
control over the system's inherent unsteady-
state environment.
Chudoba et al. (1973), Rensink et al. (1974),
Tomlinson and Chambers (1979), White et al.
(1980), Chiesa (1982), Chiesa and Irvine
(1985), Chiesa et al. (1985), and various other
researchers demonstrated experimentally that
repeated shifting of activated sludges between
zones with high and low substrate concen-
trations, respectively, is a very effective method
of controlling the excess growth of filamentous
organisms. Frequent but controlled shifting of
1
 1. Introduction
distance
Figure 1.1. Process dJagrom if a controUed unsteady-
state conttnuous flow activated sludge
system, showing a conttnuous flow cascade
of three tanks in series (above) and the
change in substrate concentration with
distance from the influent port ifthe
cascade (below). It should be noted that the
recycled activated sludge biocommunity is
conttnuaUy exposed to alternating
vondittons of high and low substrate
voncentratlons and possibly also electron
acceptor concentrations.
activated sludges between aerobic, anoxic and
anaerobic zones also permits the establishment
of microbial communities capable of executing
nitrification, denibification and enhanced bio-
logical removal of phosphorus. Such shifts pro-
duce controlled unsteady-state conditions that
have Significant long-term effects on the selec-
tion and enrichment of the desired microbes
and, ultimately, their physiological state.
In practice, the factors known to be effective
in controlling the structure and function of
microbial aggregates (for example suspended
growth or fixed films) are difficult to maintain
in continuous flow systems owing to the varia-
tions in the volumebic flow and mass loading.
The differential between the maximum and
minimum growth rates in systems designed for
peak loading conditions is usually not suffici-
ently strong to establish the 'feast and famine'
shifts needed to select, enrich and then main-
tain the desired microbes in the reqnired physiO-
logical state. Because the reactors are oversized
most of the time, the substrate concentration in
the first tank in a cascade produces a rate that
is appreciably less than could be achieved in a
properly designed system. Similarly, the rate in
the last tank is greater than the minimum
possible rate because the substrate concentra-
tion is greater than zero in a completely mixed
continuous flow reactor. As a result, many
continuous flow, controlled unsteady-state
systems impose sub-optimal selective pressures
on the microbial community and are therefore
unable to respond well even during the peak
loading periods for which they were originally
deSigned.
2
On the basis of these considerations,
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) technology
has been developed, taking into account the
early experiences gained by Ardern and Lock-
ett (1914), the inventors of the activated sludge
process. The basic scientific assumption that
governed the development of the technology
was that periodic exposure of the microorga-
nisms to defined process conditions is effec-
tively achieved in a fed-batch system in which
exposure time, frequency of exposure and
amplitude of the respective concentrations can
be set independently of any inflow conditions.
1.2 Prooess description
The SBR process is characterized by a series of
process phases (for example fill, react, settle,
decant and idle), each lasting for a defined
period. Sludge wasting normally takes place
after settle but can take place near the end of
react or during settle and can take place
weekly, daily or during each cycle. The differ-
ent phases of SBR operation are represented in
Figure 1.2.
The idle phase can be eliminated when an
equalization or holding tank or some other
method of handling excess inflow is available.
In some variable-volume activated sludge sys-
tems there is no distinct react phase, and settle
and draw occur while influent enters the
system. These differences are described briefly
in Table 1.1 for selected variable-volume acti-
vated sludge systems.
In addition to the deSCriptions above, fill and
react can have several sub-phases based on the
energy input to the system, which results in
various aeration and mixing operating strat-
egies. These sub-phases have been variously
labelled as follows:
• static fill no energy input to the
system; allows accumulation
of substrate
• mixed fill moong without forced
aeration, minimal aerobic
activity; typically allows
either anoxic or anaerobic
reactions
• aerated fill mixing with forced aeration;
typically allows aerobic
reactions; often allows
simultaneous anoxic and
aerobic reactions
• mixed react mixing without forced
aeration, minimal aerobic
activity; allows anoxic and
possibly anaerobic reactions
• aerated react mixing with forced aeration;
allows aerobic reactions
The wastewater enters the reactor during the
fill phase. The degree of interaction between
 1. Introduction

fill react settle draw idle

l
(optional)

rnGtJEJ
Δ
Δ

!
I dge effiuent
su
wasting

cycle

Figure 1.2. Operation phases followtng each other during one cycle ofthe generic SBR process.

Table 1.1. Distinguishingfeotures ofselected variable-volume activated sludge systems

Named system Influent Distinct Distinct Effluent Distinct

react phase settle phase idle phase
Cyclic Activated Sludge Technology' Periodic No Yes Periodic No
Intennittent Cyclic Extended Continuous No No Periodic No
Aeration System t
Intennittent Pasveer ditchi Continuous No No Periodic No
SBR § with equalization tank Periodic Yes Yes Periodic No
SBR§ without equalization tank Periodic Yes Yes Periodic Yes
• Goronszy (1995).
t Goronszy (1979).
I Carousel ditch with no external clarifier (Pasveer, 1960, 1969).
§ As defined in Figure 1.2 (Irvine and Davis, 1971: Irvine and Busch, 1979).

the wastewater constituents and the biomass
remaining in the reactor from the previous
cycle depends on the status of the aeration and
mixing system. Wastewater constituents accu-
mulate without much biodegradation during
static fill. Aerobic reactions take place during
aerated fill, and both anoxic and anaerobic
reactions during mixed fill. In general, the
extent of these reactions depends on the mass
flow rate of the readily biodegradable sub-
strates and the specific fill strategy employed.
For example, anoxic reactions also occur during
aerated fill if oxidized forms of nitrogen are
present, the concentration of dissolved oxygen
is sufficiently low, and an adequate supply of
electron donors is available.
The reactions initiated during fill are
completed during the react phase by initiating
the proper mixing and/or aeration strategy.
Settle (separation of the biomass from the
treated waters), draw (withdrawal of the trea-
ted water; that is, the supernatant that forms
during the sedimentation) and idle (time
between draw and fill, which reflects the excess
capacity of the system) complete the cycle.
The generic cycle arbitrarily begins with fill
and tenninates at the end of the idle phase.
The volume of wastewater introduced into the
reactor is aVf . It is added to the volume of
water and sludge that remains in the reactor at
the end of the past cycle (V0). At the end of the
fill phase the reactor contains V max = Vo + aVf .
Once the react phase has been completed
and the mixing energy has been diSSipated, the
activated sludge starts coagulating and settling.
After wasting of excess sludge (aVw) and
discharge of the treated supernatant (aV d), the
reactor is available to receive a new supply of
wastewater.
Thus, an SBR process is basically charac-
terized by the following sets of parameters:
tj time for the ith phase
te total time of one cycle (te = l:t;)
FTR fill time ratio, tflte' where tf is the
time for fill
VER volumetric exchange ratio, aVfNmax
HRT or r hydraulic residence time, n V max Q-l,
where n is the number of tanks, V max
is the total liquid volume of the
reactor and Q is the volumetric flow
rate of the influent to the treatment
plant. for each of the tanks, HRT; =
te VER-l
3
 1. Introduction
primary influent
treatment holding tank
(optional)
/'" /lbJ
r-I2l ,\,\
1~:"{D3
\'~
< I
I \
I \
I \
\
I \
I 'I
Figure 1.3. Dtagram af an SBR plant.
In addition, process parameters apply that
are typical for activated sludge or biofilm
systems. For instance, the design and operation
of an activated sludge SBR usually include
considerations of key factors such as sludge age
and sludge loading.
Because the fill phase is usually only a
fraction of the cycle time, it is necessary to pro-
vide more than one SBR to handle a contin-
uous influx of wastewater if some temporary
influent storage volume is not available.
SBR plants typically consist of a number (n)
of biolOgical reactors. A general diagram of an
SBR plant is shown in Figure 1.3. The system
consists of primary treatment, an influent hol-
ding tank (optional), several SBRs, a chlorine
contact chamber (required in some countries)
and an effluent buffer tank (optional). Indep-
endently of the inclusion of a holding tank, the
number of SBRs available determines the time
for fill and the total cycle time, the fill time
ratio (FrR). An effluent buffer tank can be
used to smoothe the variations in the effluent
flow rate, which might be necessary for large
SBR systems discharging into small receiving
water bodies.
The number of tanks to be chosen depends
on the overall treatment objectives and on the
result of a cost analysis. In principle, it can be
stated that the flexibility to handle variable
influent conditions increases with the number
of tanks available. For maintenance reasons at
least two SBR tanks should be available at an
SBR plant.
4
SBRs chlorine contact effluent
chamber buffer tank
(optional) (optional)
,I
I
I
I
( ... )
1.3 Comparison between continuous flow
and SDK systems
Depending on the mode of operation, an SBR
system can be compared with a PFR or a
completely nrixed flow reactor (CMFR (see
Weber and DiGiano, 1995)) (Irvine and Ket-
chum, 1989). In Table 1.2, mass balance
equations for SBR and continuous flow systems
are compared for a dump fill and a slow fill
procedure, in which Cs represents the concen-
tration of soluble substrate in reactor S, CS)n
represents the concentration of soluble sub-
strate in the influent, rS V is the net volumetric
rate of formation of substrate, A is the cross-
sectional area of the PFR tank, and x is the
longitudinal distance from the inlet of the PFR.
Dump fill, the instantaneous addition of waste-
water into the reactor, is rarely, if ever, used in
the field but is implemented practically by
including a static fill in the operating strategy.
The mathematical representation for the SBR
with dump fill is the same as that for the plug
flow reactor at steady state, where the hydraulic
residence or space time in the PFR (r)
compares to 'clock' time in a completely mixed
batch reactor (CMBR (see Weber and
DiGiano, 1995)) (in other words the time for
react in the SBR).
The primary difference between the PFR
and the SBR during react is that the equivalent
to true plug flow conditions can be established
in an SBR but cannot be achieved in a single
activated sludge tank because of the dispersion
resulting from the aeration system. However, a

Table 1.2. Selected mass balance equations for SB& and continuousflow reactors
(a) SBR with dump fill (for react only):
dCs
dt = rs,V
Initial condition:
Cs(O) = CS,;nVER + Cs(tJ(I - VER)
where tc is the time for one cycle
Assumes no substrate conversion after react
(c) SBR with slow fill (duringfill only):
dCs Q (1 + a)
-- =
dt Yo + Q (1 + a) t (Cs,m· - Cs) + rsv,
Initial condition: Cs (0) = C s (tJ
Assumes constant flow and either mixed or aerated
fill
cascade of CMFRs consisting of three or four
tanks in series can be considered as a suitable
approximation.
The mass balance equation for the SBR with
slow fill resembles that of an unsteady-state
CMFR with variable volume. As originally
conceived, SBR operation includes a react
period after fill. Thus, a slow fill system is
represented by a CMFR followed by a PFR,
the minimum volume configuration for an
activated sludge system capable of achieving
the desired overall treatment performance
(Irvine and Ketchum, 1989).
In Figure lA, two SBR cycles are shown,
each with its corresponding continuous flow
system. The recirculation of sludge and treated
water in the PFR system is comparable to the
water remaining in the SBR after draw (Vo). By
comparing the SBR with dump fill with that for
the PFR in Table 1.2 it can be seen that
VER = 1/(1 + a)
if the two initial conditions are identical, where
a is the recycle ratio.
In Figure 1.5 it can be seen that recycle
ratios range from 1 to 4 in the continuous flow
system. Correspondingly, VER ranges from 0.2
to 0.5 in the SBR.
As noted, microorganisms in a controlled
unsteady-state activated sludge system are peri-
odically subjected to a series of different
environmental conditions. Because the contin-
uous flow tank-in-series cascade and the SBR
are controlled unsteady-state systems, one
might expect that the microbial community
developed in either would have the same or
similar physical and biological properties. This
is in fact true. Both can be designed and oper-
ated to remove nutrients and control growth of
1. Introduction
(b) PFR:
acs Q(I + a) acs
at =- A ax + rs,V,
which at steady state is d Cs / d.. = rs,v
Initial condition:
a]
C s (0) = [C s,. + Cs (rc) (1 + ar',
where ..c is the flow-through time given by
HRT /(1 - a)
Assumes constant flow
(d)CMFR
dDs Q(I + a)
dt = V (C s (0) - Cs) + rs,v
Initial condition: Cs (0) known
C s (0) = (CS,in + Csa)(1 + ar'
Assumes constant volume
filamentous bacteria. However, in practice both
systems have developed specific niches. The
SBR has the advantage of more flexible
operation and ideal plug flow characteristics.
Because treatment proceeds with time in one
reactor, process control is conveniently execu-
ted by using input from on-line analysers (for
dissolved oxygen, pH and ammonia, for exam-
pie) and lOgiC controllers such as PLCs (pro-
grammable logic controllers). In contrast, the
continuous flow system can be operated Simply,
without the aid of computers or timers.
The mainstream of wastewater passes
through the continuous flow plant by gravity,
with the bulk of the pumping being required
for the recycling of sludge. SBR systems do not
require recycle because sedimentation takes
place under quiescent conditions within the
biological reactor itself.
Both the continuous flow and SBR systems
are designed to handle easily a wide range of
highly variable influent conditions (such as the
effluent of combined sewers). When the hyd-
raulic loading increases, the hydraulic retention
time in the various tanks of the continuous flow
plant (reactors and clarifiers) automatically
decreases. The relationship between hydraulic
loading and retention time is also applied to the
SBR system Simply by adjusting the cycle time
to the actual influent conditions at the expense
of the time set aside for the idle phase. The idle
phase thus serves to buffer peak influent loads.
The consequence is that the react phase is kept
in the range required to maintain control over
the biolOgical system (controlled unsteady
state).
As can be seen from Figure I.6b,d, continu-
ous flow systems bypass wastewater and recycle
5
 1. Introduction

(a) SBR with dump fill

fill I

~
react
I
settle
draw
cycle time
)
(c) SBR with slow fill (d) CMFR

~Q-Q..
~
fill
Q.

I~~
react
settle
draw
aQ Qw

Figure 1.4. SB& with dump and slow fill are camparoble ta a PFR and a campletely mixedflow reactor (CMFR).

USA and England with simple experiments in

which air was blown into basins containing
6 wastewater, in the hope that oxygen would pro-
g" vide the desired oxidation of the contaminants.
f! 4 These experiments generally failed because the

J2
.$
0 effect upon the sewage and waters with which
0 0.5 1.0
Exchauge ratio (VER)
Figure 1.5. Comparison af volumetric exchange ratios
In the acHooted sludge SBR with the recycle
ratio in a continuous flow system.
sludge and wastewater to develop flexibility.
Recycling is directed mostly to the first reactor.
Bypassed flow typically goes to anoxic or anaer-
obic tanks to supply electron donors for the
removal of phosphorus and/or for denitrifi-
cation. The equivalent action in an SBR is the
application of aeration and mixing during fill
and to a smaller extent during react (except
after static fill). When complete, all of the
microorganisms in the tank, and not just the
organisms in the tank receiving the recycled
flow, switch to the newly established environ-
mental condition.
In Figure 1.6, SBRs and continuous flow
systems designed for denitrification are
compared. In Figure 1.6b a continuous flow
denitrification system with one anoxic and one
aerobic reactor is shown, which is translated
into the SBR cycle shown in Figure 1.6a. The
translation of Figure lo6c into a continuous
flow system (Figure lo6d) results in many
separate reactors.
1.4 History
The prevailiog means of sewage 'purification' in
the late nineteenth century involved chemical
precipitation or filtration, or a combination of
the two. Activated sludge systems began in the
6
basins lacked adequate concentrations of sus-
pended organisms. Studies by Dupre and
Dibdin (1884) found that 'aeration had little
they experimented'. In 1893, Mather and Platt
showed that the precipitated impurities that
accumulated at the bottom of aerated basins
provided enhanced treatment. In the early
investigations at the Lawrence Experimental
Station, Fuller (1893) studied the value of
artificial aeration of sewage filters employing
coarse bed material. Fowler (1897) obtained a
clear effiuent with rapid settling of particulate
matter. By 1910, the practice of aerating
wastewater in the presence of 'biolOgical
humus' or slime attached to a growth support
gained widespread attention. Around 1912,
Fowler bubble-aerated wastewater in a tank
followed by a sedimentation step to clari/)r the
wastewater in Manchester, England. The
absence of biomass recycling required the con-
tinuous addition of the biological inoculum,
which was collected from a pond.
In 1914, Fowler's students Ardern and
Lockett demonstrated 'activated sludge' treat-
ment by not discarding the biological humus or
the deposited solids formed during the cyclic
aeration of sewage in a fill-and-draw system.
Specifically, their early experimental work trea-
ted raw sewage from Manchester, which was
aerated in 80 oz. bottles (about 2.4 I) until nitri-
fication was complete. About 5 weeks of
continuous aeration was needed for complete
nitrification during their first experiment. They
then decanted the treated and clear superna-
tant, added a second sample of raw sewage, and
aerated the sewage in 'contact with the original
deposited matter' until nitrification was again
complete. This process was repeated many
 1. Introduction

(aJ

static fill
mixed fill
aerated 611
aerated react
settle
<haw
idle

( )
cycle

(b)

~ I [dJ aerobic reactor

~ ~ / [dJ anoxic reactor

I [2J clarifier

(c)

static fill
mixed fill
aerated fill
aerated react
settle
<haw
idle

( )
cycle

(d)

~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ /
I
Figure 1. 6. Pre-denitrification can be achieved in SBRa and in continuous flow systems. (a, b) The wastewater is
introduced with only one chonge in mixing and aeration duringfill (a) or at one point in the continuous
flow system (b). (c, d) The wastewater is introduced with mixing and aeration alternating three times
duringfill and react (c) or at three points af the continuous flow system (d).

times. Their findings were clear: '... as the
amount of deposited matter increased, the time
required for each succeeding oxidation gradu-
ally diminished until eventually it was possible
to completely oxidize a fresh sample of crude
sewage within twenty-four hours'. The authors
designated the deposited solids 'activated
sludge'.
The monumental importance of their find-
ings was summarized in six conclusions. The
two that are most relevant to SBR systems are
noted below.
That io order to maintain the sludge at its
highest efficiency it is necessary that there
should not be aoy time ao accumulation of un-
oxidised sewage solids. It is not necessary that
the sewage should be kept in contact with the
activated sludge until such conditions obtain,
as its activity may be maintained by suitable
aeration of activated sludge alone.
That under the conditions of experiment a
well oxidized emuent can be obtained by the
aeration of average strength Maochester
sewage io contact with activated sludge flora
over a period of from six to nine hours. The
percentage purification effected as measured
by the usual tests is at least equal to that
obtained by the treatment of sewage on
efficient bacterial filte",. The period of
aeration naturally depends upon the strength
of the sewage treated and the degree of
purification required. 7
 1. Introduction
Table 1.3. Typical operation protocols proposed by
Ardem and Lockett (1914)
Time (min) for Time (min) for
Operation 20% sludge 40% sludge
Fill 60 40
React 240 120
Settle 120 120
Draw 60 40
Practitioners quickly applied the results from
Ardern and Lockett's experiments. Selected
full-scale fill-and-draw systems installed in
England from 1914 to 1920 are noted below:
1914: a 300 m3 d- 1 facility using diffused
aeration in Salford
1916: a 3000 m3 d- 1 facility using both dif-
fused and mechanical aeration in
Sheffield
1916: a 7570 m3 d- 1 facility using diffused
aeration in Worcester
1920: a 3100 m 3 d- 1 facility using mechan-
ical aeration in Tunstall
Whereas the systems listed above were
designed with extended fill phases, Ardern and
Lockett (1914) used a dump-fill procedure in
their experiments. Iu establishing operational
protocols, reference was made to the filling (an
instantaneous fill phase), aeration (the react
phase) and settlement (the settle phase)
sequences only. The time for settle was typi-
cally 2 h and the time for the aerated react
phase was related to the number of fills per
day. A volume exchange ratio (VER) of 3:1 was
employed. Typical sludge volumes after 2 h of
settling were less than 20% of the designated
top water level volume. Such VERs are possible
when dump fills and aerated react phases are
used because such operating strategies,
although commonly used on the bench scale
and not at full scale, restrict filament growth
and produce sludges with excellent settling
properties. In fact, Arden and Lockett stated:
from the point of view of practicality, when
working on the fill-and-draw system, the
proportion of 1 volume of sludge to 1 volume
of sewage should not be exceeded, mainly on
accouot of the difficulty of settlement of the
sludge.
The typical operation protocols proposed by
Ardern and Lockett (1914) shown in Table 1.3
reflect this understanding.
Ardern and Lockett made observations on a
number of factors involving aeration. For exam-
ple, they were apparently reflecting on what
was either concurrent or simultaneous nitrifi-
cation and denitrification when they noted that
8
the aeration intensity had a marked effect on
the nitrogen balance. They also linked ammo-
nia removal efficiency to both aeration cycle
times and sludge mass (based on volume) when
they stated:
Better effiuents were obtained, without an
increased expenditure of total volume of air,
by using higher proportions of sludge.
In the USA, full-scale variable-volume
activated sludge treatment seems to have been
first used in 1915 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
USA (Hatton, 1916a, b, c) with a 6 h cycle
comprising a 60 min fill, a 210 min aerated
react, a 30 min settle and a 60 min draw. In
1915 and 1916 fill-and-draw systems were
tested in Brookland (New York), Chicago (Illi-
nois), Cleveland (Ohio) and Houston (Texas).
Virtually all of the full-scale fill-and-draw
systems placed into operation between 1914
and 1920 were converted to continuous flow
systems in spite of O'Shaughnessy's observation
in 1923 that 'the time required to effect a given
purification in the sewage liquor is twice as
great when continuous methods of treatment
are adopted as opposed to fill-and-draw'.
Three major reasons were given by Ardern
(1927) for the switch from fill-and-draw to con-
tinuous flow systems. They were (1) the high
dissipation of energy during draw (the high
discharge flow rate relative to that of the influ-
ent), (2) the clogging of coarse bubble diffusers
resulting from the repeated settlement of the
sludge on the diffusers, and (3) increased oper-
ator attention resulting from the need to switch
valves and clean diffusers. Although multiple-
tank SBR facilities and vast improvements in
aeration devices and control systems have now
eliminated these concerns, periodic processes
remained dormant in the USA until the late
1940s and in Europe until 1959. Hoover et al.
(1951), Hoover and Porges (1952) and Hoover
(1953) at the Eastern Regional Research
Laboratory (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) used them to
treat wastewaters from the dairy industry, and
Pasveer (1959) in the Netherlands reintro-
duced variable-volume activated sludge sys-
tems to municipal treatment.
The geometrical arrangement and mode of
operation used by Pasveer had a striking resem-
blance to the claims made in British Patent no.
729 (1914), which describes a wastewater treat-
ment system based on a looped-channel reactor
with flnid rotation induced through a diffused
aeration unit mounted in a recessed chamber.
Other versions of the Pasveer ditch included a
separate clarifier and solids recycle during con-
tinuous flow operation (Alleman, 1983).
Pasveer's work on this oxidation ditch tech-
nology had a major role in the development of
modern-day external clarifier-free, variable-

volume activated sludge systems. Pasveer's first
facility was designed to treat the flow from a
population equivalent (PE) of 360 with an
operating volume of 100 m3 (a volumetric
capacity of 208 I PE-I) without the use of an
external clarifier. The facility was operated with
intenuittent flow but with constant volume and
had three distinct phases. The phases included
aeration, sedimentation and displacement
(treated effiuent was removed by adding fresh
sewage). In effect, this facility operated with a
relatively short fill sequence approximating a
slightly prolonged dump-fill sequence. Using a
number of innovating engineering concepts,
Pasveer also developed the basic intermittent-
feed oxidation ditch into a constant feed oper-
ation in which built-in side loop volumes were
alternately used for the separation of solids and
liquid and for effiuent removal. This concept
effectively combined multiple variable-volume
basin operation into a single structure. One of
the early developments used an intermittent-
feed variable-volume operation that used a
siphon for effiuent removal. Pumping stations
interlocked to the operation of the ditch made
it possible to store wastewater in the sewer
system during settling and effiuent removal.
Pasveer's developments (1960, 1961, 1969)
initiated the re-engineering of fill-and-draw
operation, activated sludge treatment systems
without external primary or secondary clari-
fiers. One of Pasveer's variable-volume options
included continuous feed, intermittent aeration
and intenuittent discharge. With the termin-
ology described previously for the SBR, the
phases were aerated fill, static fill (for settle)
and an overlap of static fill and draw (for
effiuent withdrawal). This was the precursor of
some of todays variable-volume activated
sludge systems. Pasveer sized his ditch basin to
achieve both oxidation and sludge stabilization.
His designs incorporated a low ratio of food to
microbial biomass in relatively large volumes.
The high concentration of biomass in the reac-
tors provided an inherent dilution capacity to
buffer against variations in biolOgical oxygen
demand (BOD) in the influent. Because the
orgauic loading was quite low and energy dissi-
pation during static fill (settle) took too long,
filaments often developed and biomass separ-
ation was poor (Pasveer, 1969).
The application of the Pasveer concept for
intenuittent activated sludge processes was
taken up quite strongly in Australia; various
modifications were developed between 1965
and 1975. The development of the Intermit-
tently Decanted Extended Aeration (IDEA)
systems in the mid 1970s has had a major
impact on the widespread application of this
technology in New South Wales and, to a much
smaller degree, the rest of Australia, with most
1. Introduction
of these systems (over 100 plants) being located
in New South Wales. This technology uses a
single, rectangular tank or lagoon with con-
tinuous influent but intenuittent aeration and
decanting. It is able to achieve a high effiuent
quality with regard to BOD, suspended solids
and uitrogen. A second period of increasing
popularity of intermittent systems was iuitiated
by the growing need for nutrient (uitrogen and
phosphorus (N and P)) removal from domestic
and industrial effiuents. During the 1990s,
modified IDEA systems, designed with an
additional anaerobic zone for biological nutri-
ent removal (BNR), were implemented. In
parallel, proprietary designs were implemented
around the country. A novel single-tank SBR
design was also developed at the same time,
largely driven by research efforts in this area.
All systems have demonstrated their ability
to achieve the very stringent effiuent require-
ments (typically total N < 5 mg I-I and total
P < 1 mg I-I as 50th centiles) in Australia's
inland and sensitive coastal waters. At present
there are still many IDEA plants in New South
Wales, whereas the distribution of intenuittent
technolOgies around Australia is still limited,
but growing. The latter effect is largely due to
the substantially lower capital costs in compari-
son with continuous processes achieving the
same effiuent requirements.
Developments in variable-volume activated
sludge treatment technology were advanced by
Irvine and his co-workers in the 1960's. Signi-
ficantly, Irvine first used the term Sequencing
Batch Reactor for a Single-basin reactor that he
designed in 1969 (Irvine and Davis, 1971) for
the full-scale treatment of an industrial waste-
water in Corpus Christi, Texas, USA. Irvine
continued to use the term SBR throughout the
1970s in publications in which he reported on
the removal of orgauic and uitrogenous waste-
water constituents and the control of filaments.
On the basis of laboratory studies, Denuis
and Irvine (1979) reported on how the ratio of
the fill time to the react time developed high
growth rate conditions needed to select for a
predominantly floc-forming biomass. This was
a critical discovery that led to the powerful
notion that static fill, an unnrixed unaerated
period, can be used to develop the feast con-
ditions needed to control filaments. The experi-
ences gained in the laboratory during the 1970s
were used to convert the full-scale continuous
flow activated sludge treatment plant at Culver,
Indiana, USA to an SBR in May 1980 (Irvine et
al., 1983; Irvine et al., 1985). The SBR that was
tested at Culver as part of a US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) SBR demonstration
study had a relatively short hydraulic residence
time of less than 14 h and mass loadings of
more than 0.1 kg BOD kg-I volatile suspended
9
 1. Introduction
solids (VSS) d- 1. Before this time it was believed
that the hydraulic residence time for siogle-tank
variable-volume systems should be around 48 h
and have mass loadiogs similar to that of an
extended aeration system.
Many different periodic processes have been
developed since the 1970s. The remainder of
this report continues with the liviog history of
variable-volume, periodic processes by compil-
iog data and understandings gained from the
past two decades of research and full-scale
operation of these robust biological waste
treatment systems.
1.5 Scope and objeetives of !he report
During the past decade, SBR technology has
received worldwide attention. Several thousand
SBR facilities have been designed, built and
put ioto operation. Owing to a lack of design
and operation guidelioes for sizing reactors,
selecting equipment and programming control
systems, most SBRs have been iostalled with
the advice of commercial system suppliers and
reports in scientific journals. In most cases, the
SBRs worked well; in some cases, however, the
operators' lack of understandiog and experi-
ence resulted io a facility's failure to meet the
required effiuent standards.
This report has been prepared to supply the
community of designers, equipment manufac-
turers, treatment plant operators, and engio-
10
eers working for water authorities with the
information needed to design and operate SBR
plants correctly.
The current state nf knowledge of periodic
process fundamentals presented io Chapter 2
provides iosight ioto process strategy selection.
In Chapter 3 the various alternatives to and
modifications of the SBR system are described
so that designers will be better able to select
the SBR alternative that best fits their appli-
cation. The remainiog chapters discuss a gen-
eral design approach, provide ioformation on
equipment, automatic control systems and SBR
operation, summarize practical experiences
gained from various parts of the world and,
finally, identify research needs.
SBR technology has reached an advanced
state of development. However, io comparison
with continuous flow systems, the knowledge
base for SBR performance during practical
situations remains limited. Some of the state-
ments made io this report might cause contro-
versy because of iocomplete coverage of either
site-specific aspects or the latest research
results. The authors are aware that this report
is a first attempt to summarize current know-
ledge of SBR technology and to make the
information available to researchers and prac-
titioners. Recommendations and comments are
welcome. They will assist in the development of
the technology and improve the accuracy and
reliability of deSign guidelioes.
 2. Fundamentals of periodic processes

2. Fundamentals of periodic
processes

2.1 Microbial ecology and population needed for normal cell growth for disposal
dynamics with excess biomass (i.e. the waste
activated sludge), commonly referred to as
The term 'ecology' applies to the interdepen- enhanced biological phosphorus removal
dences that occur between environmental (EBPR) or simply 'Bio-P removal'.
factors and the microbial community. In a
biological wastewater treatment plant, process
Heterotrophs use carbon-based compounds
conditions prevailing in the biological reactor
as their source of carbon and energy (i.e. the
are the major environmental factors and are
electron donor). Under aerobic conditions they
described by parameters that include the
remove COD at a relatively fast rate and
hydraulic retention time, solids retention time
typically produce cell mass, carbon dioxide and
or sludge age, substrate, co-substrate, oxygen,
water as their final products, often with only
pH, temperature and salinity. Although treat-
trace levels of organic by-products. During
ment facilities can be engineered to control
denitrification, heterotrophs use oxidized forms
most of these parameters, factors such as tem-
of nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen or nitrite-nitro-
perature can be subjected to only limited
gen) as electron acceptors at zero or low con-
control.
centrations of dissolved oxygen (referred to as
The art of biological wastewater engineering
'anoxic' conditions), and produce the same final
involves the development of a treatment system
products at somewhat lower rates but often
that controls process conditions, selects for the
with notably greater levels of organic by-
most suitable microbial community, and
products. During the absence of the aforemen-
achieves the desired treatment both reliably
tioned electron acceptors (i.e. under anaerobic
and economically. The physiological state of the
conditions), some heterotrophs (acidogens or
microbial consortium selected must have a
acetogens) produce a number oflow-molecnlar-
collective metabolic activity that meets these
mass compounds including volatile fatty acids
goals while producing a suitable biomass
(VFA, e.g. acetic acid). Other heterotrophs
structure (e.g. floc or grannie) that permits easy
(methanogens) convert acetic acid into methane
separation from the treated emuent. More
gas. Methane production typically takes place
simply stated, the effective operation of an
under strict anaerobic conditions because oxy-
activated sludge plant develops a microbial
gen is toxic to methanogens. Other anaerobic
community that provides maximum metabolic
heterotrophs tolerate oxygen; some, the facul-
activity of the microbial organisms required to
tative heterotrophs, can use electron acceptors
achieve the treatment goals, develops compact
when available.
biomass flocs without extending filaments and
Nitrifiers are chemolithoautotrophs that use
has a good sludge settleability, i.e. a low sludge
carbon dioxide as their carbon source and
volume index (SVI).
either ammonia-nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen as
The collective metabolic activities of the
the energy source or electron donor. Nitrogen
microbial community are:
removal takes place when ammonia-nitrogen is
• conversion of soluble and colloidal organic oxidized to nitrate-nitrogen (or nitrite-nitrogen)
materials into cell mass, carbon dioxide, by autotrophs and the resulting oxidized forms
water and soluble microbial by-products, of nitrogen are reduced to nitrogen gas by het-
mostly monitored as COD removal erotrophs during the process called denitrifi-
• oxidation of ammonia-nitrogen into nitrite- cation.
nitrogen and further into nitrate-nitrogen, Microbial organisms involved in Bio-P remo-
commonly referred to as nitrification val are a collection of heterotrophic bacteria
• reduction of nitrate-nitrogen into nitrite- selected and enriched when periodically
nitrogen and further into nitrogen gas, exposed to anaerobic and aerobic conditions on
commonly referred to as denitrification a regular basis. The specific heterotrophs res-
• accumulation of phosphorus beyond that ponsible for EBPR can use some of the COD
11
 2. Fundamentals of periodic processes
009 """ I
-';"'b
400
1 3DO ~bo
SO '8
U 200
0
f-< ~
100
ATOC Famine
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
Elapsed time (h)
Figure 2.1. Deterioration of activated sludge settlahility for low initio! substrate concentration and short staroation
time. Results based on experiments with malthouse wastewater (Wliderer and Schroeder, 1986).
of municipal wastewater directly under anaero-
bic conditions. However, most of the organic
compounds must first be fermented to low-
molecular-mass fatty acids, mainly acetic acid.
Under anaerobic conditions the Bio-P organ-
isms can now use the energy released from the
hydrolysis of intracellular polyphosphate to
transport acetic acid across their cell
membranes and produce polyhydroxyalkano-
ates (PHA) in general and, usually, polyhyd-
roxybutyrate (PHB). The concomitant utilization
of stored glycogen provides the reduced nucle-
otides needed for PHB formation. When
anaerobic conditions are switched to aerobic
conditions, PHB serves as an energy source for
cell growth, the transport of extracellular phos-
phorus, the formation of glycogen reserves, and
the production of intracellular polyphosphate.
Operatiog strategies used to establish EBPR
consortia often select for denitrifiers. The
resultiog denitrification complicates EBPR
because the denitrifiers 'steal' a portion of the
COD contained in the wastewater and,
possibly, some of the conversion products
before they can be used by the Bio-P organisms
to increase further their relative abundance.
This, of course, limits the total mass of phos-
phorus that can be removed in such EBPR
systems.
The growth of a compact, good settling bio-
mass, and the control of filamentous organisms,
are critical performance factors in activated
sludge systems. Chudoba et al. (1973) demon-
strated in their experiments that cyclic change
of the concentration of growth substrates is a
selection factor in favour of or against certain
strains of filamentous bacteria. Through their
experiments they showed that filamentous
bulking can be succeSsively avoided when the
activated sludge organisms are periodically
exposed to high and low concentrations of
substrate. Slight differences in the kinetic
12
200
150 Cycle time
=6h
100
50
100 200 300 400
ATOC (mg 1-1)
parameters of filamentous and non-filamentous
bacteria studied are the reasons for the effects
observed. Chiesa (Chiesa, 1982; Chiesa and
Irvine, 1985; Chiesa et al., 1985) and Wliderer
and Schroeder (1986) confirmed these results.
Chiesa demonstrated the value of both feast
and famine on the selection of non-filamentous
organisms. He proposed an integrated hypo-
thesis that explained how the relative growth
rates and death rates of floc-formers and
different types of filament would decrease the
relative abundance of filaments in both high-
loaded and extended-aeration activated sludge
treatment systems (Chiesa and Irvine, 1985).
As can be seen from Figure 2.1, Wilderer and
Schroeder (1986) illustrated that good settling
activated sludge is best achieved when the
microorganisms are regularly exposed to reas-
onably long-lastiog near-starvation conditions.
They hypothesized that the extracellular
polymeriC substances (EPS) needed for the
microorganisms to become embedded in and
become an integral part of activated sludge
floes are generated preferentially whenever the
concentration of readily biodegradable substan-
ces becomes limitiog in the bulk liquid, and
starvation beginS.
The effects of cyclic exposure of micro-
organisms to different process conditions on
bioreactor performance are compiled in Table
2.1. Each of the periodically imposed selective
pressures described in this table has an impor-
tant role during start-up and normal operation.
The operatiog strategy implemented during
start-up defines the microbial population that
will ultimately be selected and enriched and, as
a result, defines the treatment limits and capa-
bilities of the system. The collective physiologi-
cal state of the resultiog microbial consortium
can be modified and adjusted by making
appropriate changes in the operating strategies
employed after start-up. In any event, the
 2. Fundamentals of periodic processes

Table 2.1. Effect of cyclic exposure ofmicroorganisms to different process conditions on hioreactor performance

Factor varied cyclically Effects achieved

High and low concentrations of Growth rate differentials that suppress excess growth of
readily biodegradable substrates filamentous bacteria
Mioimizes sensitivity to shock loads and general variations
io environmental factors and iofluent constituents

High substrate concentration Accumulation of EPS and suppression of excess growth of

followed by an extended period
of starvation
Aerobic and anoxic conditions
Anaerobic and aerobic conditions
filamentous bacteria
Enrichment of floc-formiog bacteria with the physiological
characteristics needed to meet treatment objectives
Enrichment of both nitrifiers and denitrifiers for nitrogen
removal
Enrichment of Bio-P bacteria for EBPR

results expected from any operating strategy !.! Process considerations

can be established only if the cyclic exposure
occurs over a large number of cycles. For As discussed previously, the aerobic reactor io a
example, the effect that controls either the continuous flow activated sludge plant can be
enrichment of a certain group of bacteria for, designed as a single completely mixed tank (Le.
a CMFR) or as a cascade of tanks io series
say, EBPR or changes io physiological state that
result io the production of components such as where ideal plug flow conditions are approxi-
EPS are mioimal if imposed for only a few mated. Because the fill and react periods of an
cycles. Extending the duration over many SBR collectively model as a variable-volume
CMFR followed by a batch reactor (equivalent
cycles amplifies and iotegrates iocremental
to a one-dimensional steady-state PFR), the
changes and accumulations from each cycle
and leads eventually to the desired results. SBR provides conditions as in a plug flow
In summary it is important to recognize the system provided a react phase is included. It is
following: ioteresting to note that quick or static Hli allows
the SBR to model exactly an ideal PFR,
• how selective pressures are caused and whereas the cascade of tanks in series only
how they relate to growth conditions and approximates plug flow conditions. If the SBR
growth rate differentials that minimize or is Hlled slowly over the entire reaction time and
maximize the relative abundance of certaio react periods are not iocluded, the system
species or strains of microorganisms resembles a single tank CMFR.
• that the relative formation of biolOgical Figure 2.2 compares COD profiles of a
storage products relates to ioitial reaction cascade consisting of tanks io series and that
conditions SclXo (the highest ratio of expected for an SBR with anyone of three
substrate to microorganisms) and the different combioations of fill rates and volu-
previous history of the biomass metric exchange ratios, VER. The COD pro-
• that most Hlamentous bacteria have both a Hies for the SBR can differ over a wide range
low or negligible capacity for using nitrate- depending on the operation strategy used to
nitrogen as an electron acceptor and a low control the rate of aeration.
storage capacity for soluble substrates It can be hypothesized that microorganisms
• that some Hlamentous bacteria have high that are periodically exposed to high concentra-
growth rates at elevated substrate concen- tions of substrate are more active than those
trations and comparatively high decay rates that grow under extended periods of low
io the absence of substrate; thus, they are concentrations of substrate. When the substrate
at a competitive disadvantage relative to concentration is elevated, the cells can accumu-
floc-formers when feast/famine conditions late enzymes that iocrease the reaction rate.
are imposed Similarly, the overall enzyme activity of cells
• that other filaments have low growth rates grown under starvation conditions (i.e. maio-
at elevated substrate concentrations and tenance levels) is decreased.
very low decay rates in the absence of sub- Increasingly, it is also found that many
strate, causing them to be at a competitive organisms have active storage capabilities. This
disadvantage relative to floc-formers when means that under high substrate concentra-
feast/famine conditions are imposed. tions, soluble COD is actively taken up and
13
 2. Fundamentals of periodic processes
(a)
Cascade flow
"C~;;;PY.;t;;·;;;~;j' ..........................
Distance from feed port
Figure 2.2. Change in the effluent substrate concentration, expressed as COD, according to the detention time
distribution JUnction and theftll strategy applied: (a) continuous flow system; (b) SBR.
accumulated in the cells in the fonn of poly-
meric organic substances (e.g. PHB and glyco-
gen). Such storage materials can then be used
during the starvation periods, giving these
organisms a competitive advantage. The EBPR
organisms are one such example.
The frequency with which the SBR should
be loaded is an important factor. For example,
the same mass of substrate can be added to an
SBR system in a series of small batches or all in
one batch during any period of 24 h. In theory,
one might expect that any of these different
operating strategies would produce essentially
the same results. Preliminary results suggest
that this supposition might not be correct.
Results obtained by Dennis and Irvine (1979)
demonstrated that the ratio of fill time to react
time did have a marked impact on system
perfonnance for three different systems that
had the same HRT, sludge age and organic
loading. Because of the importance of this
infonnation to the optimal design of SBR
systems, additional research is reqnired.
2.3 Practical aspects and ~lImmary
Diurnal, weekly, and seasonal variations in flow
rate (Q), concentration (C) and composition
characterize the influent to municipal and
industrial wastewater treatment plants. Irres-
pective of these variations, the efIluent
parameters should not exceed the site-specific
discharge limits. The HRT in the biological
reactor is usually correlated pOSitively with the
influent flow rate and with the influent mass
loading (the product QC). Accordingly, micro-
organisms need more time to execute their
respective metabolic processes when the load-
ing is greater.
Variation in the influent mass flow rate
causes significant problems for continuous flow
activated sludge plants. Once the decision has
been made on bioreactor sizing, perfonnance
14
(b)
Slow fill, high f.
···········::·:::h-UnHN._.
Elapsed time
depends on the actual HRT and influent mass
loading. A plant for which the reactor is under-
designed relative to peak mass loadings might
exceed set discharge limits during periods of
elevated loading. For safety reasons, therefore,
continuous flow plants are often designed for
high loading events even if these events occur
ouly rarely. The daily supply of food is generally
inadequate in such a system and its microbial
system adapts to the situation of low loading by
shifts in the organism type distribution. As a
result, the plant's capacity is not properly exp-
loited and the microbial population enriched in
the reactor might have only a limited capacity
to respond to shock loads when the reqnired
groups of organisms are underrepresented as
peak loadings occur. Modular continuous flow
activated sludge plants involving parallel treat-
ment systems (reactor plus clarifier) could
address the problem if the number of systems
in operation could be increased or decreased
on demand, with those not in use remaining
idle (Gonzales-Martinez et al., 1987).
In contrast with continuous flow systems,
SBRs pennit the virtually instantaneous fine-
tuning of critical functions such as the control
of filaments or the modification of the extent of
nutrient removal by changing set points for
time limits or level controllers. In addition, the
number of tanks in operation and the high
water level and/or low water level for each tank
can be changed to adjust cycle time so that
actual field conditions are satisfied. Set points
for time limits can be changed. TIme dedicated
to one phase can be moved to another (e.g.
from idle to settle, or from settle to react).
Dedicating more or less time to the static fill
phase, the mixed fill phase or the mixed react
phase can change the total aeration time and
thereby the aerated solids retention time
(aSRT). The differential between the maximum
and minimum growth rate during a cycle is

likewise modified. For example, the maximum
growth rate can be increased by incorporating a
static fill phase or by increasing the ratio of
time for the static fill phase to that for the
aerated fill phase. Similarly, the minimum
growth rate can be 'deepened' by instituting a
distinct react phase (Le. one completely with-
out the concomitant inflow of untreated waste-
water) or by increasing the time for the aerated
react phase.
Clarity of the final effiuent and the solids
concentration of the waste activated sludge can
be altered by changing the time for settle.
Sludge thickening is a process that is integrated
in the SBR system. By withdrawing excess
sludge towards the end of the settle phase or
even during the idle phase the volumetric
loading of the sludge treatment system can be
influenced positively.
In summary, the processes responsible for
the success of biological wastewater treatment
can be regulated within the SBR with relative
ease when the proper operating strategies are
implemented. Important reasons for the use of
SBR technology over the conventional
continuous flow technology include the ability
to do the following:
• to control filamentous sludge bulking
through feast/famine-based selective press-
ures by establishing the proper SJXo ratio
(i.e. the food to microorganism ratio)
during fill, control over the aeration inten-
2. Fundamentals of periodic processes
sity during fill, and allowing endogenous
metabolic reactions during react to include
EPS production
• to have co-current nitrification and
denitrification within the time frame of
one cycle through simple adjustment of
aeration intensity
• to adjust the system configuration and oper-
ating policy to meet easily both short-term
diurnal and long-term seasonal variations
in wastewater composition, concentration
of wastewater constituents and load.
• if allowed, to eliminate separate load
equalization facilities and use each SBR
tank as an equalization basin
• to 'polish' phosphorus removal through the
direct addition of sequestering agents
during fill or react phases
• to decrease cumulative oxygen demand
and sludge production by using carbon-
based energy for nutrient removal during
either denitrification or EBPR
• to tolerate shock loads caused by variations
in organic andlor hydraulic load by adjus-
ting the cycle time, the duration of the
various process phases, the aeration time
and VER to the actual needs
• to keep effiuent suspended solids low by
minimizing eddy currents and turbulence
during the settle phase
• to provide sludge thickening during the
settle phase to decrease the water content
of the sludge wasted from the reactor.
15

3. General overview of SBR
applications
3.1 Introduction
The variable-volume suspended-growth activa-
ted sludge system abandoned in the 1920s was
revitalized and redefined during parallel but
unrelated studies conducted in the USA and in
Australia in the 1970s. When Irvine named his
variable-volume system the SBR in 1967, he
focused on a system with a periodic influent
and a periodic discharge. By the time he had
completed a decade of research, it had become
obvious that significant control of complex
microbial systems could be exercised if a react
period were present in each cycle so tha~ true
starvation conditions could be established.
From 1980 to 1982, as the full-scale SBR dem-
onstration study at Culver, Indiana, reached its
peak, the potential of an SBR combining. a
periodic input and a periodic discharge .":th
react (Le. a period with aeration and/or mlXlllg
but with no wastewater input) was shown.
Meanwhile, full-scale variable-volume sys-
tems styled after those originally developed by
Pasveer (1959, 1969) were installed in Australia
in the late 1960s. In the mid-1970s Goronszy
and his colleagues in Australia modified single-
tank carousel reactors with continuous input,
periodic discharge and extended aeration to
work successfully without external clarifiers.
The intermittently decanted extended aeration
lagoon (IDEAL) and the intermittent cycle
extended aeration system (ICEAS) were thus
created. The theoretical developments and
limited full-scale application of the SBR in the
USA combined with extensive full-scale appli-
cations of the IDEAL and ICEAS technology
in Australia propelled variable-volume periodic
processes through the 1980s into ~e. ~~Os.
Developments continuing from these 1ll1tiatives
included the introduction of cyclic activated
sludge technology to Europe (Demoulin et al.,
1997).
Until the mid-1980s, periodic process tech-
nology was applied almost exclusively to activa-
ted sludge systems. Only then was some
attention given to periodically operated systems
with non-suspended growth. Reports were
published on the biological treatment of landfill
leachates and contaminated groundwater with a
3. General overview of SBR applications
fixed bed sequencing batch bioHlm reactor
(SBBR) (Wilderer et al., 1992). Next, some
inroads were made into the on-site bioremedi-
ation of contaminated soil in the periodically
operated soil slurry sequencing batch reactor
(SS-SBR) (Cassidy and Irvine, 1997). The early
to mid-I990s brought on periodically operated
anaerobic reactors (the anaerobic sequencing
batch reactor, AnSBR) for the treatment of
industrial wastewater (Earley and Ketchum,
1997) and solid phase reactors (i.e. the SP-
SBR) (Cassidy and Irvine, 1997) for the bio-
remediation of contaminated soil in situ.
Similarily, the digestion of organiC solids in
SBR systems was developed for the fast degr~­
dation of muuicipal solid waste. It was not until
1998 that controlled unsteady-state operation
was extended to the treatment of contaminated
gases in a periodically operated bioHlter (Irvine
and Moe, 2000).
As can be seen from the foregoing, there is a
Significant potential for the application of the
SBR concept. Some of the novel SBR systems
proposed treat contaminated gas, soils, solid
waste and others, but most treat wastewaters.
Certainly, the most successful applications so
far have dealt with the focus of this report:
variable-volume periodically operated systems
that treat muuicipal and industrial wastewater.
Most of these periodically operated systems
have names that suggest that they are sub-
classes of the SBR (e.g. the AnSBR and the SS-
SBR), correctly or incorrectly, because of the
name recognition provided to the SBR by the
First International Conference on Sequencing
Batch Reactor Technology in Muuich
(Wilderer et al., 1997). In keeping with that
approach, other variable-volum~ system,s, ev~~
those developed in parallel WIth the ClasSIC
SBR, will be generically referred to here as
SBRs.
3.2 The generie SRR
General characteristics offill-and-draw, variable-
volume activated sludge facilities include the
follOwing:
• they provide biological conversion of
wastewater pollutants and solids-liquid
17
 3. General overview of SBR applications
influent
static fill
m;xoo fill I
* intermittent effiuent
aemtedfill I
aerated reactf------'--+------,----------1
settle
draw
idle
cycle
Figure 3.1. Schematic representation ofa single-tank SBR plant to treat municipal wastewater ofSfTIIlU
communities in rural areas.
separation in one tank or in two or more
tanks operated in sequence
• they have tanks that increase in liquid
volume during fill and decrease in liquid
volume during draw
• they dictate metabolic activity by sequen-
cing each tank's mixing, aeration and non-
mixing/non-aeration pattern during each
cycle
• they use non-Iuixing/non-aeration patterns
in the same tank to allow either solid-
liquid separation (i.e. during the settle
phase) or substrate accmnulation (Le.
during a static fill phase)
• they use time andlor sensors to control the
sequence of phases; the sensors include
those that detect the liquid level, dissolved
oxygen concentration, pH and oxidation-
reduction potential (ORP))
• they use uuit operations and uuit processes
that follow each other in a time sequence
that is progressively repeated in a
'periodic' or 'cyclic' manner
• they maintain high performance during
periods of shock loads
• they can hold treated wastewater for
testing before being released
• they adjust the magnitude of energy input,
the fraction of each tank's volume used,
and the number of tanks placed into
operation to meet variations in loading.
The following three illustrations (Figures 3.1,
3.2 and 3.3) show examples of common
muuicipal SBR system configurations.
The Single-Tank Rural SBR is well suited for
rural applications where land costs are low. The
18
illustrated tank (Figure 3.1) is an earthen
lagoon because these systems are often large to
provide excess capacity and to minimize oper-
ator intervention. However, steel or concrete
tanks can also be used when smaller tank
designs are desired. No pretreatment system is
showa because rural communities often
construct separate sanitary sewers that intro-
duce only small amounts of grit. This grit can
be allowed to accumulate in the large earthen
lagoons for long periods, and be removed after
many years of accumulation. A screen or
comminutor can be installed on the influent
lioe to eliminate large materials that might clog
the inlet or outlet orifices or aeration system.
Solids that would otherwise be removed in a
primary settling tank will exert additional
oxygen demand on the aeration system, but this
strategy eliminates the capital and operating
costs of a primary settling tank and the need for
separate primary sludge handliog. Sludge vol-
umes wasted from the rural SBR are low because
they are operated with a long solids retention
time, much like extended aeration systems.
When wasted, the sludge is relatively stable,
and can be handled with less complex systems.
The control of rural single-tank SBR systems is
easily accomplished with timers and indicators
of liquid level. Operation at one cycle per day is
common and resnlts in variable high water
levels at the beginning of the draw phase.
Small to intermediate urban SBR systems
include automatic control. The two-tank system
illustrated in Figure 3.2 receives continuous
influent flow from either a pumping station or
gravity flow into its preliminary treatment
system. The preliminary treatment system,

influent
l
holding tank
,
•~ ~ ,..
7
i i
intennittent effiuent
:;edreact I
-.d6ll
cycle
Figure 3.2. Schemat;c representation if a SBR plant seruing small urban areas (two-tank setup).
which can include screens, comrninutors and a
grit chamber, is designed, constructed and
operated like those used in continuous flow
systems, as are the prim"')' settling tanks (two
shown in parallel). Control that is unique to
SBR operation includes a strategy for the fill
phase in one tank while react, settle, draw and
idle phases occur in the other (Le. 50% of the
cycle time dedicated to the fill phase). In a
three-tank SBR system, only 33% of the cycle
time is dedicated to fill, because react, settle,
draw and idle in each tank occur during the fill
time of both other tanks. Post-treatment units
(e.g. filtration) can be added as for continuous
flow systems. These systems must be designed
in accordance with the flow rate that occurs
during the decant phases. This will require flow
equalization between the SBR and post-
treatment units. In multiple tank systems this
problems is of less concern because the draw
rates can be set to equal the design influent
flow rate. This has the added benefit that the
post-treatment units are operated at a constant
design rate when the draw phase occurs, or no
flow occurs.
The operating strategy sketched in Figure
3.2 provides a pump dedicated to each tank.
The control system is operated as follows.
• FiU in tank 1: when tank 2 reaches its high
water level pump 1 starts and pump 2
shuts off. Tank 1 completes react, settle,
draw and idle before fill beginS.
• React in tank 1: nrixing and aeration begin
at the end of the fill phase in tank 1. Some
operating strategies have alternating peri-
ods of nrixing alone or nrixing with
3. General overview of SBR applications
aeration, and aeration or mixing can be
started before the fill phase in tank 1 is
complete. React ends, on the basis of a
period that from experience is sufficient to
complete the desired reactions, such as
stabilization of organic carbon or com-
pletion of nitrification. This strategy works
well for influents with relatively constant
characteristics, because each batch is
similar. For systems that possess highly
variable influent characteristics or when it
is desired to minimize energy consumption
for aeration, react can be stopped when
the dissolved oxygen concentration or ORP
reaches a level that indicates that the
desired biolOgical reactions are complete.
• Settle in tank 1: mixing and aeration
required for react is stopped and settle is
allowed to begin. Usually, settling rates
vruy little during each season, so a fixed
period is dedicated to settle, with
adjustments to time made as necess"')'.
• Draw in tank 1: draw begins at the time
that settle ends. Draw can be initiated
earlier if a sludge blanket level indicator is
used and the sludge blanket reaches a
desired level. The sludge blanket indicator
can also be used to stop draw if the
decanter is too close to the sludge blanket.
• Idle in tank 1: at the peak design flow rate,
idle is short, possibly only a couple of
minutes. During periods of low flow rate,
idle is long. Some systems provide for an
interruption of react and an immediate
settle and draw in the next tank to be filled
if the peak flow rate exceeds that used for
the deSign. Alternatively, static fill and
19
 3. General overview of SBR applications
Figure 3.3. Example ofa two-tank SBR system built In Turkey.
draw can be allowed to overlap for a pre-
determined period. The peak flow might
be the result of an unusually large rain
event in a sewer system under the influ-
ence of storm water.
• Fill in tank 1: when tank 2 reaches the end
of its fill phase, tank 1 accepts the influent.
Tank 2 then goes through its phases of
react, settle, draw and idle as described
above for tank 1, and becomes ready to
begin its next fill phase. The cycle repeats
in each tank. When influent flow rates are
low, the cycle times are long, and when the
flow rates are high, the times are short.
A two-tank SBR plant built in Turkey is
shown in Figure 3.3. For larger installations it
is often more practical to increase the number
of tanks rather than to have two very large
tanks. This allows a high degree of flexibility
and redundancy (e.g. one tank can be taken off-
line for maintenance without greatly affecting
the treatment capacity). Flow might or might
not be distributed to two or more tanks at the
time, particularly during high flow situations.
Equally, effiuent discharged can be (almost)
continuous flow, eliminating possible problems
with any continuously operating post-treatment
stages (e.g. filtration).
3.3 Overview of the various SDR
applications
In the continuous activated sludge process or
conventional activated sludge process it is well
recognized that there is a wide range of process
variations. Design parameters for extended
aeration, conventional loading activated sludge,
high rate activated sludge and contact stabili-
zation processes, for example, all reqlrire dif-
20
ferent design considerations. Substantial design
and performance variations exist in practice.
This identification of the separate processes
and capabilities has been developed over a
considerable period with the use of different
design criteria.
For periodically operated systems the
tendency is to group them all into a single
category, generically called the SBR. All vari-
able-volume activated sludge processes do
involve the basic principles of batch reactor
processing, which involve sequencing and vari-
able-volume operation to achieve the intended
results. There are wide variations in available
variable-volume activated sludge technolOgies
and distinct process issues that must be
identified for a proper evaluation of perfor-
mance capabilities of these cyclically aerated
systems, just as is done for the various contin-
uous flow activated sludge systems.
Differences between the various versions of
the SBR include continuous versus periodic
influent and distinct phases for react, settle and
idle as described in Table 1.1, the overlap of fill
and draw, the use of either suspended or
attached biomass, and the application of addi-
tives with sorptive properties such as activated
carbon. Hydraulic residence time and organic
loading also vary notably between the several
fill-and-draw variable-volume systems that have
been developed and put into operation during
the past quarter century. Four generic groups
of SBR can be distinguished, each charac-
terized by the specific fill strategy used or the
inclusion of a react or idle phase. These generic
groups are as follows:
(a) systems with a periodic influent, a react
phase and an idle phase

influent
static fill
m;xoo fill
I
* intermittent effiuent
aerated fill I
aemted react I I
settle
draw
idle
cycle
Figure 3.4. Schematic representation of an SBR system with a periodic influent, a react phase and an idle phase.
(b) systems with a periodic influent, a react
phase and no idle phase
(c) systems with interrupted influent, a selec-
tor and no react and idle phases
(d) systems with a continuous influent.
Each of these systems is described briefly
below.
3.3.1 Group (a)
The SBR as originally defined (Irvine and
Davis, 1971; Irvine and Busch, 1979) is shown
in Figure 3.4. Two or more tanks are normally
used. The influent is diverted from the tank
being filled when its water level reaches a
predetermined maximum value. The fill time
ratio (FTR) for each tank is less than one. The
duration of the fill period is defined by
tf= Vn.
In this system the feast condition is often
achieved by instituting a static fill that is
equivalent to the selector described iuitially by
Chudoba et 01. (1973), and famine by having a
sufficiently long aerated react phase without
feed to ensure starvation. Aerated and mixed
fill are used to implement biological nutrient
removal. Both settle and draw take place with-
out the addition of influent to the tank. Idle is
equivalent to an in-reactor equalization or hol-
ding tank. It allows the system to handle
variable flow conditions without loss of perfor-
mance. A full description of this system is
provided in section 3.4.
3.3.2 Group (b)
Figure 3.5 shows an SBR system as it is often
used in Germany (Wilderer et al., 1986). The
3. General overview of SBR applications
I
influent enters a holding tank before being
distributed into the SBR tanks. Two or more
tanks are normally used. The configuration of
tanks allows the system to be operated with a
variable fill strategy including one that has
either dump fill (Le. instantaneous fill) and
extended fill; an idle phase is therefore not
required to control the system during variable
flow conditions. The holding tank in group (b)
provides the same function as the idle phase in
group (a). Similarly, the dump fill is equivalent
to having a static fill or selector in that both
actions results in elevated concentrations of
substrates, which in turn provides for feast
conditions. A static fill phase is implemented as
needed. As for group (a), mixed fill is used to
implement biolOgical nutrient removal, and
settle and draw take place without the addition
of influent to the tank.
3.3.3 Group (c)
Figure 3.6 describes SBR systems that have
either an internal or an external constant-
volume selector basin. In these systems fill is
interrupted either during the draw phase (e.g.
as in the Cyclic Activated Sludge System) or
during the settle and draw phases (e.g. as in the
Cyclic Activated Sludge Technology). All of
these systems have a recirculation line that
returns mixed liquor from the main reactor to
the selector. The Cyclic Activated Sludge
System has a chamber that follows the selector
to buffer the flow during settle.
As can be seen from Figure 3.6, the influent
enters the reactor through a selector operated
in accordance with a predetermined mixing!
aeration strategy to achieve protection against
21
 3. General overview of SBR applications

influent

holding tank

intermittent effiuent

mixed 6lI I
~edreact~L=_-==_~==_-==_-==_-==_-==_-==_-==_-==_-==_'~=_-==_-==_-=+~-==_-=~~
cycle
Figure 3.5. Schemntic representation ofan SBR system with a holding tank, periodic influent, react phose and no
idle phose.

interrupted influent

l
effluent

retumflow

6lI
static fill
aerated fill
settle
draw
return flow

cycle
Figure 3.6. Schemntic representation ofan SBR systems with interrupted influent, a selector, and no distinct react
or Ulle phose.

filamentous organisms. During fill, the aeration
system can either be off (e.g. during the initial
time of fill, not necessarily for the 50% of the
fill time as shown in Figure 3.6) or on for the
rest of the fill phase. The ratio between the
time for which the aeration system is on and off
is determined by the waste load and the need
to achieve nitrogen removal.
3.3.4 Group (d)
Figure 3.7 describes SBR systems that have a
continuous inflow of wastewater. These SBRs
can be operated as single tanks or as sets of
tanks operated in para1lel. Once the water level
in a tank has reached a predetermined
maximum value, the aerators and mixers are
22
switched off, the activated sludge is allowed to
settle, and the supernatant is withdrawn from
the reactor.
To minimize cross-contamination of the
treated effiuent by the inflowing wastewater
during draw, the reactor is divided into two
zones separated by a balRe. The first of the two
tanks limits cross-contamination and serves as a
selector. Normally SBRs such the Intermittent
Cyclic Aeration System operate with a com-
pletely aerated fill. In contrast with the oper-
ation of groups (a) and (b), static fill occurs at
the end of the cycle.
3.4 Physical description or an SDR
The SBR demonstration facility operated in
_ ..... 3, Ce I iii g,ad.. woUBB. "PI" ""orl

L -_ _ _ ...JI·~,....:.

l'Ipn 3.1. ~ '"P' "",'.''mI

at.. SBR.,-tDidI "",'II..... """'"""
7710 b4Jk 110 Mo Ifr/Iov>_ir
"Pf 'foOOO<lid-...""," ~ wH""r!t1w..-J.,gw..,brMo~_' , ...

Culw:r, Man', In the euly 19!1O&1I delcribed the an time varied from ODe cycle to the Des:I:
here to mUJ!rlte the Yarlowi factions of .. aDd from tank to taDk. depending tID the
SBR. There, • CIl'IlY(m.tIonai oontinuoull :I1ow"""nnetrie flow rail! of the wm-ater. AIIOCber
activm.d sludge systmn with two 1mb Boot switcl.locamd bin _ 1M lIIlIIimum and
_
.Iing in pmau..I wu oonverted ID 6II-andl': minimum _ MI. dIIImmined !boo end of
operation. The lXlIMmi.on concentnted on Ihe react IIld the IIIIIrt of lettIe. Wbrm !be watm
ieIoeI In the tW: belng Wled blpped this switch,
1Dlet, outlet, llel'lltlao md mhlng II)'IIem. and
the oontroll)'ltem. A photosraph of the facilitymlzIag mdIta: am'atioD terminated In !be oIbm:
11 prNeDted in Figure 3.8. tank, Le. the biIIk .ID. react, md .etde began In
that tank. If the time :lOr react ~ •
3""'1 Tbe iIIIet pmdMermined muimum, the micmpID<ll!lIlll
Pinch \Iliha mounted on each taok'i .Iop gate ltopped rNCt before Ihe £Io.t IWitcb. ill the
(FIgure 3.9) diw:rted wutewaIer flaw Into ODe tank ~ BlIed TIU Irlpped.
tank CD: the odi«. ~way .oleDoki wI.veI An Inlet chamber with an opeD :Door IJNIO"
_no controlled by the mictoptwe.or and
w-I 1M 8uw of .,.",..res...d IiI" In
.:t occupied roughly 10'1> of NCb. tank'. dome to
IIIinimim short-cireuil:ing that might have
valve" rubber bl.dder The bladder _ infla- ooourr..d if fill and draw ~ III .-rlapp
ted when it wall time to end an and to initiate during ccmdi.1ionI of high flow. The 0IIerl.p of
re.ct. At mch tlmeI the other taDk'1 VIIYe was fill and draw 00CUJ'I'ed nre1y but TIU . . .:cd
.wJated 10 that WI would begIR. A float rwitdi. by the system', micropl'OOel_ oontronez.wheD-
lign"U...J the microprooe",ol" ~ the mui- II!Y&r the dI1lWwu in ptOS'- bo. one tank and
mum IiqWl I-l was rsw:hed, whid:t in tum 1M muimum liquid volUIm! was ....m..d in the
"",t a IignaIm !boo wllllloid wI-. Acrordingly, other. The miaiop:t"""aDl" 'MIl pmgr.mmed In
"

tJ'; ruction poru womo Aubmmgtld during 1m and
'IWo d.....mng deviceI 'IftIn! ~rted, one r:4
..-"....,.w
wbich u 1hDMl.ln FIgure 3.10. Neither met the
of ............. '"
AustnIia, but both ICbieved the goaII desired.
an.. d.Mce wu a &.t-1IlOUlItI!d mbm..n:ible
pump. The pomp wu directly coupled to a
draw-olf pipe and h.d ~ ruction porn that
remolned below the water mrface throughout
the entire cycle. Draw wu timed to begin
appnmmately 45 min Ifl:er tbe Ihut of .!lttle. A
float switm located III: a pnodetennined mini-
mum w.ter lewI determined the eud of draw.
Iu a ufeguard. the m1c:iopiOOBllm was pro-
pmmed to Ibut olJ the pump after a
predt:termJned time in cur: the float IW1tch
malfuncIioned. The didw'gI': from the pump
pu....I through a jet dWnf..ction unit. The
second det!IlIlt device wu .. minor mor!iSc·tion
of the BrIt. 1b £acilitate pump m,intenanM, the
IUbmersibIe pump wu removed from the :IlOIIt
and IllOUIlIlld on the end -.II Ie) that It could be
...my
off"po _ """""'" .. t:
Iifu.d out fur MIricin The ruction draw-
P""P _ .... During the Bnt year of operation at CuhoeI;
swtvel joint and floated below the rurl'aoe by an many cbangs had to be made In the aention
u
Il ....filled, .wed baIlut pipe. Beauw: the
smaI1 mass of biomass ."'CnIDII'...... in
IeIlCt, ..
the pipe and wu diJcbIuged a10ng with the
treated eHluent. ThIll problem ..... wueded by
divertlnt; the Initial l'ill of draw to the Inlet
chmber of one of the tanb.
3.4..3 'IhI_lIlianwmtdtl,.,...
A jet aention system Mplaood EDt1Dg ooane
bubble dlHuJen becaUie of 00DCel'D Oller the
plugpJ:ng of the dlffuler Itone& with bfomau
and the loll of oxygen transfer efficiency. One
II!t of bloM!n .m..100 air to tbe i"'" instaIl..d
in one tank :Y.. .econd let af blowom
ruwlied air to the jell in the aeocm tank. Each
Jet wu supplied with w.ter by ita own pump,
and with air through m air line from the blCM'-
en. One jet WIll pIaa.d in the inJ..t chamber
and two on NCh side of the main ch.mb.,r,
centnl b.ftIe. When the jab 'III"eR! activated, the
£law in the tank I!IOIIed in a clrcular direction
around the centre bafBe wail Later In the
study thiI centre wall wu remOWld from the
tmb without any lou of pmfurmlnao.
During .static BIl Dl!IitIier the jet pumP" nor
the blowen 'MIre em. Only the jeb' pump were
actMted durin,; mlmd an. Both the jeb!"
pumP' and the bloweI'l _re on during aerated
fiB. Opendion wu grmerally rather llimple. '!he
decision In actiwte the pump. or the pump5
and blOIftn wu ba-t on a signal from float
rwitcl!es to the mictoptooeilor. The iOCIItion of
the swltcheI ",... hued OD. the need to control
IlIamentJ or the dr:1lre to coup1e the remowl of
BOD and mopomded oolido (SS) with nitrifica-
tion only. nitrification plus denitrilkation, or
nitrogen and photphorus remonl. FOJ' _ -
ple. Italic :B1l k tLe Bnt one-third of the :B1l
volume md IIel'I.ted :B1l for the remainder of
fill, would problbly remit in good Ir:ttIing bID-
m.... !hat ",1Il!IYed BOD IIIld SS and .mdized
ammonia. Such perlOrmance requill!!. !hat the
bi01IIIlII has tmderpe the eDI!cbTTl!m~ needed
to Ie1ect for 1litrlBel'l, the aenIIiaD. II)'Item ia
Iized to rupply the oqgen needed for nitrlfl.-
CIItioD, and the bnb lite of sufficient lift': to
emuno that the timll ~ed In complete the
lI!!Il(.'\ions ill adequate. Mil:ing without IIIIIltion
during react (1.11. mlmd react) ill of Ilmited
wlue ill the remcJYal of either nitroge:a or phoa-
pborua if IOluble BOD added during fill ill not
..rn..d IM!I to n.ct. Such carry-over ill diffi-
cult in S)'5tIImlI that haYI:o dommic wutew....
al'rebtively low rtrengtb. Aooordingly. \'irtuaD.y
all of the nitrogen and/or phoIphonD removal
for ruch ')'ItelnII diould t.ke place during WI.
3"-4 'l1Ie.dmoproo • oaabul.,1IIIt::ai
 3. CI I iii g,ad.." ..Un "PI" ""orl

North taDk SouIh tmk

Aerated an (h) '.9 3.1
~(~)(h) 0.1 0.'
Settle (h) 0.1 0.1
Drur(h)
"""
0.1 0.1
~)
Total cycle (h) ,
1.0
,l.l

C)del per day

• •

"
 3. Geoenl. ownIew of SBR IIppIications

Tabk 3.2. Control aftM Cvlu:r SBR.,. oIw!«J.from north t.IrIl: IWitrJha

Float switch lewl NT

(meb'ell above bottom) Function Override time oontrol for function listed
2.0 End draw NT Maximum time in draw, 50 min
Begin idle NT N=
2.5 End react ST Maximum time in react, 90 min
Begin settle ST Time in set& for ST, 45 min
Begin draw in ST after settle
2.6 End miJed anNT N~
Begin aerated fill NT
3.4 End aerated an NT
Begin mixed on ST
Begin aerated react NT
End idle ST
Note: NT, aorlh tak; ST, IOIII:h Wlk..

activated sludge process bke5 advantage of the

physical cha.ract.eristics of a single-basin reactor
to accomplish these objectives. There are a
wide range of processes that incorporate varia-
ble-volume act:ivaWd sludge capabilities. The
addition of selector-enhanced perfOrmance III
this method of prooo!Lling pmvide.ot improved
pmre!lS control, biological capabilitie!l and
economic.!I. Tbi.!I mclmology was speci6ca1ly
devmed U • <Illll.bination of selector enhance-
ment and VVAST (Goronszy lQ18). This
advanced mclmology for variable-volume acti-
vated sludge is}'lIWIIllII t:abllI cyclic activated
shIdge technology at lea.'!lt to the same advanood
biological .tate and biochemical de3ign alii the
oonventionaI continU01.Ql activated sludge tech-
nology.
WAST telootor-enhanood proooss capabili-
ties are being used worldwide to provide
superior perllmnanoo and superior economics
in plants in eIOON of 900 000 rn3 d- 1. This
• dooroued energy oonsumption teclinnlogy pnM<Ieo the oWanred teclmolngy
• biological nutrient oontrOI for total nitro- necessary for the optimum perlonnanoo of
gen wriable-wlume IICI:ivated dUdge symms in a
• enhMDcOO biological removal of phOlpho- full spectrum of plant Iizes, i.e. 500 rn3 d- 1 to
= more tha:n500000 rns d- I.
• selootive inhibition of growth lUld propa-
gation of 6JamentolJll organisms, which 3..
The lnoED. SJm
nthenWe make oettJ;ng diffioult 3.6.1 General rmaarb
• preferential generation of EPS, which
Wlsist in the aeation of bio1ogical floes of In the generic SBR activated sludge is
"""""'t oettleobility. employed to perform metabolic reacti0n5 for
the pwpose of plll'ifYing the was~r.
Incorporation of a selector in the plant Alternatlvely, bioBlms can be used, Le. aggre-
design lw improved the performance of coo- gates of microorganisms growing at any kind of
tlnUOWl Bow activated sludge plant, in an interface, mostly at solid-liquid interfaces.
particular with respect to sludge settleability The support lI1II.terial of hiofilms might be
and process stability. packrxl in the reactor In wblch the metabollc
Variable-volume activated sludge processes processes are supposed to take place, or they

..
involve the same baslc biologtcal principles at might be suspended In the reactor fluid. In a
in the conventional (continuous) activated packrxl bed reactor the space between the
sludge process. However, the variabl&-volume support materlal, the pores, might be :Blled
-
au Applbu-
• Biofilm SBR I)'EmnI am b.. "'PPW to the

"""""'
biolow.w"
• combined nftrl6"'tIonIde:DitrlRc.t!nn IUd
phoopboruo ...1DIJIIII.l from muai-
cipll and iDduatrialwutewatCi
• b'eatuoent of \eadlae rro. dd wute
lmd61ls
• treatment of ~ OO!'!hining
pallutmb in relatMly low CODOeDIrat1on
• _ _t m.opeciBc high. Jo.ded proem.
walen (e.g. _manj._rich reject water
fromdudge~~).

JDw;>1.lpdt . . . . . .wurb in Gcmuony (Figure

3.12) .... opelled to iDvestlpte the perl"or-
......... ..r 8BBR .,...,msunder ... al_worIdcon_
dition. (Arm: lit "z., 1999; Arnold '"' "z., 2000).
In genera11hl1 to IIrdogy 11 oomplltlble with
I.lIl'IItim:Iom flow bIoBIm rea<.ton ')"temlI ......m
.. the F'nmW BIOFOR umnnlogy (Pujol lit
Ill., 1998). Jlecwl", of the dllferenoeI In the
bIoflIm stn.u:bm!! caued by the applied
_ _ <XIIIlpomion, tho. type m biofiIm
support materJ.l choten mel. the p;reoalIIng
"
 3. General overview of SBR applications
1~\i==!=::;-txt-
I
recirculation line
storage tank
(influent)
Figure 3.13. Schematic overoiew af an upjlow SBBR equipped with aeration. recirculation and washingfacllities.
The fixed bed becomes submerged in the reactor as the SBBR is ftlled.
operation conditions, a general method of the
design cannot yet be proposed.
3.6.3 Biofilm technology
Biofilm systems are distinguished from acti-
vated sludge systems by the fact that the mass
flux of material between the bulk liquid and the
microbial aggregate is one-dimensional. Trans-
port processes proceed mainly perpendicular to
and from the surface (substratum) to which the
biofilm adheres. Thus, diffusion limitations are
common in biofilm systems. As a result, only a
fraction of the biofilm can contribute to the
overall metabolic processes. Quantitatively, the
active fraction of the biofilm is affected by the
follOwing:
• the concentration of substrates, electron
donors and electron acceptors in the bulk
liquid
• the actual metabolic rates within the bio-
film
• the thickness of the biofilin
• the thickness of the concentration boun-
dary layer at the biofilm fluid interface
which by itself depends on the hydro-
dynamic conditions in the bulk fluid and
on the morphology of the biofilin.
Additionally, low inlet concentrations and
dilution effects as a result of high volumetric
recycle rates (required to achieve high filter
velocities and thus enhanced mass flux into the
biofilm) can decrease the treatment efficiency
of a biofilm system. In general it can be
assumed that the efficiency of biofilm reactors
increases with decreasing biofilm thickness and
with increasing surface area of the biofilm
support material relative to the volume of the
reactor.
28
.. water from :6Iter-
washinw
excess sludge
washing water
storage tank
(effiuent)
3.6.4 SBBR operation
Filtration processes and biological wastewater
treatment take place Simultaneously in an
SBBR system (Figure 3.13). To keep the
packed support medium from clogging, it is
recommended that suspended solids be elimi-
nated as far as possible before the wastewater is
fed into the reactor.
To maintain the hydraulic conductivity of the
fixed bed, biofilm SBRs are to be regularly
washed or back-washed. With the use of proper
washing procedures, the particulate material
that has accumulated in the filter bed, inclu-
ding the biofilm parts scraped from the sub-
stratum by vigorous particle-particle contact,
are removed from the bed and sent to a
solid -liquid separator, preferentially to the
primary sedimentation tank.
3.6.5 Support material
Selection of the biofilm support material is to
be based on the specific treatment objectives as
well as on the composition of the wastewater to
be treated. The carriers should be resistant to
abrasion and should be relatively light to
permit effective bed washing.
Typically, the size of the granular support
particles can range between 2 and 8 mm. A
smaller particle size can be chosen when the
reactor is operated for uitrification only,
because the cell yield of uitrifiers is relatively
low. When COD removal is to be achieved, and
in combined uitrifYing-deuitrifYing systems, a
larger size of support material and a larger pore
size is recommended, to protect the fixed bed
from clogging.
The material of the biofilm support that has
been applied so far includes the follOwing:

influent +
Ir------,I
flll
packing
drain
effluent carbon source
denitrification
Figure 3.14. SchemaHc representation ofa SBBR process d£signed to achieve nitrogen removal.
• inert granular materials (e.g. expanded
clay, sand or anthracite)
• carriers with inherent sorption capacity
(sponge-like particles, granular activated
carbon, material with ion-exchange capa-
city such as zeolite)
• structured materials of plastics.
To permit effective washing, the depth of an
SBBR should not exceed 5 m, at least when the
chosen support material is of relatively high
density.
3.6.6 Aeration
Results of tracer experiments revealed that an
optimal axial distribution of water can be
achieved by using two nozzles per m2 of cross-
sectional area. To get an optimal distribution of
air in the fixed bed, more than 90 nozzles per
m2 are needed (Sekoulov et oJ., 1999).
To achieve optimal nitrification the air
velocity should be set as high as 15 m3 m-2 h-l
(Hom, 1999). The concentration of dissolved
oxygen should be allowed to increase to
7 mg 1-1. In comparison with activated sludge
systems, higher concentrations are necessary to
avoid oxygen limitation in the deeper zones of
the biofilm.
3.6.7 Flow regime, dosing and mixing
Plug flow conditions prevailing in the filter bed,
3. General overview of SBR applications
regardless of whether the reactor is filled, the
bulk liquid is recirculated or the reactor is
aerated. As a result, the concentrations of sub-
strate, electron donors and electron acceptors
show a characteristic pattern from the bottom
to the surface of the reactor. That complicates
mouitoring of the relevant system parameters
including dissolved oxygen and pH. The
interpretation of analytical results gained from
a distinct depth of the reactor requires special
experience and possibly the aid of computer
simulation. The measured concentrations do
not reflect the situation at any other locations
within the bed. Subsequently, care must be
taken when additives are to be dosed to control
the pH or to support deuitrifiers with addi-
tional carbon sources.
3.6.8 SBBR cycle
Typically, an SBBR cycle consists of three
phases: fill, react and draw. In contrast with
activated sludge SBR systems, no time for
settling is required. Figure 3.14 illustrates the
process phases that must follow each other to
achieve uitrogen removal.
SBBR systems permit a volumetric exchange
ratio of up to 100%, whereas in activated
sludge SBRs an exchange ratio of at most about
70% can be realized. Because a considerable
fraction of the reactor is occupied by the
29
 3. General overview of SBR applications
'break up nozzles'
air
) inflow
Figure 3.15. Bottom section of an SBBR with air-water nozzles as a means of aeration during aerated react
phases, and washing. Break-up nozzles help in the process of bed expansion at the beginning of
washing (Sekoulov et al., 1999).
biofilm carrier material, the volumetric exploi-
tation of the tank volume nevertheless remains
relatively low (Arnold et al., 2000). It can be
enhanced when a highly porous plastic medium
such as Kaldnes® (Odegaard et al., 1994; Hom,
1999) is used as support material.
For further enhancement of the hydraulic
capacity of the system, the fill phase can be
executed Simultaneously with the drain phase
(filling by displacement as described by Arnz et
al. (1999)). Because plug flow conditions are
characteristic of SBBR systems, lateral disper-
sion and subsequent mixing of treated and un-
treated wastewater during the combined fIll and
drain phase is not of concern as long as the volu-
metric exchange rate remains lower than 90%.
During phases of anaerobic or anoxic react,
the bulk liquid in the reactor should be recir-
culated. This is necessary to keep the concen-
tration boundary layer in the biofilm-liquid
interfacial area small, and the mass flux to the
biofilm high. During the aeration phase the
recirculation pump should also be kept in oper-
ation because experiments have shown that the
turbulence caused by the rising air bubbles is
not suffIcient to exploit the system's capacity to
the full (Rehbein, 1998).
3.6.9 Washing
Regular washing is required to keep the biofilm
thin and to avoid clogging of the bed. A
washing phase is initiated when the pressure
decrease in the bed has reached a critical value.
Typically, a washing sequence lasts 20-40 min.
Washing is performed in alternating steps of
applying water together with diffused air (for
expansion of the bed and for enhanced
abrasion), and water only (for flushing) to the
reactor. Special high-pressure jets ('break-up
30
wash water
nozzles', operated with up to 1 bar of hydro-
dynamiC pressure) can be installed in the lower
portion of the bed to facilitate bed expansion
and the removal of accumulated solids (Figure
3.15). Bed expansion during washing might also
permit the advective transport of the biofilm
carriers and subsequent bed mixing. Subse-
quently the distribution of biomass and micro-
bial species becomes quite uniform throughout
the reactor.
The time required for washing may be
considered as an equivalent of the settling time
in an activated sludge SBR system. The
washing phase does not contribute to the
biolOgical treatment of the wastewater but is a
prerequisite of stable operation. In calculating
the overall removal rates, the time for washing
has to be taken into account. Frequent washing
phases lead to a signifIcant loss of overall
capacity of the SBBR. SBBRs should therefore
not be subjected to large amounts of suspended
solids and should not be applied when high
rates of bacterial growth are to be expected.
3.6.10 Sludge age
In general, the sludge age in biofilm systems is
considered to be inHnite because excess sludge
is not taken out of the system systematically.
This might be true for trickling filters but is
defInitely not true for SBBR systems that are
washed regularly. Compared with continuous
flow activated sludge systems the sludge age
cannot effectively be adjusted because only the
upper portion of the biofilm is subject to
abrasion and subsequent removal. Thus, the
apparent sludge age reflects only the retention
time of cells growing within the surface biofilm.
In the base biofilm, bacterial cells might reside
for a much longer time. Hence, frequent

washing decreases the overall sludge age in the
SBBR.
3.6.11 Further important aspects
Generally, the hydrodynamic dispersion in fixed
bed reactors is low; plug flow conditions there-
fore prevail in these systems. This is true for con-
tinuous flow bioHim reactors as well as SBBRs.
As a result, a lateral stratification of distribution
of biomass aod organism types cao develop.
When a continuous flow fixed bed reactor is
exposed to peak loading conditions it must be
assumed that breakthrough events occur, not
only because of the limited hydraulic equali-
zation capacity of the reactor but also because
substrates are driven into regions of the reactor
where biomass aod the required organism
types (e.g. nitrifiers) are under-represented
(Boller et aI., 1985). The batch operation of
bioHim systems helps to solve these problems
(Wilderer, 1992) because in peak loading
situations the cycle time cao be extended as
long as the concentration of the wastewater
constituents remain above the discharge limits.
As regards process efficiency, further improve-
ments in the operation of ao SBBR cao be
achieved. Promising options are the following:
• application of wastewater (regular influent)
for washing makes the provision of storage
capacity for wash water unnecessary; as soon
as the washing process has been fmished
the wastewater present in the reactor
undergoes treatment, aod no separate fill
phase is required
3. General overview of SBR applications
• on-line monitoring of importaot process
parameters, for instaoce oxygen or
ammonia, permits the dynamic operation
of a plaot (e.g. the aeration phase cao be
terminated as soon as the ammonia
concentration has fallen below a certain
threshold value).
The incorporation of specific buffer
capacities in a bioHim reactor cao be favorable
in maoaging peak loading situations. A
temporary sink aod source concept cao be
achieved by temporary adsorption followed by
desorption aod the simultaoeous or subsequent
biological degradation of pollutaots (Wilderer
et aI., 1999). The use of activated carbon
permits the effective elimination of orgaoic
substaoces in the influent. Zeolite cao be used
as a bioHim support medium to capture excess
ammonia for further nitrification. Because
zeolite is not specific to ammonia cations,
competition for the binding sites needs to be
monitored to avoid a sudden loss of adsorption
capacity. The diffusion of molecules into the
inner pores of bioHims aod of the packing
material also helps in the haodling of peak
loading conditions. The thicker a bioHim is, the
higher the fraction of water inside the bioHim
system that cao be used as a temporary sink. In
this regard, thick bioHims seem to be superior
to thin ones. Biofilm carrier materials that
provide thin biofIims on the outer surface aod a
significaot amount of accumulated biomass
inside {e.g. Kaldnes® (Odegaard et al., 1994))
might be of specific advaotage.
31

4 Design of activated sludge SBR
plants
4.1 General remarks
The design of an SBR plant should be based on
the results of pilot studies whenever possible.
For industrial wastewater facilities, treatability
studies should almost always be performed on
bench or pilot scale. For municipal wastewater
treatroent facilities, treatability studies are not
normally reqnired but should be considered
because the potential cost savings in both
capital investroent and operating expenses can
be Significant.
For either municipal or industrial applica-
tions, mass balance considerations should be
used to optimize the preliminary deSigns of
SBR plants, just as is done for conventional
continuous flow constant-volume activated
sludge systems. Such applications can be
facilitated by using anyone of a number of
treatroent plant simulators that include the
IAWQ Activated Sludge Model No.1 (Henze et
al.,1995).
In the rest of this chapter a general approach
to SBR design is provided. Because of the
many different fill-and-draw reactor types, it
was decided that a detailed unified design
approach was beyond of the scope of this
report. For the interested reader an example of
a detailed design is available in the German
Waste and Wastewater Association (ATV)
guideline M 210 (ATY, 1997).
4.2 Design considerations
Basic parameters that dictate system design
include the hydraulic, organiC, nitrogen and
phosphorus loadings. These are used to deter-
mine primary design factors including basin
size, cycle frequency, rate of draw and dis-
charge of treated effiuent, and total oxygen
demand. The operating sludge age and the
mixed liquor suspended solids concentration
(MLSS) and its settling characteristics have a
major role in the estimation of basin depth and
volume. Most domestic systems operate at
sludge ages that permit nitrification and
denitrification. Temperature is an important
consideration for a high removal efficiency of
nitrogen. Attention to specific process reaction
conditions in the design is used to optimize the
removal of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.
4. Design of activated sludge SBR plants
Many processes and operations occur simul-
taneously and are interactive, including the rate
of growth, sedimentation rate and effiuent
clarity.
As in conventional activated sludge treat-
ment, basin design involves metabolic reactions
and solids-liqnid separation. Simple design is
based on mass balance calculations in combi-
nation with kinetics and geometric arrange-
ment factors. For example, decant rates are
specific to the design of the device that is used,
the geometry of basin depth to width, the
depth differential between decant depth and
sludge depth interface, and the rate at which
the biomass settles.
4.2.1 Hydraulic parameters
The hydraulic profile for 24 h of operation,
together with likely changes in that profile over
specific periods of the year, are essential for
proper design. Particularly difficult hydraulic
profiles include wastewaters generated by
resort communities, schools and production
facilities that operate over 8, 16 or 24 h periods
each day, sometimes excluding weekends,
require special consideration and reqnire
additional design and operational flexibility. In
some cases it might be possible to improve the
design and simplif)r the facility operation with a
holding basin for the influent. In many cases
load variations are absorbed in the process
reactor (e.g. by using a static fill andlor idle
phase).
For design purposes hydraulic loading
information is required as follows:
• Total daily, average daily, and peak daily
flow for municipalities and industry
(during both production and non
production times)
• Duration of peak daily flow or peak (total)
during a specified period of time (e.g. 2 h)
• Other flow conditions such as peak wet
weather flow and duration
• Seasonal flow influences (e.g. from a resort
or during an industrial campaign)
• Specific flow patterns (e.g. from schools or
sporting venues).
33
 4. Design of activated sludge SBR plants
Plant volumetric capacity is typically based
on peak flows. plant organic loading capacity is
principally based on average daily loading
combined with the appropriate concentration
statistic (e.g. the mean flow or the flow that
occurs 85% of the time or less).
A normal cycle duration is based on
maximum extended dry-weather flow. During
extended high-flow wet-weather conditions the
normal cycle can be modified to match the
additional flow. This transition from a normal to
a high-flow cycle is seamless in systems that
incorporate an idle phase or an automatically
selected wet-weather cycle. Such procedural
design is dependent on the suppression of
filamentous microorganisms and on the specific
nutrient removal requirements of the facility.
4.2.2 Inflnent process parameters
Where possible it is preferable to design on the
basis of COD, for which mass balances can be
made. Process parameters that are required for
the simple biological treatment design include
the following:
• BOD (total)
• NH4-N
• BOD (soluble)
• N03-N
• COD total
• P04 -P
• COD soluble
• total Kjeldahl nitrogen
• total suspended solids
• VSS
• alkalinity
• pH
• temperature
• toxic substances (organics, metals)
• total dissolved solids.
4.2.3 COD removal
COD removal for municipal wastewaters is
normally of no concern because most systems
are sized for nutrient removal, which
automatically meets effluent limits for BOD
and COD. The major difficulty is in controlling
the excess growth of filamentous organisms,
especially for low-strength wastewater. The
proper use of the static fill and the react phase
or a selector will minimize sludge problems.
For industrial wastewaters and leachates
from industrial landfills and hazardous waste
disposal sites, COD removal is usually much
more complicated and requires stoichiometric
and kinetic information from treatability stud-
ies so that the requisite mass balance equations
can be used. In some situations it is difficult to
enrich for microorganisms that have the full
range of desired metabolic capabilities. Proper
inoculation, enrichment and maintenance strat-
34 egies must be developed (Irvine et al., 1984).
4.2.4 Nitrification/denitrification
As in continuous flow constant-volume systems
a reasonable sludge age must be established in
the system to allow nitrification. The aerobic
sludge age is calculated from the following
expression:
nV"""XR Lt,
SRT =
WAS tc
where
n = number of reactors
V mID working volume of the Single SBR
reactor (m3 )
XR = MLSS, biomass concentration in the
reactor during react phase (kg m-3 )
WAS waste activated sludge, excess sludge
production rate (kg d -1)
time of the cycle (h)
cumulative time of the aerated phases
(e.g. aerated fill plus aerated react)
(h).
Nitrification and denitrification can occur
Simultaneously during aeration (Demoulin et
al., 1997; Goronszy, 1974; Irvine et al., 1983)
and during settling (Wett, 1997). This is possi-
ble with strategies to limit dissolved oxygen
concentration, as well as with the application of
proper fill and aeration strategies.
4.2.5 Phosphorus removal
The procedures described above for nitrogen
removal are very similar to those needed for
phosphorus removal. Care must be taken to
ensure that the various biodegradable COD
fractions in the influent are converted to low-
molecular-mass volatile fatty acids (e.g. acetic
acid) and used by the biolOgical phosphorus
(Bio-P) removal organisms. Because of com-
petition between the denitrifiers and the Bio-P
organisms for the low-molecular-mass volatile
fatty acids, the extents of removal of both nitro-
gen and phosphorus are linked. As a result,
strategies that minimize the further competi-
tion with non-Bio-P aerobic heterotrophic
microorganisms optimize overall nutrient rem-
oval. Such strategies in SBR systems include
the direct introduction of influent to the settled
sludge during static fill.
4.2.6 Sludge separation
When the energy input is terminated and the
settle phase begins, the sludge flocculates over
a period of 10-15 min or more, depending on
the surface properties of the sludge flocs, the
geometry of the reactor and the mixing pattern
created by the aeration system during the
aeration phase. Care has to taken to make sure
that the energy diSSipates as quickly as pOSSible.
Some decanter designs allow mixed liquor to
enter the decanter during mixing and aeration

periods because withdrawal is typically from
just beneath the water surface to avoid the
collection and discharge of scum. This causes
the elIluent suspended solids to be more
concentrated than in the supernatant. To avoid
this, some systems return the first 30 s of
discharge to the reactors. Others use an
obstruction or plug to prevent solids from accu-
mulating in the decanter system before
discharge. Still others hold the decanter out of
the mixed liquor until after the settle phase has
ended.
The removal of foam and scum needs
effective solutions. Often foam production is
associated with system start up and is resolved
as soon as stable operation has been achieved.
Scum generation is mostly associated with the
removal of biological nutrients. If not removed
on a regular basis, the scum layer can accumu-
late and create operational problems.
4.2.7 Design steps
One of the many possible design procedures
for the treatment of municipal wastewaters is
described in the abbreviated list of 12 steps
outlined below. Note that treatability studies,
to investigate a variety of reactor configura-
tions, to test operating strategies that meet
projected elIluent limits, to develop kinetic and
stoichiometric coefficients for design calcu-
lations, to determine the need to control fIla-
ments, and so on, must be conducted for
industrial wastewaters and leachates from
industrial landfills and disposal sites for hazar-
douswaste.
4. Design of activated sludge SBR plants
1. Select a desired organic loading, the cycle
time of operation (te ) and the number of
reactor basins (n) to be used in a design.
2. Calculate influent volume during the
selected cycle.
3. Estimate solids production from influent
data, either BOD or COD based.
4. Determine back-up chemical dosing
requirements for the chemical sequester-
ing of phosphorus and estimate the pro-
duction of chemical sludge. (Assess influ-
ence on settled volume and SVI.) Note that
the various operating strategies that are
used for nitrogen removal also enrich for
microorganisms that are capable ofEBPR.
5. Assume appropriate sludge age for nitrifi-
cation, denitrification, and so on.
6. Calculate nitrogen balance from the nitro-
gen to be oxidized, the non-degradable
nitrogen, the eflluent nitrogen (ammonia,
nitrite and nitrate) and the biologically
incorporated nitrogen.
7. Calculate decant volume requirements.
8. Select basin area.
9. Calculate maximum MLSS concentration
based on organic loading requirements,
zone settling velocity, decant depth and
settling time.
lO. Calculate deSignated top water level
based on MLSS concentration, sludge
production and sludge age.
11. Calculate process oxygen reqnirements as
net of carbon, nitrification, denitrification
and total time ofaeration during each cycle.
12. Determine size of decanter, waste sludge
pumps, andlor idle time, selector size or
holding basin.
35

5 Equipment and instrumentation
5.1 General remarks
Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) systems con-
sist of one or more tanks, inlet and outlet facil-
ities, mixing and aeration devices, equipment to
remove excess biomass and scom, and process
control systems.
Prelimioary treatment units (such as screens
and the grit chamber) are similar to those used
in other types of treatment system. If a holding
tank is used to feed the biological reactors, it is
recommended to pass the raw wastewater
through a fine screen to minimize sludge acco-
mulation in the holding tank and subsequent
odour problems.
Single-tank SBR systems are the least expen-
sive to construct and the Simplest to operate.
However, the problem is that no treatment can
be provided when maintenance and repair
work is due. Besides, it should be realized that
single-tank systems do not provide the flexi-
bility needed to counteract situations of vari-
able influent loading. Under critical conditions
sludge bulking and poor exploitation of the
system's capacity are inevitable. As a rule of
thumb it can be stated that the more tanks are
provided, the higher is the inherent reliability
of the system, but the higher are the costs for
building up the SBR plant.
Single-tank systems are often selected when
the inflow is discontinuous, as in an industry
that suspends operation during the night. That
allows one cycle per day operation with react,
settle, draw and idle to occur during the period
of no inflow.
Because of the low cost and simplicity of
operation, small rural communities might also
want to select a Single-tank system. In this case,
inflow is continuous, but at low rates during the
late night. Therefore there exist no true fill or
idle phases, and the microbial population might
shift in favour of Hlamentuus orgauisms. Fila-
mentous bulking problems can be minimized if
the flow is introduced into the tank across the
tank bottom below the biomass during a static
fill phase (no mixing, no aeration). Orgauics are
sorbed by the biomass and are available in
enhanced concentration at the beginuing of the
aeration phase.
If a holding tank is placed in front of a single-
5. Equipment and instrumentation
tank system, it can accept the influent during
periods of react, settle, and draw and be emp-
tied during a discrete fill period. This allows
true SBR operation, and application of various
fill modes.
SBR systems tu meet the needs of large
urban communities and more complex indus-
trial wastewater are normally composed of
more than one tank. Each of these tanks
receives wastewater from the same source
(such as the eflluent of a primary clarifier), but
the cycle in any of the individual tank begins at
different times depending on the actual influ-
ent loading situation and the progress of the
various process cycles. The operation of multi-
tank systems can require sophisticated com-
puter-aided control tools.
Both circular and rectangular tanks can be
used (Figure 5.1). The costs of building a cir-
cular tank are relatively low, especially when
the tank is built above ground. For small instal-
lations, circular tanks are therefore favoured
over rectangular ones. However, for a multiple
tank system, property costs become an issue.
Rectangular tanks can easily be packed into a
cluster of tanks, which reduces the relative
construction costs and the demand for land
area.
5.! Mixing deviees
Mixing is required for the distribution of
wastewater constituents and the biomass evenly
throughout the reactor, for efficient mass
transfer from the bulk liquid to the activated
sludge floes, and for preventing flocs from
coagulating and keeping them in suspension.
The mixer systems currently available on the
market can be classified in the following five
categories:
• horizontal mixers fixed in position
• vertical mixers fixed in position
• floating mixers
• pumps
• intermittently operated aerators.
In Figure 5.2 three examples of mechauical
mixers are presented, a propeller-type mixer
fixed in pOSition, a floating mixer, and a rotating
hyperbolically shaped device driving the water
37
 dawnwvd. and recIil'eCting the flaw into •
horizontal direction clote to the bottom of the
Onk{c).
If air II blown or uph'ated into the nnaIl-
diametez: IeCtioD of the veDtwi tube, rabmm-
tul tnygen transfer wiIlli.to oocur. This system
ill therefore known AI Jet aexator, to be 111M AI
a mil:ing or AI IlIl aeration device. The pump to
feed the jet tube can be ioeJted within the tube
or outside of the tank.
In contrast with oontin\lOUl flaw constant-
volUIlll! ~ mixing ~ in 5BR tanh
ue mbJected to ~ water lew:III, ",urlng
the mixing intensity efficiency to Ihift. In
addition they are operated intennittently. FII!!-
quent IIartlng of the engines and the rWtlng
device. nlquirwl special atteDtioD. with :regard
.........
to _gn and construction, ~ of the
In ciroubr or rectmgu1ar buIIui with •
square ground plan, borimnbl miIers can
CMJII') the water body In the tank In rotate. As •
result, the :flaw velocity dlffereDoe between the
rotator and the water deo=ues, and the mixing
devices !OIeII efA..;ency. Baffles mounttld lit the
0Ilk wan. or any simibr :flow breaken are
requin!d to keep the rotation af the water body
.. slaw as powble.
The probieml caused by the Ya!)'iDg water
depth can be .oIwd by the applUtion of
IIoating mhen thIIt adjust tbem ....ive& to the
IICtwII. water level. The.... millen Ihould be
designed SO thIIt the llWilPum flaw velocity is
achieved It the bottom of the tmk, mel only
mocIer.te flaw Yelocities are ~d at the
interface beto.wen water and atlIlosphere.
O\:herwiao:, cnygr:n trmd"er from the water
rarIace Into the bulk Iiqoid m1~t become too
large. decreruing the efficiency of the denitri-
6cNioo p:mceIIM, :for instance. HDWeWlr, a
YOrteJ: generated In the cIo.e neigbbourhood of
the rotating Ihaft: might be oonrideRd dem-
Ible fD kMp foam and scum fmm .ooumulMing
III: the water surface.
Floating devioes need to be protected from
IIIriking the bottom of the fmk .It low water
"
1eveJ., including when the tank iI completely
~-If unMntI'ld mil:ing is noquirI'ld only during
00, the feed system can be designed In
distnbute the i:DfI.ueut acrou or throughout the
bottom of the Onk and below the .Mt:ied
biomasl. This wI1l not remit in Yiputll mil:lng.
but it might be sufficient to meet the mfmd-6D
~t I)~ of blending influent
organic. with the biomus under IUlOldc or
maerolic condi.tions.
Some ..,ration S)'5tems are _gned to
provide either mil:lng without aeration or
mimIg with aeration. Jet aeratmlI belaog to dliI
category. !by are usu.Ily Ioc.ted near the
bottom. of the tank. The pump& am be mbmer-
sible with ODe pump dedicJted to each jet, or
I!Iltern.I pump5 can JI!Idn:ubt" the biomus
through • beader aystem and multiple Jets. Thls
resub in mil:ing and ~tiaD limited to
th.t tnlnsfeInld lII: the water sur&ce. If IIir is
blown or upirated IntD the small-diame!er
-..t:ioD of • WIIturi-1lb tube, rabttmtiaJ.
oz:ygen \nuIJfer will abo occur.
HorlmotaJ. tube aen.1nrlmlJl'lr,l function In •
IImilar manner. They are tubes IIIIIP""ded:&om
flOIlt5 10Cllted at the water surface. Propellen
located the rubmerged end of the rube
oe&I'
provide mlJing and • homxmtal £law pattern.
.......,.
Air can be aspinted or blown 00wn through
the tube fD the pmpellen and di&peIWld inID
For financial reuoJIlI, .mall installationI baw
been oonc:eived oomp1etely without mlx&m In
the recent put. Mil:lng of the reactol'll Is
achieved by toroing on the _aton fur a ~
tiveJy short period. Experieooe bas Ihown that
denitrlArption r.i:el lU'e hardly affected u ion!!:
u the 0E)'geD ~ :rate iI bpt well beluw
.......
the IIOCual 0Iygtm demAod of the microorg-
1.3 .o\zaadua--.
DiIl'wIecl-1ir mel. D""Cblnt".] aeration syatems
have been de.;gned ami the lame type of
""l.niplIlfll1t can be used 115 In oontin\lOU& flow

(a)
Figure 5.2. Frequently applied mixing ckvices: (a) propeller-type mixers fixed in position; (b) floating mixer;
(c) hyperboloid mixer.
activated sludge technology. Many desigo refer-
ences and guidelines are readily available and
need not be duplicated here (see, for example,
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1991). This section
describes features that are either uuique to
SBR operation or require additional explan-
ation.
Typical of the SBR is intennittent aeration.
In contrast with continuous flow systems the
basin is not constantly being aerated, but the
aerators are regularly switched on and off. The
blowers, pumps and diffusers must each be
able to withstand these intennittent operation
conditions.
At the beginning of the aeration phase the
oxygen demand of the microorgauisms is
typically higher than towards the end of the
aeration phase. Distinct peak demands occur
after a static fill phase or when a low fill time
ratio is chosen. The aeration system has to be
desigoed to cover these peaks in oxygen
demand. To avoid an unnecessary and
economically unjustified increase in the oxygen
concentration later in the cycle, the aeration
system should permit a decrease in the aeration
rate to meet actual demand. In large plants,
management of the overall electrical power
5. Equipment and instrumentation
- . ~
consumption (for example activation of a
central standby blower during peak oxygen
demand periods in one tank of a multi-tank
system) is recommended to keep basic
installation costs at the lowest possible level.
The mechauical stability of the aeration
system also is an important factor. The forces
affecting the physical structure of the aeration
system can be substantial, and need to be
covered by ridged structural means.
The following aeration systems are available
at the time of writing:
• fine bubble aeration
• coarse bubble aeration
• surface aeration
• submersible aerators
• jet aeration systems.
Figure 5.3 provides an overview of the
aeration systems that are often used in SBR
plants. Figure 5.4 shows photographs of
aerators that are practically applied in SBRs.
The primary components of diffused
aeration systems are blowers, piping and valves,
and diffusers. On smaller systems, blowers are
often dedicated to each individual tank to
reduce the complexity of the air pipe and valve
39
 5. Equipment and instnnnentation
Blower, Blower,
valves and valves and
piping to piping to jet
diffusers .e"lIo,
A submersible
pump i!I shO'tVll
with a jet.
Pump, located
outside the tank
but connected to
in-tank pipes is
common in
iMge, 'Y'tems.
Diffused aemtion
Floating mechanical aeration
Figure 5.3. Various technIcal methods uf aerating SBR tanks.
system. A duplicate stand-by engine can be
installed in parallel to each dedicated blower to
minimize the risk of violating the effluent
requirements. However, a more cost-effective
approach would provide one or more blowers
kept as shelf items with an operating procedure
developed to replace any failed uuit quickly.
Larger SBR installations are likely to install a
central multiple blower system with a pipe and
valve system desigoed to direct air flow into
each SBR at appropriate times.
Unlike continuous flow reactors, SBR
systems operate with changing water depths
that result in varying blower discharge pres-
sures. Positive-displacement blowers, which are
less sensitive to discharge pressures, have been
used frequently, especially with smaller
systems. However, centrifugal blowers can be
selected and systems desigoed to operate with
variations in discharge pressure.
Diffusers are available from many different
manufacturers. Diffusers made of porous
material are prone to clogging due to biomass
intrusion during air-off phases (non-aerated fill
and mix, settle, decant and idle) and should
therefore not be applied. A better choice is
membrane-type diffusers, which have been
successfully applied at various sites.
There is no doubt that surface aerators have
inferior oxygen transfer values than fine-bubble
aeration systems. In spite of this it might be
advantageous from the overall economic point
of view to install surface aerators, in particular
in smaller installations, where the expenditures
in energy are not of such importance. In
40
Jet aeration
Horizontal tube aeration
particular the investments are much lower than
for a fine-bubble aeration system. The simpli-
city and sturdiness of well-suited surface aera-
tors is a further argument for the choice of such
a system. Floating aerators need special protec-
tion from damage if the water level becomes
too low.
Jet aeration and horizontal tube aerator/
mixers, as described in the preceding section,
have been used frequently in SBR systems,
primarily because mixing with or without aera-
tion can be provided conveuiently.
5.4 Tanks and covers
Tanks can be constructed of concrete, of steel
or as sealed earthen lagoons, and in any shape
or depth. In general, deep tanks are favoured
because oxygen transfer is improved and high
volumetric exchange rates can be established.
Besides, the land required to build an SBR
plant is comparatively small. However, some
decanter mechauisms can limit tank depth
because of a limited range of travel, and can
limit tank shape if a particular length:width
ratio is required.
Multiple tank systems can be desigoed with
both different tank sizes and different tank
shapes (Figure 5.1). However, for reasons of
practicality the tanks of a SBR plant should be
identical in desigo.
If the sewage treatment plant is located in
the vicinity of a residential area, avoidance of
odor emissions is of great importance. Covers
can be installed in cold climates to prevent
freezing. Covers permit the capturing and
 5.~-a.imb ' ....

tleIII:meDt of ...m...t lID', if DI'lI'lded, mel. for

II':IIhr:ticI in urban U'I'lU wbr:"., inlprI'Md
~ iI dt:1ired (~ 5.5). Mmy types
of ClIJ\W ."., awoilab1r:, nagiDg from i:Dflattd
membr.ne oystmnl ID ridgal. aluminum, ...,,,1,
wood or IlOIlCI'I':tI: oystemo.
Tho: IlODSI:ruction of tho: """"'" <lID. Jarg..ly b..

_"""
mbdividt:d inlD thr: fmI<Ming thm.. typo:&:

"--
"• GFJ:OOYeIJ

ThI: rtructural calculation has ID mI:et

varlowi r..quireml:AtJ. In winter, IDOW Io.d has
to b.. mntld.....d, wbIch <lIII. b.. of p-eIIt
tmportmce at CI:rIJin IocwHml (such u plmtl
in Ilpme r..gIoDIlt hip altitudl:).
If I:lectrical engtn... ."., plaOI:d UIIdemeath
tho: tank oow:r, speciIlc p1oll:ctiaD from
elplDlion has to b.. pnMded. Cbe atteDtiaD
has ID b.. pw:n to thI: IIO:! *wty of thI:
mach!n ... In thI: reIICIoI". It DlUIt b.. postlbll: to
tab: Iggre~ oot af thI: teaCtor 00I1YeIIImtly.
:o.m- ... wUt a.wl wf die tnwted.
U
.- I

Tho: opmtI:iaD of SBR II}'ItemI r..qulres thI:

mstlllaHcm af I:fIlclI:nt decaHng de¥iceI.
Decanters ."., r..qulred to wI!hdraw the tI'I':ated
'oftter from thI: SBR after thI: metabolic
pmM''''' In th.. reactca: haw: been completed
and I. clear mpernatmt has Conned.
By meaDII af the decanter I. a..&ed fraction
af the mpernatmt (Vdl <lIII. b.. teUlO¥ed. from
th.. reactor. The ..olumI: to b.. withdrawn <lIII.
be calc'dated by multiplying thI: selected
dumetrIc -mange ratio (VER) by thI: tm.I.
liquid ..olumI: hi. thI: SBR (V..):
Vd=VER V_.
The requL: ,Ii to b.. met by tho:
decanti:ng system are 1IUIIIJIIrlzed:ln TIble 5.1.
The ~ remowd from the reacbJJ" IhouId b..
free from IIIIJ?""ded dds, or at leut have ~s.4. f ¥,..11/-'--~'"
only I. low ~ of them. Thus, the SBH,.s-.;(.)~-r--.~)
decanting procell em begin only when s sludge jet . '..../"',=r """""""_0.. bof1otro 11/
1M SlIlI; (~) ......!; _ _ .,.,...
bImbt liU formed, has by-paued and moYeCl
belaw the inlet of the d"' .... or depth of the
baffle, respectiYely, by .bout 10$ of the high
WJttez" Iewl (II" by 25 em Itt leut (Aw, 19(1). .bould. also b.. poaibJ.. to vary tim amount of
_ r that em &. withdmwn from the INCtrn;
""""" sludge
. . ....... ... - - pIwo
activated fLxs Ihould b.. kiept :£rom nam8ly the VER. 'This is an important pre-
eDtmIDg !he deaiDier pipI. SClIIII and ro.m that ,. for adjusting ~ and mass
hu accumulated It the WJttez" surfane should ~of the SBR system to tim Id:!uI. influent
.00 DOt b.. aIlawed to eDtIer the decanter but oondition.

......
should b.. ".,maved :£rom the reactor by any
~.
Tho: decanmr II}'ItemI that ..... currmlIIy on
tim ....b.t em b.. clani6...! inID four ~
For emnmn!c'! IeIIODII the deamting (Figure 5.6). Figure 5.7 mntgjn. pbotopphic
process Ihould be accomplished In a miDlmum imagIIII of a..c..ten in 1lIII.
period. Subsequently, tiM! hydnul1c capacity af u-mg I. WI!ir is I. nolaliw.I.y ...." IDI!Ibod.
th.. deaiDier ahnuld b.. u bip. u POlIl.blI:. It of withdn.wing mpernatmt from the reactor.
"
 No actMted Iludge floes lIIurt eDter the deomlm II}'Item
The decanting procell em be rtarted mel. oontinued only u long
u the Iludge blanket 1125 CIII belaW'the tolet or the depth of
the bdlle, ,~, 10 the deuDter symm
n...-.tiag phue Swm mel. fuam must nat omwthe deamting oyste:m

......w..-
Settled sladge must nat be .n.-J.ID be mcbd info the

The lime required to wIIhcIr.w the IIIJ"'matant fmm the reM:tor

should be u Ihort u poiItIbIe
VarlatioD of the volumetric embonge l'IIte Ihould be pnaib1e

-'

.
 5. Eqw\ aDd m.tnm "~ n

-
t

"1--1..... .'I--.c-l I< 1-_-1

that the fmcdmn in d.oo.ing the gmmetry of

the SBR taak IIIJmited, A ~ length
has to be pnmded lOr the moY',,"eDt of £Io.ttng
decmtml 00wn...m. and their _ ..... in a
horlmDtal dlrectIao (FIgure S,9), Furthermoe,
an three ~ h&ve jolnb and mOYing pub
.. on inll!gnoi fe.ture, ....rum ani mbjec:t to
tnniDIl, £ricunD mel WZiClllon,
The ro.th I)"tem sketched in Figure 5.6
(tho. s-I-I-l a...-IM) ha.l--. ~ to
0\'el'0CIZIIe thlI type of IJrgib>HM, Effluent potII
 5. Equipment and instnnnentation

(a) (h) floating decanter

floating decanter
baffied
pump or haIRed
automatic valve 1----l'l=II------o-l--- scum
i'------f'---...,

effiuent settled
sludge

Figure 5.8. Schematic representation ofa floating decanter setup: (a) plan view; (b) section view.

decanter pipe with multiple orifices,

pump with wet lowered and lifted hydraulically ¥ decanter lifted

.. ;;
well or / .(,. scum
automaticvalve

~ decanter
during draw
effiuent ~

Plan view Section view

Figure 5.9. Schematic representation ofa hydraulically opern1ed decanter:

(h) significant acceleration of the water entering

(a)
~ the efficiency of the drawing device under
Figure 5.10. Influence ifthe decanting system on the
reactor geometry: (a) floating decanter
systems require a stgntjlcant reactor
length to allow decanter movement; (b)
slim reactors are feasible when a fixed-
level decanter Is chosen.
small surface area and not occupying a large
amount of expensive property of industrial
value (Zilverentant, 1997). However, compared
with shallow tanks the settling period might be
longer in this case because the sludge blanket
has to travel large distances to clear the fixed
orifice of the decanter.
The 'hole in the tank wall' solution has been
treated as problematic because it was assumed
that settled sludge would be sucked up by
forces generated near the orifice. Certainly, the
high hydrostatic pressure at the orifice causes a
44
the efIluent point but must be designed such
that it does not produce a force that withdraws
sludge from a position below the orifice. As can
be seen from the equipotential lines shown in
Figure 5.11, for both one and two effiuent
ports, the depth below the orifice affected is
very small.
The draw phase is, in general, governed by
given boundary conditions. These are as fol-
lows:
• geometry of the flow field, given by the
reactor and the outflow system
• properties of the fluid in the reactor,
especially density, particle content and
floating material near the surface
• variations in the resulting flow field as the
hydrostatic pressure decreases.
The outflow velocity at the orifice (v) is
governed by the potential difference between
the pressure head in the tank and the pressure
head in the outflow orifice. It can easily be
calculated from the Torricelli equation
v = Ca(2gM),
where C is the coefficient of discharge, a is
the area of the orifice and h is the difference in
head of pressure between the water surface
within the SBR and the point of discharge. The
flow field in the reactor itself is independent of
the magnitude of the resulting outflow velocity.
Flow velocities towards the orifice are contin-
uously increasing with decreasing distances.

0.5
/
EfIluent port
Figure 5.11. Equipotential lines characterizing the flow at water towarck the effluent port (single port solutian in
comparison with a two port solution).
Neglecting the influence of rigid boundaries,
the hydraulic system that develops resembles a
potential flow field. The three-dimensional flow
field beneath a circular orifice in the bottom of
a tank can be described as a mathematical sink.
Equipotential lines are hemispheres (Figure
5.11) and the maguitudes of the flow velocities
decrease as the square of the distance. This
means that, for example, the velocity at a dis-
tance of 5 cm from the orifice compared with
the velocity at 1 cm is 115' = 1125.
The most important factor in calculating the
time for volume exchange is the ratio of the
orifice area to the reactor area. The orifice area
can be the sum of several individual openings
of the outflow device. During draw the
instantaneous flow field of the eIDuent is given
by the liquid/gas boundary at the free surface,
the side walls of the reactor and the underlyiog
settled sludge. This lower boundary must be
stable to prevent the withdrawal of sludge. A
minimum volume of fluid that will remain in
the reactor is given by a minimum distance
from the orifice to the free surface and the
settled material, respectively.
The outflow device has an optimum design
when this volume can be minimized without
any withdrawal from above or below the orifice.
Floating material will enter the orifice by
vortex action. A circular orifice in the vertical
wall of the reactor will be the cheapest solution.
Problems can arise from the vertical extent of
the orifice, which must be miuimal to ensure
minimum decant times. Several circular or
rectangular orifices in a horizontal plane, for
instance at the top of a pipe, can allow a
minimum distance to the surface and a
sufficient distance to the settled sludge. The
resulting flow fields can be calculated by a
5. Equipment and instrumentation
EfIluent port
numerical treatment of Laplace equations.
Figure 5.11 shows equipotential lines for a
symmetrical flow to an orifice at the top of a
circular pipe, which indicates that the flow field
shows velocities below the top of the pipe
smaller than the vertical components outside
the region influenced by the outflow device.
5.6 Scum and foam removal
Scum can accumulate in SBR installations with
baflled decanting devices. Although the
eIDuent quality is not affected, scum formation
is a nuisance to be avoided. The scum might be
a sink of important microorganisms, which by
getting lost from the suspended culture might
negatively effect the overall performance of the
reactor system. In summer, scum can cause
odor problems, and in winter it can freeze so
that the decanter gets stuck and floating
aerators can be damaged. These considerations
aside, a tank covered with scum does not
provide the impression of a well-functiouing
reactor.
Scum formation is often associated with an
excess growth of filamentous bacteria. Often it
appears in reactors operated for advanced
nutrient removal (denitrification, enhanced
biological P removal). In industrial installations
scum appears when the wastewater to be trea-
ted contains siguificant quantities of specifically
light pollutants such as oil and grease.
An accumulation of foam is also often
observed in industrial SBR plants. It can be
caused by surfactants but also by high concen-
tration of salt, proteins and hydrocarbons.
Often, excess development of foam is observed
during the start-up of the system, when the
microbial population has not yet adapted to the
specific process conditions. In extreme cases
45
 5. Equipment and instnnnentation
Figure 5.12. Scum at the surface of a circular Paroeer ditch operated In Hamburg-'h1Uenspleker, Germany.
the foam layer can exceed the rim of the tank in
depth (Figure 5.12), can be blown away by the
wind, and can cause all kinds of secondary
problems.
Various proposals have been made to fight
the formation of excess foam and scum.
Strategically, one can distinguish between com-
bating the origin and combating the symptoms.
If the origin of the problem is biological in
nature, an improvement can be achieved by
changing the milieu conditions (varying the
sludge age, changing the sequence of cycles,
incorporating a selector basin) and by starting
up the biological system steadily increasing the
mass loading rate. If the sludge floats because
of gas bubble formation (for example 'wild'
deuitrification) an adjustment of the cycle
sequence is necessary. Aerating the reactor
content before the start of the sedimentation
phase often helps to cure the problem. How-
ever, this is not necessary when the reactor is
operated for co-current uitrification.
The origin of scum and foam formation is
frequently unknown. It is then necessary to
remove scum and foam mechanically and on a
regular basis. floating skimmer equipment is
offered by different suppliers. However, the
problem is that the zone in which skimmers are
effective is limited and hardly ever covers the
surface of the tank reasonably well. A second
option is to suck scum and foam into the water
body during the aeration phase (Figure 5.13)
by applying aerators that provide a vortex at the
water surface. Thirdly, the foam and scum can
be removed mechanically by surface scrapers.
Fourthly, when a front end selector is applied,
scum and foam can typically be accumulated
there and removed with automated sluice
gates.
46
5.7 SeDllon
The automatic control and monitoring of the
performance of SBR systems requires sensors
capable of providing rapid information about
the progress of the relevant processes. Sensors
are also employed in continuous flow activated
sludge systems; however, in SBR technology,
sensor engineering has a much more crucial
role. The operation of SBR systems requires
automation on the basis of timers and sensor
Signals. Besides, sensor Signals are required for
documentation of the proper operation of the
plant and compliance with the effiuent
standards set by the water authorities.
Three categories of sensor can be distin-
guished:
• implicitly required sensors
• sensors to facilitate automatic operation
• sensors for general mouitoring purposes.
In each case, on-lioe information is needed
about the fill status of each single tank of an
SBR plant. Water level sensors control the fill
pump (or valve), decant devices and surplus
sludge withdrawal pumps.
To be able to operate an SBR on a time-
variable cycle plan, sensors are required that
provide on-lioe information on the
concentration of dissolved oxygen, ammonia,
uitrite, uitrate and phosphate. As soon as a
predefined set point is reached, the react phase
is terminated and the sedimentation phase is
started. To control biolOgical reactions (such as
uitrification, and denitrification enhanced by
dosing external carbon sources), pH and redox
sensors are needed. Sludge blanket sensors are
needed to be able to start the decant process as
early as possible and to ensure that the
decanter does not come close to the sludge
blanket.

Figure 5.13. Effect of contlnfJOUS scum removal on the appearance if SBR plants: left, SBR equipped with a
skimmer; right, tank without a skimmer.
Control of water quality of the final eflluent
requires turbidity sensors as well as on-lioe
measuring devices to detect COD, total organic
carbon, and so on. For these purposes the same
instruments can be used as in continuous flow
activated sludge plants.
The sensor-based analytical devices must be
sturdy and easy to operate. Furthermore, the
electrouic data acquisition and evaluation sys-
tem should be capable of recognizing and
waruing of internal errors.
The miuimum equipment for an SBR reactor
consists of ouly three components:
• a water-level sensor
• an overflow security switch
• an oxygen probe.
A simple floating switch is sufficient to make
sure that the water level in any of the tanks
does not come close to the rim of the tank.
Instruments with a higher degree of sophisti-
cation are needed to control the water level
during the individual cycles.
Various water-level indicators are on the
market. Recommendable are sensors installed
at the bottom of the tank that measure the on-
site hydrostatic pressure. Ultrasouic probes
detecting the water surface are an alternative.
However, the latter probes do not provide cor-
rect information when the surface is covered
with foam or floating sludge.
Oxygen probes are needed to avoid any lack
of oxygen supply to the bacteria and to avoid
over-aeration of the activated sludge suspension
respectively. The sensors that are usually used
in activated sludge plants can also be used for
this purpose. Care has to be taken in the
correct positiouing of the probe. In addition,
the pH and redox sensors typically used in
activated sludge systems can be applied to SBR
systems without hesitation.
5. Equipment and instrumentation
Far more problematic is the task to measure
parameters such as ammonia, nitrite, nitrate or
phosphate. Many of the instruments currently
on the market are not designed to monitor
rapid reactions as they occur in SBRs, or they
are not well adapted to the conditions typical of
wastewater treatment plants. Special care is
necess"')' to select instruments that meet the
specific requirements of real-world SBR
operation.
Various probes are available to measure the
actual position of the sludge blanket. Ultrasonic
probes mounted underneath the decanter pro-
vide reasonable results. Easier to design and
less expensive are optical probes. They work
properly as long as the windows through which
the light is emitted and received remain clear.
Regular cleaning of the windows is necess"')'.
Modem devices are equipped with wipers that
automatically keep the windows clean.
Ouly a thoroughly investigated combination
of measurement systems permits automation of
the installation with the desired cost reduction
at a constant high level of performance quality.
5.8 Computer-aided eontrol deviees
The operation of an SBR plant requires a
certain degree of automation. At the lowest
level of sophistication, pumps, valves, mixers
and blowers are controlled by water-level
sensors and switched on and off by simple
timers. To exploit the capacity inherent in SBR
technology, computer-aided process control
and management systems are required. The
tasks of these control and management systems
are as follows:
• to direct the plant influent into the proper
tank (for example, the one that has been
longest in the idle phase)
• to organize the proper execution of the
47
 5. Equipment and instrumentation
Reactor 1
--
- Reactor 1
FifY're 5.14. Example ifa computer screen showing the current status of an SBR process.
process cycles in ead! individual tank,
taking into account the actual inflow rate
(for example, switching to a wet-weather
programme in peak flow situations)
o to monitor the treatment achieved as indi-
cated by sensor signals (which would per-
mit the execution of flexible cycle time
operation)
o to provide alarm messages that record the
actual operational status of the various
components of the plant
o to document the various actions and
achievements for inspection purposes.
The higher the degree of automation
becomes, the larger is the dependence on the
measuring devices and thus the risk of encoun-
tering temporary system failures. Foolproof
sensor and signal evaluation technology and
foolproof process control hardware and soft-
ware is inlperative to avoid operational prob-
lems. For example, during the decant phase the
aeration and mixing devices must not come into
operation, either automatically or by manipu-
lation.
The aspects described below should be
considered when designing an SBR plaut.
Process supervision level. Process control,
process monitoring and visualization (Figure
5.14), as well as alarm processing and docu-
mentation, should be concentrated in a central
control room.
Programming, parametrization and con-
figuration. Programming, parametrization and
confignration of the computer-aided control
system should be performed when the instal-
lation is in operation (on-line).
Simulation. Testing of the process command
48
--
'I'!m....,., . ...
nwy ....... ..,.., Od-l
Wet~erd- 3cl-1
n-wilbOO,.,l..5o 31.. lIIIDd-1
-.....
and guidance should be done off-line by means
of a simulator. The simulator can also be used
to train the operators.
Mains supplies and restart behaviour. In
the event of failure of the power supply it must
be guaranteed that the complete software,
including memorized results, remain available
for a longer duration (at least 3 months). For
security reasons the programs should not be
allowed to start automatically, but only manu-
ally. The start-up has to be gradual, following
preSCribed restart routines. With step chain
programs, it must be ensured that the program
continues from where it was interrupted.
Control room. In the control room all rele-
vant information must kept available, supervised
and logged. Here also the necessary servicing
operations are conducted. It must be possible
here to perform the following activities:
o assembly and presentation of graphic pic-
tures
o turning processes on and off
o switching between manual and automatic
operation
o preselection of process courses
o preselection of aggregates
o input of parameters
o indication of measuring valves, control cir-
cuits and various upper and lower limits or
set-points for on-line controllers
o counting of cumulated working hours
o lOgging, compressing and recording of data
(sud! as measurements and laboratory
data)
o establishment of an incident protocol
o alarm take-over, presentation and trans-
mission.
 5. Equipment and instrumentation

Process visualization. Process visualization Data acquisition. The analogue entries have
(and servicing) should be accomplished by to be compared continuously with default
hierarchically subdivided dynamic colour settings. In this manner, interruptions of
graphics in the control room. The pictures may connections as well as improperly functiouing
be menu-guided by means of a cursor or func- data providers are recognized. After the detec-
tion key. tion of a measurement failure it must possible
Logging. The following protocols should be to switch on a replacement value or choose the
listed on the screen of the monitor and on a last valid value.
printer: Alarm concept. A series of process techuical
queries must be performed in an organized
• event log (operation manipulation, distur- routine, to guarantee a high degree of opera-
bances, alarms) tion security. If, for instance, oxygen is not being
• alarm log transferred in a sufficient quantity or other
• daily log operation parameters indicate an essential oper-
• weekly log ation disturbance, then decanting of the waste-
• monthly log water is prevented and an alarm is transruitted.
• quarterly log The alarms must be assigoed different
• yearly log priorities and transferred to the operators via
• overall operation hours telecommunication. A help function guides the
• maintenance log. personnel directly to possible error sources.

49

6 Practical experiences
6.1 Evaluation of SDB faci1ities in
Australia
The application of intermittent activated sludge
process technology has been quite common in
Australia, with most of these systems (over 100
plants) located in New South Wales (NSW).
This is largely due to the efforts of the NSW
Department of Public Works, which designed
and implemented various intenuittently oper-
ated activated sludge systems in most parts of
NSW The development of the Intenuittently
Decanted Extended Aeration (IDEA) systems
in the early 1970s has had a major impact on
the widespread application of this technology in
NSWand, to a much smaller degree, the rest of
Australia.
A second period of increasing popularity of
intenuittent systems was initiated by the grow-
ing need for nutrient removal from domestic
and industrial emuents. During the 1990s,
modified IDEA systems, designed for biologi-
cal nutrient removal (BNR), were implemen-
ted. In parallel, other, largely proprietary,
designs were implemented around the couotry.
In addition a novel single-tank SBR design was
developed at the same time, largely driven by
research efforts in this area. All systems have
demonstrated their ability to achieve the very
stringent emuent requirements (typically
TN < 5 mg 1-1 and TP < 1 mg 1-1 as 50th cen-
tile) in Australia's inland and sensitive coastal
waters. At present, there are still many IDEA
plants in NSW; and the distribution of this and
other intermittent technologies arouod Aust-
ralia is still limited, but growing. The latter is
largely a function of the substantially lower cap-
ital costs compared with continuous processes
to achieve the same emuent requirements.
6.1.1 Early developments from the
Pasveer oxidation ditch
Possibly the first continuous feed intenuittently
aerated variable-volume version of Pasveer's
oxidation ditch was commissioned in Australia
in 1965 by the NSW Department of Public
Works. The early application of this technology
was not immediately successful owing to prob-
lems encountered with filamentous sludge bul-
king and high suspended solids concentrations
6 Practical experiences
in the treated emuent, particularly when oper-
ated at less than design loads. Design and
operational innovations were required to adapt
the basic Dutch technology to Australian
conditions.
Some years later it was learned that the oxy-
gen transfer performance characteristics of the
Kessener brush aerators used in these facilities
had ben substantially overstated. At the time of
the introduction of this technology and well
into the 1990s, most receiving water discharge
limits in Australia required an emuent quality
of 20 mg 1-1 BOD and 30 mg 1-1 TSS. How-
ever, already in the early 1970s the importance
of nitrogen removal became evident and atten-
tion was focused on this type of technology
because it was able to remove uitrogen reliably
(Goronszy, 1978). Numerous facilities were
constructed with the ditch configuration based
on modular designs for 500, lOOO and 2000 PE
(120, 240, 480 m3 d- 1). Facilities comprising
one to seven ditch modules were constructed,
because the modular design provided an econ-
omical method of matching treatment capacity
to a timed treatment demand. Early variable-
volume reactors were trapezoidal in section
with 45° slope walls with a deSignated top
water level of 1.6 m in combination with a
draw-down depth of 0.3 m to a designated
bottom water level (BWL) of 1.3 m. The base
of the trapezoidal section was typically 2.9 m.
Ditch length, not width, was varied for each
module size. F10ating horizontal-axis rotors
provided aeration and mixing. Designs for
domestic sewage treatment were based on a
360 min cycle with 270 min for aeration,
60 min for settling and 30 min for decanting,
although other cycles of operation were devel-
oped to meet additional process objectives.
Although the development and use of inter-
mittently aerated ditches stagnated in Holland,
their development progressed substantially in
Australia (Batty et al., 1974).
One feature that markedly improved perfor-
mance was the introduction of a short sequence
of reverse-direction aeration at the beginuing
of the settle sequence. This apparently simple
operational modification caused a rapid dissi-
pation of the aeration-driven movement in the
51
 6 Practical experiences
ditch and hence provided efficient quiescent
settling in the allocated 60 min. Without this
modification the 60 min settling period was
inadequate to meet design objectives. Loading
parameters were typically based on 70 g BOD,
240 I (average dry weather flow) and 480 I
(peak dry weather flow) per person. BWL
organic loading was based on an overall food-
to-microorganisms (FIM) ratio of 0.04 kg
BOD kg- 1 MLSS d- 1 (5000 mg I-I MLSS)
with an equivalent hydraulic retention time of
39h.
6.l.2 Development of IDEA processes
A major development took place in the early
1970s to advance the variable-volume activated
sludge technology. An Australia Federal
Government Grant in 1974 enabled the design
and construction of a 960 m3 d- 1 intermittently
aerated and decanted batch reactor facility at
the Bathurst City Council wastewater treat-
ment facility (Goronszy, 1979). This implemen-
tation was supported by a concerted research
and development programme to translate the
process developments of the shallow ditch into
a deep rectangular basin configuration and
further to demonstrate the applicability of
single-tank activated sludge treatment technol-
ogy to larger plant sizes. The basin dimensions
of this initial 'Bathurst box' were 12.5 m wide,
37.5 m long and 5 m deep, and was sized to
treat and decant up to 1 m depth of wastewater
per cycle. Aeration was provided by two
18.5 kW slow-speed floating mixers. An inno-
vative moving-weir trough decanter design
combined with a telescopiC discharge assembly
was developed. Deep-basin effiuent removal
criteria were experimentally determined at
25 I m s-1 for operation to within aIm dis-
tance from the settled sludge layer and
appropriate cycles of operation were evaluated
relative to the basin geometry. The continuous-
feed ditch philosophy of operation was
retained, but with a 180 min cycle of operation
that included 78 min for aeration, 60 min for
settling and 40 min for decanting.
To reduce capital costs and construction
difficulties, larger units were constructed as
earthen lagoons (with a wall slope of 1:1.5) with
concrete or plastic lining to avoid erosion
problems owing to the high-speed aerators.
Such uuits were built, for example in Albury
with a dry-weather hydraulic capacity of about
4800 m3 d- 1 and in Port Macquarie, sized to
treat an average dry weather flow of
3600 m3 d- 1 with a seven times wet-weather
peaking factor. Most of these were deSigned
and operated as extended aeration processes
with hydraulic retention times of 1.5--2 days
and solids retention times of 30-40 days. This
also provided aerobic sludge stabilization in the
52
same tank and therefore minimized the need
for significant facilities for sludge stabilization
and handling. Wastewater was typically intro-
duced into the reactor basin from an outlet or
distribution channel along one narrow side of
the basin while effiuent was decanted with a
weir located at the opposite basin wall. This
concept became known as the IDEA and forms
the basis of most currently operating intermit-
tent systems in Australia.
Various modifications to this system have
been developed since the 1970s, including dif-
ferent baffie deSigns to decrease problems of
short-circuiting and filamentous bulking. Short-
circuiting was particularly evident in winter,
when inland temperatures could drop well
below 0 ac. During decanting, the continuously
flowing warmer influent can rise to the surface
and skid along the tank surface to the decanter.
Another development was the introduction of
membrane diffusers that permitted the use of
fine-bubble diffused aeration instead of surface
aeration, even for intermittently operated
plants.
The Quakers Hill facility is particularly
noteworthy in that the two basins are sized to
treat 27000 m3 d- 1 of combined domestic and
industrial wastewater with a total high-flow
capacity of 2400 I s-l. Aeration is provided by
banks of fine bubble membrane diffusers,
cycles are of 4 h duration in each basin, with
aeration sequences offset by 2 h so that blower
operation is continuous. Basis design criteria
include organic loading of 0.04 d- 1 (MLSS
based), 40 h hydraulic retention time at average
dry weather flow, deSignated top water level of
3.8 m, designated BWL 3.0 m, dimensions (at
top water level) of 13.3 m long and 76.5 wide
with a multiple weir decanting system that has
an operational range of 25--48 I m- 1 s-l. The
dry weather flow settle sequence is 90 min and
the aeration sequence is 120 min. At flows of
three times ADWF, the settle sequence auto-
matically adjusts to 60 min to permit a 60 min
decant sequence. Although each basin is
designed to carry 4200 mg I-I MLSS at BWL,
operation concentrations of 5000--6500 mg 1-1
have been described. Phosphorus is chemically
precipitated in each basin with iron salts (pickle
liquor) dosed at an average 100 mg 1-1. Each of
the two basins has sloping walls and is lined
with high-density polyethylene.
6.l.3 Introduction ofBNR processes
The nitrogen removal performance of IDEA
processes is generally very good, but only little
phosphorus removal is achieved. Although
chemicals for phosphorus precipitation are in
use, this is not a popular option owing to the
costs and increases in sludge volume. Add-
itionally, the sludge dewaterability and its reuse

potential are negatively affected by the use of
these chemicals; biological methods are there-
fore preferred.
During the 1990s the awareness of the
importance of nutrients in Australia's inland
and some coastal waters was greatly increased
by the widespread occurrences of toxic cyano-
bacteria ('blue-green algae') blooms. Intensive
efforts were therefore made in this period to
develop and implement new processes that
achieved a high level of nitrogen and phos-
phorus removal. Although licence limits are
variable in different states and for different
discharge locations, typical limits for inland and
sensitive coastal waters are now 5 mg I-I TN
and 0.5--2 mg I-I TP as 50th centiles (usually
over one year; in other words, at least half of all
results for the previous 12 months have to be at
or below this limit). Maximally allowable con-
centrations are typically twice these values.
Different BNR process technolOgies were
proposed on the basis of overseas concepts for
both continuous and intermittent systems. To
continue the use of the IDEA concept and on
the basis of the good nitrogen removal perfor-
mance, a bio-P IDEA process was developed
by the NSW Department of Public Works
(Chong et al., 1999). The concept includes a
continuously operated, baffied anaerobic zone
at the inlet of the tank through which the
influent and a recycle flow from the main tank
are flowing. In this zone the required anaerobic
conditions for biolOgical phosphorus removal
are achieved and this arrangement also pro-
vides for an effective mixiog of the influent
with the reactor content, thereby decreasing
the short-circniting problems experienced in
the traditional IDEA systems. Full-scale resnlts
of three installations have been very encour-
aging, with TN < 5 mg I-I and TP around
1 mg I-I (50th centiles) under stable operating
conditions. Further installations and upgrades
of existing systems with this concept are under
way.
A novel approach has been taken by a team
of researchers from the University of Queens-
land, Brisbane (together with the CRC for
Waste Management and Pollution Control), to
achieve full BNR in a single tank without any
recycles or baffies. Based on the basic 'Bathurst
box' deSign, they have developed an influent
distribution system that allows the influent to
be evenly distributed into the bottom of the
reactor. The operating strategy was also
changed from continuous feed to an intermit-
tent feed for at most 50% of the cycle time. To
achieve the required anaerobic conditions for
biological P removal, the influent is introduced
into the settled sludge blanket after the end of
the decant period (that is, at the beginning of
the next cycle). This achieves an intensive
6 Practical experiences
contact between the concentrated sludge and
the incoming fresh influent, rapidly leading to
anaerobic conditions and the required P
release. This arrangement also acts as an 'in-
tank selector' leading to very good sludge
settling characteristics. This patented design is
being tested at full scale (4000 PE tank); these
results have been very encouraging. During a
one-week intensive sampling period, average
effluent concentrations of 6.2 mg I-I TN and
0.17 mg I-I TP have been achieved. Over a six-
month period after start-up, 50th centile values
of 2.0 mg I-I for total inorganic nitrogen
(NH 4-N+NOx-N) and 1.5 mgl- I for TP
demonstrate the excellent performance that
can be achieved in a Single-tank SBR process
(Keller et al., 2000). On the basis of this
concept, relatively simple and cost-effective
modifications of existing, full-scale IDEA
processes are already under way and the use of
this technology in low-cost, earthen lagoons is
being planned.
6.1.4 Conclusions
Australia has a long and successful experience
with intermittent processes. Despite the
introduction of many new continuous BNR
processes, the SBR-based concepts have
continually been developed and are very
competitive in the current industry climate. In
fact, in a recent study of the costs of BNR
plants in Australia it was concluded that the
intermittent processes built so far were sub-
stantially cheaper than the corresponding con-
tinuous processes for the same or equivalent
effluent limits (Hartley, 1998). This obser-
vation, if confirmed in the long term, and the
demonstrated high effluent quality achievable
with such intermittent processes are good
indications that these processes will continue to
have an important role in the wastewater treat-
ment industry in Australia.
6.! Evaluation of SBR faci1ities in cold
regions of the USA and Canada
Up to 1999, there were more than 1270 SBRs
in operation in North America. Of these, about
80% are domestic and 20% industrial. Of the
domestic systems, about 80% are small systems,
sized for flow rates of less than 4000 m3 d- I .
The remaining 20% are sized for flows of
between 4000 and 40000 m3 d- I . In the USA
and Canada, there are many different SBR
equipment suppliers, each with a different sys-
tem design and operating strategy. These
differences can have a significant impact on the
performance of the full-scale plant. Unfortu-
nately, there is little well-documented infor-
mation on how the different SBR systems are
performing in the field.
In 1997, a study was funded by the Water
53
 6 Practical experiences
Environment Association of Ontario, the Great
Lakes 2000 Cleanup Fund and the Canadian
Ministry of Environment and Energy to
document the perfonnance of SBR equipment
and systems in cold-weather regions. The goal
of the study was to determine orgauic and
nutrient removal efficiencies and to identifY
design, equipment and operational issues for
different SBR configurations.
6.2.1 Stndy methodology
Infonnation from 75 SBR facilities in the USA
and Canada was obtained through question-
naires sent to plants and equipment suppliers,
and through site visits. Additional infonnation
was gathered from discussions with equipment
suppliers, government organizations, plant
operators, consultants and regulatory agencies
in the USA.
The questionnaire was divided into five main
sections:
• general infonnation including plant loca-
tion, design engineer, SBR supplier, etc.,
and design parameters (sucb as design flow
rate, influent characteristics and effiuent
limits)
• actual influent and effiuent characteristics
• installation characteristics (such as pre-
treatment equipment, type of decanter,
SBR operating cycle, control strategies
applied)
• capital costs and operation and manage-
mentcosts
• common operating concerns.
The questionnaires were completed for 75
plants, 12 from Canada and 63 from the USA.
6.2.2 Emuent quality of stndy participants
The questionnaires were evaluated and the
average effiuent quality was detennined for all
the plants. No effort was made to sub-
characterize the findings in tenns of the four
generic groups of SBRs described above. The
regulatory effiuent requirements were met in
all but one of the 75 facilities assessed.
• The average effiuent BOD5 was less than
6.5 mg 1-1 (46 facilities reporting).
• The average effiuent SS concentration was
less than 9 mg 1-1 (58 facilities reporting).
• The average NH3-N concentration was
1.5 mg 1-1 (53 facilities reporting).
• The average TP concentration was
1.4 mg 1-1 (32 facilities reporting).
• The average TN concentration was
4.3 mg 1-1 (9 facilities reporting).
These results are quite impressive for
facilities located in either warm or cold regions.
In addition, a preliminary cost comparison
between SBRs and continuous flow activated
54
sludge plants indicated that, for similar effiuent
requirements, SBR-like facilities were more
economical than continuous flow facilities.
6.2.3 Summary of concerns
Some treatment plant operators did have con-
cerns with the operation, design or equipment
of their facility. The study summarized con-
cerns on the basis of the following two criteria:
• frequency of occurrence
• impact on plant treatment capacity, final
effiuent quality, and costs.
A deScription of 15 of these concerns is
provided below, with remedial or optimization
actions presented after the concern.
6.2.3.1 Operators do not have formal training
on SBR operationlprocess control
Some SBR operators are unable to make the
required adjustments in operating strategy
needed to meet specific treatment objectives.
During reactur upsets, operators without suffi-
cient traiuing cannot take effective corrective
actions in a timely manner. To address this
concern, operators should attend seminars on
SBRs that are geared towards developing a
better understanding of the SBR process.
Alternatively, SBR-specific courses should be
developed to complement operator certifica-
tion courses.
6.2.3.2 Mechanical equipment located
outdoors (such as air valves, solenoid
valves, decanter anns and level floats)
might freeze owing to lack of proper
heating/protection
The freezing of mechanical equipment is a
potential problem with most outdoor waste-
water treatment facilities located in cold
regions because pumps and valves can freeze
and cause system upsets. Accordingly, SBRs in
cold climates should be constructed with as
many valves, pumps, etc., as possible indoors or
protected from the elements. Equipment that
cannot be moved into a building can be fitted
with heat tracers and/or specialized equipment
or products designed especially for low tem-
peratures (for example low-temperature
grease).
6.2.3.3 Decanters might be unable to control
adequately the discharge of floatables
present in the reactor, which can
adversely affect downstream
processes (for example grease can
clog sand filters)
The objective of the decanter is to remove the
supernatant from the SBR during the draw
phase while minimizing the discharge of
suspended solids. Many types of decanter exist
(such as fixed level, floating and telescopic; see

section 5.5), each with its advantages and disad-
vantages. Properly designed decanters should
minimize the discharge of floatables.
One method of minimizing this problem is to
use decanters that draw liquid from below the
liquid surface (for example 20--30 cm below).
Although this will minimize the discharge of
floatables, there may still be a discharge of
grease and other compounds with neutral
buoyancy.
6.2.3.4 Variable-rate discharges from the
SBR arising from fixed-level decan-
ters and discrete draw periods can
cause inadequate treatment in post
SBR processes (such as continuous
sand filters or UV disinfection)
Some post-SBR treatment equipment is
deSigned to operate under conditions of contin-
uous flow (for example continuous backwash
sand filters), whereas SBR efIluent is dis-
charged discontinuously (for example batch
discharge). One method of handling this dis-
continuous-to-continuous flow requirement is
to install post-SBR treatment equipment that
can handle discontinuous discharges (for exam-
ple non-continuous backwash filters). Alterna-
tively, an SBR efIluent storage tank can be
used. The decanted efIluent in the storage tank
would then be pumped to the filtration units at
a constant rate.
6.2.3.5 Lack of online dissolved oxygen (DO)
monitoring instrumentation and
contrnl
Online DO monitoring equipment can be used
to optimize the operation of the aeration sys-
tem. For example, if the optimum DO in the
SBR tanks is 2 mg I-I during the react phase,
then a contrnl system that uses online DO
measurements could be used to control the
blowers and regulate the air flow rate to
maintain the desired set point.
Because variable-speed blowers can be
expensive, two blowers could be used to create
the same effect. Both blowers would operate
during periods of high oxygen demand, but
only one would be used during periods of low
oxygen demand.
Small plants (for example less than 0.75
million gallons d- I ), however, may not need
online DO control. For these plants, the bene-
ficial effects of the online control can be offset
by problems encountered with increased sys-
tem complexity, capital equipment costs and
probe fouling.
In these small facilities, the operators could
measure the DO of the SBRs with a hand-held
probe. Occasional adjustment of the blower
airflow rate based on these readings will still
produce excellent effiuent quality.
6 Practical experiences
6.2.3.6 Optimum MLSS is rarely provided to
operators, who have to find it on the
basis of operating experience (trial
and error selection)
SBRs can be operated over a wide range of
MLSS concentrations with excellent results
(namely, from 1800 to 5000 mg I-I). The higher
end of MLSS concentration in SBRs is usually
dictated by the ability of the aeration system to
meet the oxygen requirements of the system,
and by the settling characteristics of the sludge.
6.2.3.7 Lack of automation for selection of
sludge wasting time (manually
selected by operators on the basis of
MLSS concentrations)
A useful control system should be able to waste
sludge as often as necessary. One method to do
this is to set the contrnl system to waste sludge
for a set period each day (for example 5 min).
It should be noted that in municipal systems,
sludge wasting does not need to occur every
day. In fact, for small systems, sludge wasting
can occur once a week.
Sludge wasting can be adjusted to maintain a
fairly constant MLSS level (for example
2500 mg I-I ± 15%). For example, if the MLSS
concentration is increasing for a given sludge
wasting time, the duration of the draw period
should be lengthened. Conversely, if the MLSS
concentration is decreasing for a given sludge
wasting time, then the duration of the draw
period should be shortened. A maximum
increase or decrease per adjustment of the
sludge wasting timer could be set (for example
1 min) and the operator should wait at least
5 days between adjustments to allow the
change to begin to take effect.
6.2.3.8 Inadequate design of pretreatment
system
Inadequate design of pretreatment systems can
cause several problems. In plants where this
occurs, floating and coarse material can enter
the SBR and end up in the decant. Examples of
other related problems are flow metering
inaccuracies, high operation and maintenance
costs.
As with any treatment plant, SBRs should be
constructed with an adequate pretreatment sys-
tem. Some possible pretreatment processes are
bar screens, grit chambers and comminutors.
In plants that are not staffed full-time, pretreat-
ment systems should be able to operate
automatically for extended periOds.
6.2.3.9 Foam on tank surface freezes and
blocks level floats, affecting normal
cycle
In cold climates, scum or foam that has accu-
mulated around level floats can freeze, gener-
ating false readings of water level. Such false
55
 6 Practical experiences
readings can alter the nonnal cycle duration,
leading to poor elIluent quality.
If funds pennit, other types of level indicator
equipment can be used to avoid this problem.
Alternatively, the floats should be observed and
de-iced frequently during extremely cold
periOds. Small enclosures heated by a standard
light bulb could be built around the floats to
protect them from freezing.
6.2.3.lO Release of phosphorus in aerobic
digesters
Inadequate operation of aerobic digesters can
lead to excessive phosphorus release and
recycle back to the liquid train. The impact of
aerobic digesters on phosphorus removal in
biological phosphorus-removal SBR plants
should be assessed and quantified. Methods to
minimize the return of phosphorus to the
liquid train by optimizing the operation of
aerobic digesters should be investigated.
6.2.3.11 Uncovered or elevated reactors
enhance heat loss in winter
Reactors deSigned for cold climates should
include proper precautions to decrease heat
loss during winter. One concern is trying to
obtain nitrification in the winter, because nitri-
fication rates are conSiderably lower at tem-
peratures less than lO ac.
Tanks constructed inside or with covers can
minimize this concern. Alternatively, SBR tanks
could be constructed such that the lower
portion of the reactors is below ground level.
Designing tanks with less surface area will also
minimize heat loss.
6.2.3.12 Problems with SBR control
programme during peak flows
A good SBR control programme should be able
to adjust set-points and liquid levels automati-
cally to handle peak flow rates. Operators of
smaller plants without sophisticated control sys-
tems must make adjustments manually during
peak flow periods. Some of these adjnstments
include: raising the high water level in the tanks
to the maximum extent possible; decreasing the
time of static fill, anoxic fill, react, and settling
phases; and allowing a short (for example
lO min) period of overlapping static fill and
decant.
6.2.3.13 Foaming in reactors
In plants with the decant point below the liquid
level in the reactor, foarniog does not signifi-
cantly affect the perfonnance of the SBR and is
an unsightly by-product.
In plants with fixed-level decanters that ter-
minate the discharge phase when the liquid
level is at the decanter openings, some of the
foam can be discharged with the elIluent. To
solve this problem, a float switch can be
installed to terminate decant above the decan-
56 ter openings (for example 8--15 cm).
6.2.3.14 Lack of connections between SBRs
does not permit the transfer of
MLSS between tanks
Large plants should have piping installed that
would allow MLSS to be transferred from tank
to tank. Smaller plants might find it more
economical to purchase a portable pump and
hoses, which will work equally well.
Two reasons for an operator to want to
transfer sludge between tanks would be to
empty a tank for cleaning, and to shut down or
start up tanks as needed to handle seasonal
changes in wastewater volumes (for example
for a summer or winter resort community).
6.2.3.15 Lack of adequate access to SBR
components
SBRs should be constructed with adequate
access to all major components. If pOSSible,
submersed equipment should be installed with
equipment to raise it from the tank for main-
tenance and repair. A Simple hoist is a cost-
effective method. Additionally, a way to drain
the tank completely should be deSigned for
access to equipment that cannot be raised.
6.2.4 Observations
Most of the concerns listed above would be
corrected if the operators were given a fonnal
training programme. Unfortunately, there is no
simple solution because the tenn SBR is used
to include many different types of periodically
operated reactor configuration, more even than
the four generic types described above, and the
specific training for each type would be differ-
ent. The SBR is also a new technology that is
being implemented by some who have little
basic understanding of how to make it work
best.
A few of the concerns listed above are speci-
fic to the equipment used for SBR-like facili-
ties. These are difficulties that can be overcome
by nsing equipment specified by qualified
engineers, and manufactured and installed by
reputable vendors. The remaining concerns
were independent of the type of treatment
facility installed and are just as likely to cause
difficulties at a conventional continuous flow
activated sludge plant as they are at an SBR-
like system. It is worth noting that the effluent
data compiled showed that the effluent criteria
were conSistently met and, in many cases,
exceeded.
6.2.5 Identification of opportunities for
optimization
Optimization opportuoities directed at the
reduction of capital and O&M costs and
improving effluent quality were developed
from the concerns evaluated and are summar-
ized below.

6.2.5.1 Optimization of SBR cycle times
The time-oriented nature of the SBR allows the
system to have flexibility to achieve a wide
range of treatment objec-tives including the
removal of BOD, suspended solids, nitrogen
and phosphorus. Operational modifications can
alter the nature and extent of removal of
organic carbon, suspended solids, nitrogen and
phosphorus and can control bulking sludge, a
common problem in continuous flow waste-
water treatment systems. The performance of
many SBRs could be enhanced with minor
modifications to the cycle times.
6.2.5.2 Optimization of operator education
and training programmes
As compared to conventional continuous flow
systems, SBRs are a relatively new wastewater
treatment process, so most operators are not
trained well enough to operate SBRs effec-
tively. Additional knowledge and training needs
to be transferred to the plant operators to
ensure that systems are operated in the best
manner possible.
6.2.5.3 Optimization with the use of DO
measurements
While most operators do not take full advan-
tage of DO measurements for SBR control, the
performance of many plants could be opti-
mized if a protocol that detailed the signifi-
cance of DO measurements were developed.
6.2.6 Conclusions
1. Lack of proper operator training has the
largest impact on operating costs and
effluent quality.
2. Many of the concerns found during this
evaluation are not SBR-specific and could
apply to any type of activated sludge
wastewater treatment plant.
3. The average effluent data from the repor-
ting plants show that in spite of experi-
encing some degree of concern with
desigoloperation issues, the plants met,
and in most cases exceeded, their effluent
criteria.
6.3 Evaluation of SDR facilities in
Germany
In Germany, the first efforts to introduce SBR
technology for municipal wastewater treatment
were made in 1982. About 1% of German
wastewater treatment plants employ this
technology. Up to 1999, 138 SBR plants for
domestic wastewater were built and put into
operation, predominantly to serve small villages
and dwellings. About 50 SBRs were installed
for industrial applications. The SBR is
considered a 'state of the art' teclmology in
Germany. The German Waste and Wastewater
Association developed the technical guideline
6 Practical experiences
70
!'>R
.i!l 60
i
p:;
50
~
g:) 40 f - -
e.g 30 f - -
j .&::!
--
20 f - -
11
10
o~ J.J
-!lr
<1000 <5000 <20000 >20 000
Size (PE)
Figure 6.1. Categories of sizes of SBR plants in
Germany (total; open columns) and in the
State of Bavaria (filled columns).
M 210 (ATY, 1997) to provide a basis for the
proper design and operation of SBR plants.
In an attempt to get an overview of the
performance of the existing plants, a survey was
conducted during 1998 and 1999. The collec-
ted data are presented below, and the conclu-
sions of the evaluation study are summarized.
6.3.1 Statistical considerations
As a typical example of the size distribution of
SBR plants in Germany, the State of Bavaria
was analysed (see Figure 6.1).
The sizes of SBR plants that were operated
in Bavaria in 1999 range from 400 to 25000
population equivalents (PE). The capacity of
most of the plants is less than 5000 PE, but the
number of plants with a capacity of more than
10 000 PE is increasing.
6.3.2 Plaot design
The key design parameters of some of the SBR
plants in Germany are listed in Table 6.1. An
effluent hydraulic buffer tank was included in
the design of most of the plants examined.
There were two reasons that led to this decis-
ion: (1) uncertainty with respect to the
performance of the new technology, and (2) the
low mean hydraulic flow rate of the receiving
water. The largest SBR plant is located in the
City of Neubrandenburg (Figure 6.2). It serves
140 000 PE and is designed in accordance with
the schematics shown in Figure 3.6 (cyclic
activated sludge technology).
6.3.3 Operation strategies
Three types of fill strategy are in use at the
Bavarian SBR plants (Figure 6.3): (a) extended
fill phase, (b) long fill phase and (c) short fill
phase. Alternating aeration and mixing phases
are applied for operation strategy types (a) and
(b), whereas the cycle begins with a mixing
phase and is followed by an aeration phase in
case (c). Cycle programme (a) can be found
57
 e I'noctieal apez i XI

-.
n..t a.t. r!...w..l SlIJI."..". /II c.r-.,

-.
X.w.I!.L

.... -.
........ V",""" of Vol=m
-"""
Influent Numberof VDlumr:tric
.m_
......
hnld;ng V_I'"'

","" PE (m')
prwentor
m~ """"
(m~) (4) buIli<
(m~)
""" (m')

.., ,., "'"••

...
A 25000 186 4170 35 3" 1000

."'" ,
.....
B .000 180 "350
'" ao "m

-'"
C 140
•
""
."'"
D 730 111 ao 1<,
•
E 900
'" OJ 135

"""'" ""••
....""
F 100 1166
G
H
'" 210
111
'"
'" •
...
"'"
I '11 61
1 "'"
•
<
L """ ""
1500
63'
.70
ao
67 150 ""'"
"'" "
M ,.,000 ~4
N
0
00000
60000
~4
~. "'"
5400
31
"
°TmtJ.ypcmd..

~U A. _ofW"",*."...r d.s..dco",.., btIlb III N.J. =~ c.r-.y. EeA NM II ambo

db-rt .

mainly .ID. pl.,.b that oontJiin only one rell:b.lr
and DO in&ent holding tank fur interim rtmage
of the fnoom~ wul9illle.t, PIaotlllllDs: cycle
type (b) ~ of lit Ieut two.--.ton and, In
IImU! CUM, mnpmy .... inflwmt holding bnk.
CJde propmme (el II fouDdln plmb wIIh In
infhoent holding tank of ",ffident idze 10 teed
the SBn. indo.pendently of the YUiaticmo ia the
treotmeot plant 1Dflow.
6.14 ~ _the plats
The performaaoe of SBR plana III. opentioD
_ M"dted by alOlW!)' .....ducted In 1998; 1"
SBR planb in BD'Uia -... ~ The
dati. gMDed are pte.lented m TIllIe 6.2 ..
,;veraseInd mlnimllIIllmulmum n!\JeII,
'WImI -n beJ,:,w the nlqulred limb. The OOID-
binaIion of the trdmj",l oystem (SBR) and •
DIItural system (efIIue:ot pnliobins: pcmdIl
turned out to be -r eI'I'ectMo with INp<>tt to
COD and BOn.: nIlIlIJW!. o..J.y IlIIIIIl variationI
were found In the effiueDt deIp!te the wlde
range of Influent ooncentnlflorq. Ewn -r low
..eJ.uomI& Ibndudo .uch .. 4Omgl-1 COD
were lafely met.
Nutrlant ~ In particular thld: of TP, ill
• furtMr ~t that must be met. Only
three plats out of 16 .~ cJtem!cah fur
phoIphoruJ elimination. The othen relled _
bio1ogiaal p l'IIIDIJIIaI, omd achi-..d a lurpriI-
iDgly high I'IIte of Ihoat 60% 'bio-P ellmpyU.
without speeW operltla!: Itrategiet.

.
AImoct all plan'" are mbjected to adwoced
requiremeDtl of European rtmdards. Delpite 6.3.15 S1 av~
DPe opentional p:oblems, the elIIueJIt valaet Short Bll phuell and hlgh ewbonge .rateI help
 6 Practical experiences

Table 6.2. Discharge limits, loading capacity, and average irifluent and effluent ccncentratlons at the Bavarian
SBR plants (Te1chgriiher et ai., 1999)

COD (mgl-1) BODs (mg 1-1) TN (mgl-1) TP (mg 1-1)

Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent
Minimum 300 19 150 4 25 4.5 5.0 0.6
Average 550 31 315 6 62 12.5 10.8 2.8
Maximum 760 54 550 15 87 20.0 17.0 4.5

\al

I~~~ 1
L I
[
L J
1 [
I
1
J
[ 1
I I
[ !
I I
I

I
(b)

I~:=
I I [
I I I
I
I

I
(c)

I~~
I
I
I
[

Figure 6.3. Three types offill strategy: (a) cycle programme with an extended fill phase and frequent change
between aeration and mixing without aeration; (b) longfiU phase. less frequent shifts between process
phases; (c) shortfill phase.

to improve the settling characteristics of the
sludge. However, nearly all plants were oper-
ated at a fill time ratio (FIR) of more than 0.4,
and in most cases volumetric exchange rates far
below 0.5 were observed (Helmreich et al.,
1999). Subsequently, bulking problems were
encountered.
Bulking sludge phenomena (in which
SVI > 250 ml g-l) were observed, in particular
when oxygen supply was insufficient after peak
influent loadings or after the feeding of reject
water from sludge dewatering systems into the
SBR. Seasonal influences such as temperature
changes, especially during spring and autumn,
also caused the SVI to rise in some cases.
In most cases, despite the observed deterior-
ation of the sludge settleability, the cycle
program, the volumetric exchange ratio and the
oxygen transfer rate were not adjusted to the
specific influent conditions. The treatment
plant operators were often simply not aware of
the control capabilities of the various SBR
technologies.
6.3.6 Foam problems and floating sludge
formation
Foam formation and floating sludge accumu-
lation occurred frequently in the plants
investigated, and seemed to be interrelated.
Bubble-aerated tanks were more likely to have
to foam problems. floating sludge accumulated
particularly in plants that were operated to
achieve denitrification and enhanced biolOgical
P removal.
It seems that problems with floating sludge
can be avoided, or at least minimized, when the
scum is not allowed to accumulate at the
surface of the biological reactor. Although there
are efficient surface-cleaning devices on the
market they had not been applied at the plants
tested. The removed floating sludge and foam
should not be introduced or returned to the
biological reactor; otherwise the problem is
simply transferred from one biological system
to another.
6.3.7 Sludge stabilization
In most of the plants investigated, simultaneous
aerobic sludge stabilization is performed. To
stabilize activated sludge successfully, an aero-
bic sludge age of at least 25 days is recommen-
ded, and the organic fraction of the activated
sludge should stay below 55--60%. Reactors
that are operated to achieve nitrification,
denitrification and enhanced biological P
removal are aerated for ouly a fraction of the
total cycle time. In these cases, the difference
between the total and the aerobic sludge age is
59
 6 Practical experiences
significant. The problem is certainly not speci-
fic to SBR plants but underlines the need to
consider the aerobic sludge age as a measure
for designing simnltaneous sludge stabilization
plants.
6.3.8 Sludge production
When comparing SBR plants with continuous
flow activated sludge plants of equivalent
hydraulic retention time distribution functions,
no significant differences in sludge production
were observed. Slowly filled SBRs should be
compared with continuous flow systems on the
basis of complete stirred tank reactor configu-
rations, and fast-fill SBRs with plug flow sys-
tems. The specific sludge production varied
between 0.25 and 0.81 kg MLSS kg-r COD
depending on the influent suspended solids
loading, the hydraulic retention time distribu-
tion, and the aerobic sludge age applied.
6.3.9 Problems encountered
Plant design in general, and the mechanical
equipment chosen by the deSigners, were often
inadequate. The same is true for the measuring
devices needed to run the plant in an automatic
mode. In some cases, pretreatment installations
such as screening plant, sieve or grit chamber
were missing, causing operational problems
with pumps, surface aerators and valves. In
most cases plant operators complained about
the improper installation of equipment, a lack
of pumping capacity, a deficiency in blower
capacity, and the too large or small number of
available measuring devices. All plants lacked a
device to monitor excess sludge withdrawal.
SBR plants should be operated automatically
and must be controlled by sensors and by a
computer. However, even automatic operation
must also permit manual interaction to adjust
operation methods to actual needs. In many
plants visited it was nearly impossible for the
operators to influence the process operation
owing to limitations in access to the computer
timer settings.
With regard to withdrawal of the super-
natant, various types of decanting device were
found in the field. The experiences gained
varied between useful and very poor. In some
cases, activated sludge was trapped in the effiu-
ent pipes, causing severely elevated concentra-
tions of suspended solids in effiuent at the
beginning of the decant phase.
6.3.10 Conclusions
Mainly poorly trained personnel operate most
of the small SBR plants. The surveys revealed a
significant gap between scientific knowledge
and full-scale operating experiences available
on periodic systems and how the SBR plants
were operated in Germany. Collection, assess-
60
ment and critical review of how experience is
used in Germany are needed, as well as the
continuous training of designers and operators.
The effiuent quality of SBR plants does not
differ significantly from continuous flow plants.
Therefore the choice between a continuous
flow or an SBR plant should be based on an
economic comparison only.
Operating problems were generally not SBR
specific but were of the type that are typically
found when dealing with small treatment plants
or with equipment that has not been satis-
factorily deSigned.
6.4 Evaluation of SBK faeilities in France
In France, the first attempts to introduce SBR
technology for municipal wastewater treatment
were at the beginning of the 1970s; however, at
that time the process did not take hold, mainly
for technical reasons but also as a result of
administrative reservations. Since 1995 various
SBR plants have been built to treat wastewater
from small food-processing industries, namely
from wine and cheese-making companies. Data
on SBR plants in France are presented below.
6.4.1 Treatment of winery effiuents
6.4.1.1 Context
In France, wine making, as any other industrial
activity in the country, is subjected to an anti-
pollution tax to compensate for the
deterioration in water quality in the receiving
water bodies. This tax was reconsidered
between 1991 and 1997, with the following
consequences:
• a substantial increase in the tax rate was to
be paid by the wineries
• an increase in the number of wineries
liable for the tax, because of the lowering
of the tax threshold to include wineries
with a production capacity of 2000 hi yr-l
and more.
The hoped-for result of the increase in the
tax by the Regional Water Authorities is that
wineries will set up wastewater treatment
facilities, for which they are then allowed a
rebate in the anti-pollution tax levied on them.
Of the possible solutions for dealing with
winery wastewater, biolOgical treatment pro-
cesses are especially attractive because this type
of wastewater contains mainly readily biodegra-
dable substrates. Consequently a specific treat-
ment process has been developed with a
modified SBR concept to suit the specific
nature of winery wastewater.
6.4.1.2 Plant design
Given the COD concentration of winery
effiuents (between 5 and 25 g 1-1), the widely
fluctuating volumes of wastewater discharged
 6 Practical experiences

Table 6.3. Plant data ofsome SBR reactors treating winery ejJluents in France

Influent Volume of
Wine production holding Vmaxper excess sludge
of the winery tank Number of reactor storage tank
SBRpiant (m3 yrl) (m3 ) reactors (m3 ) VER{%) (m3 )
A 730 130 1 35 15
B 500 65 1 60 6
C 3200 420 3 80 6 150
0 500 100 1 60 5
E 1200 180 1 60 3
F 3200 290 1 150 90

Table 6.4. Examples af mean irifluent and ejJluent concentrations at SBR plants in France treattng winery ejJluents

COO (mgl- 1) BODs (mg 1-1) TN (mgl- 1) TP (mgl- 1)

SBRpiant Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent
A 4300 280 3000 77 31 16 9 1
B 10200 240 7000 12 48.2 15.4 14.3 5.1
C 5250 III 3490 4.5 52 11.3 12.5 2.3
0 14400 188 8250 58 43 16.6 21 8

and the short period of production (70% of the
wastewater is produced between September
and November), it was decided to design SBR
systems with a holding tank in front for
temporary storage of the influent. The SBR is
fed once a day, and operated with a 24 h cycle
schedule. The holding tank helps to decrease
the effects of shock loading and facilitates maxi-
mal control over the metabolic and sedimen-
tation processes. It is possible to base the
design of the SBR reactor on mean pollution
levels rather than on maximum values. Further-
more, the buffer storage facility pennits a com-
plete shutdown of the reactor during periods
when winery wastewater discharge is very low
and irregular.
In 1999, six SBR plants were constructed in
France for wineries producing between 5000
and 32 000 m3 of wine a year. In Table 6.3 the
key design parameters of the plants are listed.
6.4.1.3 Performance of the plants
Table 6.4 provides a summary of the mean
influent and effiuent values achieved. The main
effiuent values remained below the general
discharge limits (300 mg I-I for COD,
100 mg I-I for BODs and SS) set by the water
authorities for industrial wastewater.
6.4.1.4 Operation strategies
The SBR reactors are designed with a low
loading rate (about 0.8 kg COD m-3 d- I ) and
operate with one cycle a day, in accordance
with the following general schedule:
• fill during the first hour of the cycle with
simultaneous aeration and mixing by
aeration with fine bubbles (aerated fill
strategy)
• aeration and mixing by aeration with fine
bubbles for 19 h (aerated react phase)
• settling for 3 h
• pumping off of the supernatant and rem-
oval of excess sludge (performed occas-
ionally) duriog the last hour of the cycle.
N and P must be added because winery
wastewater is deficient in N and P. Conse-
quently, specific steps for nutrient removal are
not required.
6.4.1.5 Sludge
Flocs are dark and small (pinpoint), exposing
poor flocculation. Once a week the level of the
sludge is checked with a test tube and sludge
removal is started manually when the sludge
level (after settling) reaches half of the total
reactor depth. Sludge production is on average
0.25 kg SS kg- I of total COD and the sludge is
used mostly for land-spreading.
6.4.1.6 Costs
The cost of an SBR plant varies from one
winery to another depending on its size, the
type of subsoil and the degree of integration
required or desired on the site. For instance, an
SBR plant for the treatment of the effiuents of
a winery producing 3200 m3 of wine a year
represents an investment cost of about 3.5 FF
(US$0.57) m-3 of wine, calculated over a one-
year period, excluding depreciation. These
results represent the total cost of the treatment
plant divided by the annual wine production in
cubic metres.
61
 6 Practical experiences
For a winery producing 3200 m3 yr-l, run-
ning costs are about 1 FF (16.4 US cents) m-3
of wine produced, with 3% for seeding, 41%
for energy (mainly aeration), 15% for chemical
supplies (nitrogen, phosphorus, antifoam), 27%
for operating staff and 14% for provision for
spares. Costs for land spreading of the sludge
are not taken into account in the results
presented above.
6.4.2 Treatment of cheese factory emuent
6.4.2.1 Context
So far, the SBR plants have been used mainly
for treating the effiuents of cheese-making
plants situated in the Jura and the Doubs
departements (administrative entities) in the
Jura Mountains (northeast France). In this area
there are about 200 small cheese-making
plants, situated in sparsely populated rural
areas, producing Comte, Emmental, Grand
Cru, Morbier and Mont d'Or, among others.
At present the companies are having to
upgrade their installations to meet European
health standards, and proper solutions for the
treatroent of the wastewater have to be found.
A specific programme (PIMPAF programme),
to run from 1996 to 2000, was jOintly set up by
the Water Board, the National Government,
the Franche-Comte Regional Council, the
Councils of the Doubs and the Jura and the
Federations of Cheese-making Cooperatives
with the aim of decreasing by at least 80% the
organic pollution released by the small cheese-
making establishments in the Jura Mountains.
Major financial aid was made available to the
cheese-making units to enable them to perform
the necessary pollution audits, modifications of
the existing plant and final treatroent of their
wastewater.
Pollution from the cheese-making units is
generally at the level of 200-300 PE in hamlets,
with often as few as 100-150 inhabitants. For
wastewater treatment the cheese makers must
choose between either an independent solution
or connection to the public sewerage system for
a collective treatment of wastewater.
If the construction or renewal of a waste-
water collection and sewerage system leads to
excessive investroent costs, the cheese maker
might opt for an individual solution. Innovative
solutions for decentralized treatroent of cheese-
making wastewater were therefore investigated
for cases where connection to the local sewage
system was impracticable. The technology
required had to suit the characteristics of the
effiuents from small cheese-making units (small
volumes (3-13 m3 d- 1), polluting load of
70-750 PEl, be simple, robust and efficient
and also be affordable with respect to both
capital investroent and operating costs.
62
6.4.2.2 Plant design
From 1996 to July 1999, 11 SBR plants were
constructed in France for cheese-making
dairies processing between 1 000 000 and
4 800 000 I of milk a year. Some treatroent
plants receive the dairy effiuent individually,
others receive the dairy effiuent plus the
wastewater of the village. In Table 6.5 the key
design parameters of some of the plants are
listed.
6.4.2.3 Performance of the plants
Table 6.6 provides a summary of the mean
influent and effiuent values achieved, and
shows the resnlts obtained. In summary, the
effiuent concentrations remained well below
the discharge limits set by the water authorities
in the Jura and Doubs departements
(125 mg 1-1 for COD and 30 mg I-I for BODs,
35 mg I-I for SS and 40 mg 1-1 for N).
6.4.2.4 Operation strategies
The reactors are operated at a low loading rate
to produce a stabilized excess sludge. The cycle
time is set to 24 h. The fill phase (aerated fill)
lasts for 1 h. It is followed by an aerated react
phase of 19 h. Aeration and mixing are
provided by fine-bubble equipment. The
sedimentation phase is set to 3 h. During the
remaining 1 h the supernatant is decanted, and
sludge is wasted if necessary.
Because only carbon removal has to be
achieved, the treatroent cycle does not include
specific steps for nutrient removal.
Cheese-making staff can easily run an SBR
facility reliably while devoting a minimum of
time to it. The monitoring of the plant includes
the following: (1) a daily visual check of the
readings on the control panel in case of
incidents, and (2) once a week, a check with a
test tube to determine the level of the sludge.
6.4.2.5 Sludge
The yield in biomass is 0.24 kg SS kg- 1 applied
COD. Sludge removal is started up manually
when sludge level reaches half the total reactor
depth. Sludge settling is excellent and concen-
trations of up to 11 g 1-1 were maintained in the
SBR without SS being washed out during
decanting. The sludge is used mostly for land-
spreading.
6.4.2.6 Investroent costs
The average cost of an SBR unit based on
treatroent capacity in the Doubs and Jura
departements is presented in Table 6.7. The
costs include general earth moving, construc-
tion, equipment, fittings, conduits and connec-
tions for input (wastewater, electricity, drinking
water, rainwater runofl) as well as discharge of
the treated water, preliminary studies, con-
struction site supervision and administrative
tasks.
 6 Practical experiences

Table 6,5, Examples af SBR plant data on cheesemaktng dniries with effluent treatment in France

Production Influent Volume of

(m3 0fnrilk holdmg Vmaxper sludge
processed Type of tank Number reactor VER storage
Plant per year) wastewaterO PE (m3 ) of reactors (m3) (%) tank (m3 )
A 2950 D 390 28 1 55 20 60
B 3000 D 400 25 1 55 22 60
C 4800 80%D, 500 7,5 1 100 20 115
20% V
D 2237 84%D, 250 4 1 60 13 60
16% V
E 1000 D 200 25 1 35 25 55
F 4500 D 500 40 1 95 17 100
• D, Daily; V, village (domestic wastewater),

Table 6,6, Examples of mean influent and ejjluent concentrations at SBR plants treating cheese-making dniry
effluents in France

COD (mgl- 1) BODs (mg 1-') TN (mgl- 1) TP (mgl- 1)

SBR plant Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent Influent Effiuent
A' 2,520 ± 720 50 ± 31 1250 ± 370 2,5 ± 2,2 66 ± 22 9.4 ± 5,7 50 ± 37 12,6 ± 11,7
Bf 2790 29 1090 0,9 48 3 82 3
q 1564 54 1258 9 54 4 34 17
D§ 3122 75 2018 14 106 9 48 11,5
.. Average values obtained during a close monitoring over one year.
t Results of one 24-hoor sample,
j Average values of the results of three 24-hour samples,
I Average values of the results of five 24-hour samples,

For treatment units of less than 700 PE, the Table 6,7. Average investment by PE as a function af
SBR process seems to be financially more the treatment capacity of an SBR unit
advantageous than a continuous activated
sludge system. For the range 200-700 PE, the Nominal treatment Correspondmg
SBR solution is generally proposed, Thanks to capacity (PE) investment per PE
the financial aid allocated within the PIMPAF 100-200 4300 FF (US$706)
scheme (60-80%), investment undertaken for 200-250 3400 FF (US$558)
wastewater treatment runs from 0.8 French 250-300 2700 FF (US$443)
centimes (0.13 US cents) per litre of nrilk pro- 2400 FF (US$394)
300-450
cessed for big plants to 3 French centimes
450-800 2000 FF (US$328)
(0.49 US cents) for small producers, with
depreciation calculated over 10 years.

6.4.2.7 Operating costs
Table 6.8 presents an example of running costs
for a treatment unit of 300 PE for which total
operating expenditure works out at between 1
and 1.2 French centimes (0.16--0,2 US cents)
per litre of nrilk processed.
Comparison with continuously loaded activa-
ted sludge processes shows that the SBR solu-
tion entails lower ruuning costs, largely because
of the limited time required for controlling the
treatment unit. Indeed, monitoring of the
existing SBR units shows that a cheese maker
needs to be involved for only 1-2 h a week in
the supervision of the treatment plant. For con-
tinuous activated sludge processes, surveillance
time ranges from 4 h a week to 1 h a day.
In summary, the costs (investment and run-
ning costs) for treating wastewater at a cheese-
making plant receiving an average daily milk
delivery of 9300 I, which generates a pollution
equivalent to 300 inhabitants, are 2 French
centimes (0.33 US cent) per litre of milk
received, Given that the cheese-making co-
operative pays about 2.25 FF (US$0.37) for the
litre of milk, treatment represents 0.9% of the
price of the basic milk supply.
63
 6 Practical experiences
Table 6.B. Breakdown of running costs for a treatment unit of 300 PE
Item
Electricity consumption, 26 000 kWh yr 1
Operating staff (head cheese-maker), 1-2 h wk- 1
Electromechanical spare parts, provision for spares
Utilities and supplies (drinking water, lubricants, analyses)
Land spreadmg of sludge
Total
Table 6.9. Cumulative number ofmunicipal wastewater treatment processes culopted in operating plants of public
sewerage systems in Japan
Process Fiscal year ...
Conventional activated sludge
Oxidation ditch
SBR
Extended aeration
Others
Total number
6.4.3 Remarks on both applications
In a wastewater depollution project, before the
treatment plant is designed there is first step of
decreasing the pollution at source by recov-
ering and exploiting by-products (whey, lees) as
well as by using improved rinsing techniques.
These by-products represent only a very small
fraction of the total volume of wastewater to be
treated but, because of their highly concen-
trated nature, they have a marked effect on the
concentration of the effiuent. To avoid over-
loading the SBR plants it is essential to make
the cheese or wine producer well aware of the
vital importance of maintaining, at all times,
uninterrupted control of the by-products run-
ning into the wastewater.
6.5 Evaluation of SBR facillties in Japan
6.5.1 History
The SBR was introduced to Japan in the early
1980s when R.L. Irvine from the University of
Notre Dame, Indiana, USA, provided technical
support to Nishihara Environmental Sanitation
Research Corporation, Ltd. Because the decan-
ters and control systems were supplied from
Australia, virtually all of the initial SBRs
installed in Japan were of the single-tank vari-
ety similar to the ICEAS.
The regulation of wastewater treatment sys-
tems in Japan depends on use, function and
size. For example, the MiniStry of Construction
is responsible for regulating all public sewerage
systems, whereas the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries regulates rural agricul-
tural wastewater treatment systems. The Mini-
stry of Health and Welfare and the Ministry of
64
Running cost per year
10 400 FF (US$1708)
6800--13 500 FF (US$I116--2217)
9,000 FF (US$1478)
2,000 FF (US$328)
1400 FF (US$230)
29600-36300 FF (US$4860-5960)
1982 1987 1992 1997
370 524 631 693
6 29 137 366
0 2 30 59
13 17 16 18
128 126 115 157
517 698 929 1293
International Trade and Industry control small-
scale treatment systems and industrial treat-
ment systems, respectively. The Japan Sewage
Works Association (JSWA) and the Japanese
Association of Rural Sewerage (JARUS) have
established design standards for the SBR
process that are quite similar. Each prescribes a
flow equalization tank and its size (for example
6 or 7 h times the hourly design flow rate), the
SBR tank volume (for example 24 or 22-27 h
times the hourly design flow rate), and three or
four time-controlled operating cycles per day.
The Ministry of Construction adheres to the
standards established by JSWA; the Ministry of
Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries follows the
standards developed by JARUS.
Many local governments have adopted the
various wastewater treatment processes such as
oxidation ditches, SBRs and biological aerated
filters for their urban small municipal waste-
water treatment plants in Japan (Tanaka, 1992).
Table 6.9 shows the cumulative number of
wastewater treatment processes adopted in the
public sewerage systems from fiscal year 1982
to 1997.
In 1984, the first SBR municipal wastewater
treatment plant, in Nohara Area, Maizuru City,
started operation with a capacity of 600 m3 d- 1
(Sakagawa, 1988). From 1983 to 1986 the
JSWA investigated the nse of the SBR technol-
ogy for treating municipal wastewater, although
single-tank SBR systems had been widely used
for the treatment of industrial wastewater such
as food processing wastes. On the basis of pilot-
scale studies, design criteria were proposed in
terms of the removal performance for organics,
N and P and initial sludge blanket settling
 6 Practical experiences

Table 6.10. Cumn/ative number af wastewater treatment processes adopted in aperating plants af rural
agricultural sewerage systems in Japan

Process Fiscal year ... 1984 1987 1992 1997

Submerged aerobic and/or anaerobic filters 255 432 1092 1891
Oxidation ditch 18 27 123 322
SBR 6 18 218 741
Extended aeration 1 1 24 318
Others 119 132 147 248
Total number 399 610 1604 3520

TabIR 6.11. Noharo SBR plant

Srunmer Other seasons

Desigo inflow rate (m3 d- 1) 660 110
Influent BOD5 (mg 1-1) 220 280
Influent SS concentration (mg 1-1) 160 210
Number of reactors Three-tank system Single-tank system
Mixing and aeration device Jet aeration
Decanting device Pump with float and flexible hose

velocity during the settle phase (Tanaka and
Nakazawa, 1986; Oomori et al., 1989; Naka-
zawa and Tanaka, 1991). In addition, a joint
research project between JSWA and two
manufacturers was conducted to develop and
evaluate the SBR technology-oriented equip-
ment including mixers, aerators and decanters.
In 1990, JSWA published the 'desigo manual
on SBR' for municipal wastewater treatment.
Since then SBRs have been widely adopted as a
secondary treatment-level technology for small
municipal wastewater treatment plants in
Japan. From 1993 to 1994, JSWA conducted a
re-evaluation of SBR technology for existing
plants. In 1996 it developed standard desigo
specifications for plants with a desigo capacity
of less than 2000 m3 d- 1 . SBR technology has
now been adopted mainly for secondary treat-
ment (effiuent BOD5 < 20 mg 1-1) in the public
sewerage systems, even though it was well
known that advanced treatment of Nand/or P
is achieved in the SBR.
Sewerage systems have also been construc-
ted all over Japan in the rural agricultural areas
for populations of less than 1000. Table 6.10
shows the cwnulative number of wastewater
treatment processes adopted in the rural
sewerage systems in Japan from fiscal year 1984
to 1997. As can be seen, a considerable number
of SBRs have been constructed in rural agri-
cultural areas since 1987. JARUS has produced
11 packaged desigo manuals of wastewater
treatment facilities - aerobic and/or anaerobic
submerged filter plants, SBR plants and exten-
ded aeration plants - for upgrading the quality
of newly constructed small wastewater treat-
ment facilities. There are three SBR technol-
ogy-based package plants for secondary and
advanced treatment levels.
6.5.2 Specific applications
The existing SBRs in Japan have no primary
settling tanks. The first SBR municipal waste-
water treatment plant in Nohara Area, Maizuru
City, adopted a three-tank system because it is
located in a small fishing village with srunmer
resort inns that produce severe seasonal and
diurnal fluctuations in the raw wastewater, as is
shown in Table 6.11 (Sakagawa, 1988).
A performance evaluation for the N ohara
SBR plant was conducted in the summer,
autumn and winter of 1986. The effiuent
BOD5, SS, TN and TP concentrations were
5--10 mg 1-1, 4--12 mg 1-1, 3.6-6.9 mg 1-1 and
0.4--1.1 mg 1-1, respectively.
The typical desigo criteria of SBR systems
are shown in Table 6.12. As noted in the table,
two desigo strategies, a high and a low organiC
loading, are used in Japan.
A two-tank SBR system with no react phase
has now been generally adopted in Japan. In
this system, the time for the fill phase is half of
the time for one cycle and the time for the
settle phase is determined by using an equation
that predicts the initial settling velocity of the
sludge blanket as a function of water tempera-
ture and MLSS. The type of decanting device
determines the time for the draw phase. The
total time for aeration during fill is selected
such that the BOD and ammonia added during
fill are oxidized (Oomori et ai., 1989).
Specifications for JARUS's three SBR pack-
age plants are shown in Table 6.13.
65
 6 Practical experiences

Table 6.12. Design criteria af SBR system8 for public sewerage system8

High loading type Low loading type

Number of reactors Two-tank system Two-tank system
Duration of a cycle (h) 6--8 8--12
VER(%) 25-50 17-33
MLSS at end of fill (mg 1-1) 1500--2000 3000-4000

Table 6.13. JARUS's packaged SBRfacilities for rural agricultural sewerage system8

JARUS-XI type
Design population More than 501
Design effiuent quality (mg 1-1) BODs < 20. SS < 50
System configuration
Flow equalization tank HRT>7h
Reactor: two-tank system HRT > 22 h, 4 cycles d-1
Volumetric exchange rate < 50%,
aerated fill and aerated react
JARUS-XII type
Design population More than 501
Design effiuent quality (mg 1-1) BODs < 20, SS < 50, TN < 15
System configuration
Flow equalization tank HRT>7h
Reactor: two-tank system HRT > 27 h, 4 cycles d-1
Intermittent aeration (mixed fill and aerated fill,
mixed react and aerated react)
JARUS-XIIG
Design population More than 501
Design effiuent quality (mg 1-1) BODs < 10, SS < 15, TN < 15, TP < 3
System configuration
Flow equalization tank HRT>7h
Reactor: two-tank system HRT > 27h, 4 cycles d-l
Intermittent aeration (mixed fill and aerated fill,
mixed react and aerated react)
Control Sludge blanket level meter, DO meter, ORP meter
and MLSS meter

6.5.3 Practical experiences

Table 6.14. SBR's equipment adiJpted In public A list of equipment used in 56 of the existing
sewerage system8 SBR systems used to treat public sewerage is
summarized in Table 6.14.
Number JSWKs re-evaluation of existing SBR systems
ofpIants revealed several performance failures caused
by inappropriate design considerations and a
Mixing and aeration device
lack of operators knowledge of optimal system
Jet aeration 35
operating strategies:
Submerged turbine aerator 21
Decanting device • unstable treatment performance for reac-
Motor-driven decanter with weir 32 tors in the two-tank systems that did not
pipes receive equal influent volume and loads
Floating decanter with submerged 14 because of diurnal and seasonal fluctua-
inlets tions in the inflow rate
Pump with float and flexible hose 6 • poor liquid-solids separation during the
Others 4 settle and draw phases and increased
66

Table 6.15. Main improvement and addition on SBR system confifYJ-ration and equipment in 'standard design
specification' ofISWA in 1996
Flow equalization tank (added)
Reactor
Duration of one cycle
VER
MLSS concentration
Mixing and aeration devices (optional)
Jet aeration
Submerged turbine aerator
Flexible perforated membrane diffuser and mechanical mixer
Decanting devices (optional)
Motor-driven decanter with pipes
F10ating decanter with submerged inlets
Accumulated scum removing devices (added)
Cycle time
Fill phase
Aerated fill and aerated react
Settle phase
Draw phase
Process control unit specified for SBR systems operation
strategies (added)
effiuent SS levels because of Hlamentous
sludge bulking and scum accumulation on
the reactor's water surface
• poorer BOD5 and SS removal for single-
tank SBR systems with continuous inflow
than for two-tank SBR systems.
Table 6.15 summarizes standard design
specifications for two-tank SBR systems adop-
ted by JSWA as a result of the re-evaluation.
The 'standard' configuration of two-tank SBR
systems includes the following:
• preliminary facilities: manhole type pum-
ping facility and screening equipment
• flow equalization tank
• effiuent holding tank
• disinfection tank.
6.5.4 Future trends
Japan now has more than 3200 local munici-
palities with over 125 million people. Public
and rural sewerage systems and on-site treat-
6 Practical experiences
HRT=6h
HRT = 24h
8 h (3 cycles d- I )
33%
3000 mg I-I
4 h (max.)
4 h (max.)
1-2h
2h
ment serve about 66% of the population. In the
cities exceeding 500 000 people, 92% of the
people are served with public sewerage systems
at least at the secondary treatment level. In
contrast, in communities of under 5000 people,
only 8% of the people are similarly served.
There are therefore strong demands for waste-
water treatment processes snitable for small
communities that are cost-effective, easy to
operate, flexible and capable of removing N
and P from the influent. The SBR technology is
one of the most promising municipal waste-
water treatment systems for Japanese small
communities.
Although SBR systems are capable of remo-
ving nitrogen and/or phosphorus biolOgically at
the advanced treatment level, construction
costs would increase because of longer HRT
and SRTs. Another intensive investigation and
re-evaluation of existing SBR plants would be
required to establish new design specifications
and operating criteria for the advanced removal
of Nand/or P.
67

7 Concluding remarks
T he first activated sludge plants were
variable-volume, periodically operated sys-
tems. All of these fill-and-draw systems were
converted to continuous flow operation by the
mid-1920s even though they were !mow to
produce a higher quality effiuent than a con-
tinuous flow system of the same size. There
were three reasons for their discontinuation.
First, there were no simple timer control
devices. All changes in operation were
performed manually. This required operator
attention around the clock; the first continuous
flow systems did not. Secondly, coarse-bubble
diffusers were used to provide mixing and to
supply oxygen. These aerators required fre-
quent cleaning because the repeated settle-
ment of mixed liquor during the settle phase
clogged the diffuser stones more often than
those used in continuous flow systems. Because
the diffuser stones were cleaned manually,
labour was more intensive for the batch-like
systems than for the continuous flow systems.
Thirdly, all of the raw wastewater supplied to a
periodically operated treatment plant each day
is discharged during less than 24 -h. Thus the
volumetric flow rate of the resulting periodic
discharge was often substantially higher than
that of the raw wastewater. The energy that
needed to be dissipated during these periodic
discharge periods was much greater for the fill-
and-draw systems than for the continuous flow
systems. As a result, convenience and cost were
selected over treatment performance, and
continuous flow operation became the standard
of practice for the next five decades. Attempts
of Hoover and Porges to reintroduce fill-and-
draw systems in the USA in the 1950s for dairy
wastewater and of Pasveer in The Netherlands
in the 1960s for muuicipal wastewater met with
only limited success. However, the work in The
Netherlands did serve as a foundation for the
resurgence of periodically operated variable-
volume systems in Australia in the 1970s.
With the birth of the computer age and the
advent of new and more efficient aeration
equipment, the work by Irvine in the USA in
the 1960s and 1970s began to overcome the
7 Concluding remarks
concerns of the 1920s and the apparent con-
veuience and cost of continuous flow systems.
Computers simply provided the needed pro-
cess control, and non-clogging aerators easily
supplied oxygen without excessive operator
attention. However, the acceptance of any new
technology is difficult. Acceptance of the SBR,
once old, now new, was no exception. Few
researchers, regulators or practitioners !mew
about SBRs and even fewer !mew how to
design and operate them. Specialized equip-
ment was not readily available. Finally, the
accepted standard of practice, the continuous
flow system, clearly produced an acceptable
effiuent. Why change? Unschooled engineers
and equipment suppliers designed SBRs with-
out the aid of design and operating manuals
that were operated by inexperienced and
untrained operators. Although some designers
did use the writings of the experiences at
Culver, Indiana, and Australia to develop their
deSigns, the inherent techuical advantages of
the SBR and the industrious work of its advo-
cates (such as Irvine in the USA, Wilderer in
Europe, and Goronzy in Australia) were pri-
marily responsible for the SBR's being able to
compete internationally with conventional con-
tinuous flow systems. Two other less subtle
reasons for its acceptance were that the SBR
worked and that the SBR sometimes worked
best when removing hazardous organic com-
pounds!
The technical advantages of the SBR have
been detailed throughout this report. For
example, the system's ability to control fila-
ments and remove nutrients with Simple modi-
fications to its controller give a skilled operator
the power to protect the environment that is
not easily matched by other systems. Its normal
controlled non-steady-state operation simulates
shock loads that cause unscheduled transients
to have minimal impact on performance. The
SBR's ability to be designed to hold contami-
nants until target compounds have been com-
pletely destroyed makes the system a favourite
for the treatment of hazardous wastes.
When Irvine named his periodically operated
69
 7 Concluding remarks
system the SBR, he envisaged a system that
had a kinetic advantage not easily matched by
conventional continuous flow operation and
one that would provide the flexibility to meet
the challenges of a poorly characterized and
uncertain wastewater. He sought a system with
the flexibility that would allow limits to be met
both on the completion of construction and
many years later, after new regulations had
been promulgated (for example a more strin-
gent limitation on nutrient removal) and raw
waste characteristics had changed (for example
for an industrial complex).
He saw the SBR used in rural areas and in
developing nations where the simplest of all
technologies were needed. He also saw a
sophisticated system that could be controlled
remotely with high-powered computers and
advanced instrumentation. Consistent with this
apparent contradiction was his understanding
that the SBR's greatest strength was that an
infinite number of positive operating strategies
could be employed to meet effiuent limits and
that its greatest weakness was that an infinite
number of negative operating strategies were
also possible. The results of surveys summar-
ized in Chapter 6 clearly show that this concern
was unfounded. One or more positive strategies
could be used to select and enrich a microbial
consortium best suited to meet the treatment
objectives, even when proposed by the
unschooled deSigner and implemented by the
untrained operator. Nevertheless, the full
potential of all SBR systems can never be
realized without a more informed citizenry of
researchers, designers and operators. The auth-
ors and contributors of this report hope that its
70
contents will move this user population closer
to the understanding needed.
The authors also hope that the report's con-
cepts and understandings will stimulate basic
research and serve as a cornerstone for future
studies on microbial systems, whether they are
for continuous flow or periodically operated
reactors, for activated sludge flocs or biofilms,
or for the treatment of contaminated water, soil
or air. Research is needed to develop a more
fundamental understanding of how specific
influent conditions and process parameter
settings (as defined by the operating strategy
selected) combine to influence the structure
and function of microbial aggregates. In doing
so, factors affecting microbial composition,
metabolic properties and aggregate architec-
ture will be better understood and translated
into advanced process strategies so that the
effiCiency of all mixed culture systems, inclu-
ding the SBR, will be further enhanced. Such
technolOgical advances can be expected in the
very near future through the coordinated appli-
cation of modem analytical tools such as
fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), micro-
autoradiography (MAR) and confocal laser
scanning microscopy (CLSM) coupled with
numerical image analysis and microsensors,
mathematical modelling, and numerical simula-
tion. When coupled with the instincts and
understandings gained from the study of
controlled non-steady-state processes, these
advanced technolOgies will have the greatest
impact on reactor performance; they will
expand horizons set for attainable treatment
results; and they will protect the environment
at the lowest possible cost.

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73

Index
(Note that tables are indicated by bold page numbers, and illustrations by.tal.es.)
abbreviations xiii
activated sludge process
continuous flow
differentiation from 8BR vii
4-6
reasons for standard practice
69
cyclic AS technology 3, 21, 25-6
deterioration of settlability 12
fill and draw systems, reasons for
discontinuation 69
variable-volume AS systems
(WAST) 17-18, 25-6
aerated solids retention time
(aSRT) 14
aeration and mixing in SBRs 24
aeration devices 38-40
aeration systems, ICEAS and
IDEAL 3, 17, 22, 51-2
alanns49
applications of SBRs 17-31
biofilm SBR 26-32
cyclic A8 technology 3, 21, 25-6
generic 8BR 17-20
overview, groups (a)20-2
A8 see activated sludge
Australia, 8BR facilities 51-3
BNR processes 52-3
IDEA processes 52
Pasveer ditch systems 51
biofilm 8BR 26-31
aeration 29
applications 27-8
8BBR cycle 29-30
sludge age 30-1
support material 28-9
technology 28
washing 30
biological nutrient removal (BNR)
processes, Australia 52-3
biological oxygen demand (BOD),
filamentous organisms 34
blowers, types 39-40
cascade reactor 1-2
cheese factory effiuents 62-4
chemical oxygen demand (COD)
detention time distribution
function 14
removal 34
winery effiuents 60-2
cold regions, North American 8BR
facilities 53-7
computer-aided control devices
47-9
continuous flow AS system,
differentiation from SBR vii,
4-6
continuous mixed flow reactor
(CMFR) 13
control room 48
Culver, Indiana, SBR 22-5, 26
cyclic AS technology 3, 21, 25-6
Czech Republic, cyclic activated
sludge plant 26
decanting system
cold regions 54-5
volumetric exchange ratio (VER)
41-2
withdrawal of treated water
41-5,42,43
diffusers 40
draw phase 41-5, 42, 43
equipment and instrumentation of
8BRs38-4O
aeration devices 38-40
computer-aided control devices
47-9
devices for withdrawal of treated
water 41-5
ntixing devices 37-8
scum and foam removal 45-6
sensors 46-7
tanks and covers 40-1
filamentous organisms
BOD 34
control of growth 1-2
fill and draw systems
fill strategies 57-8
fill time ratio (FTR) 21
reasons for discontinuation 69
variable-volume AS,
characteristics 17-18, 25-6
foam removal 45-6, 55-6, 59
France, 8BR facilities 60-4
BIOFOR27
cheese factory effiuents 62-4
winery effiuents 60-2
freezing hazard, North American
8BR facilities 53-7
Index
Gennany, 8BR facilities 21, 22,
57-60
discharge limits and loading
capacities 59
foaming 59
plant data 58
plant desigo 57
size 57
sludge characteristics 58-9
sludge stabilization 59-60
strategies 57-8
glossary xv
heterotrophs, dfd 11
history, sewage treabnent 6-10
hydraulic profile 33-4
influent process, parameters 34
inlet/outlet 22-3
instrumentation see equipment and
instrumentation of SBRs
intermittent cycle extended
aeration system (ICEA8) 3,
17,22
intermittently decanted extended
aeration lagoon (IDEAL) 17
Australia 52, 53
Japan, SBR facilities 64-7
applications 65-7
history 64-5
numbers 64
jet aeration 40
logging 49
mass balance equations 5
microbial ecology and population
dynamics 11-13
cyclic exposure to various process
conditions, effects on
performance 13
fihunentouso~msl-2,34
heterotrophs 11
metabolic activities 11
nitrifiers 11
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 12
polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) 12
process considerations 13-14
microprocessor control 24-5
mired liquor suspended solids
concentration (ML88) 33, 55
tank transfers 56
mixing devices 37-8
75
 Index
nitrate, biological nutrient removal
(BNR) 52-3
nitrification
and denitrification, AS process 34
pre-denitrification 7
nitrifiers, defined 11
nomenclature xiii
North America, Culver, Indiana,
SBR22-5,26
North America, SBR facilities, cold
regions 53- 7
emuent quality 54
opportunities£oroptirrrization
56-7
summary of concerns 54-6
overflow security 47
oxygen monitoring 55
probes 47
Pasveer ditch systems 3, 8-9
Australia 51
periodic processes 11-15
microbial ecology and population
dynamics 11-13
prooess considerations 13-14
summary and practical aspects
14-15
phosphate
biological nutrient removal
(BNR) processes 52-3
Bio-P removal (EBPR) 11-12, 34
release in aerobic digesters 56
plant design 4, 33-5
alarms 49
COD removal 34
control room 48
flll strategies 57-8
76
hydraulic parameters 33-4
influent process parameters 34
logging 49
mains supplies and restart 48
nitrification/denitrification 34
phosphorus removal 11-12, 34
process supervision 48
process vizualization 49
simulation 48
size 57
sludge separation 34-5
plug flow reactor
cascade reactor 1-2
substrate decline rate 1
process description 2-4, 22-5
aeration and mixing 24
dump and slow flll6
flll and react 2
iuletloutlet22-3
microprocessor control 24-5
parameters 3
phases 2, 3, 3
mass balance equations 5
parameters 3
pre-denitrification 7
sub-phases 2
volumetric exchange ratios 6
references 71-3
scum/foam removal 45-6, 55-6, 59
sensors 46- 7
sequencing batch biofilm reactor
see biofilm SBR
sequencing batch reactor
advantages vii, 15
characteristics 17-18
defined vii, 2
differentiation from continuous
flow AS system 4-6
differentiation from plug flow
system 4-5
first use of process 9-10
generic SBR 17-20
single-tank rural SBR 18, 37
soil sluny SBR (SS-SBR) 17
solid phase SBR (SP-SBR) 17
technology vii, xiii, 2-10
twc>-taok SBR 20
urban SBR 18-19, 19, 20
see also plant design; process
descriptioo
sewage treatment, history 6-10
skimmers, scum/foam removal 46
sludge separation 34-5
tanks and covers 37-8, 40-1
terminology xiii
Torricelli equation 44
training 54
Turkey, two-tank SBR 20
unsteady-state systems 1-2
USA see North America
variable-volume AS systems
0{VAST) 17-18,25-6
volumetric exchange ratio (VER)
41-2
water-level sensors 46-7
winery effiuents 60-2
zeolite, biofilm SBR 31