Tugas 1 Praktikum Saluran transmisi

Tugas dikumpulkan Minggu ke-2 sesuai dengan waktu praktikum , di kerjakan di buku
harian :
1. Gambarkan geometri kabel koaxial serta berikan keterangan bagian-2nya ?
2. Jelaskan keuntungan dan kerugian/kelemahan dari kabel koaxial tsb ?
3. Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud impedansi karateristik Zo saluran transmisi ?
4. Jelaskan apa yang mempengaruhi impedansi karateristik kabel koaxial tsb ?
5. Gambarkan model/rangkaian ekuivalent saluran transmisi untuk lossless
dan lossy (cukup 2 bagian Panjang saluran)? Dan jelaskan mengapa
parameter tsb timbul ? J

Selamat mengerjakan tugas !!!

Coaxial Cable Equations

Braided Flexible Coax

Semi-Rigid Coax

Most professional engineers and technicians will never have the need to calculate the
capacitance, inductance, or impedance of a coaxial cable since they are usually designing
systems using well-defined components that are manufactured to exacting specifications.
Students, hobbyists (Ham radio operators), and research types are probably the ones most
likely to actually plug numbers into a calculator. For those people, I present these equations.
Be very careful to realize that at frequencies far from DC, factors like skin depth and
effective inner and outer conductor diameters may be significantly different than the physical
measured values, and that can significantly affect real world results. Therefore, be sure to
consult manufacturers' published data before making a final decision. I leave it to other
sources to provide the complex equations needed to precisely model coaxial cables.

a = outside radius of inner conductor (inches)

b = inside radius of outer conductor (inches)

c = speed of light in a vacuum = 299,792 km/s = 186,282 mi/s

ε = dielectric constant = ε0 * εr

ε0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85419 x 10-12 F/m

εr = relative dielectric constant

μ = 4π x 10-7 H/m

μr = relative permeability

These equations are used in Espresso Engineering Workbook™.

Capacitance (C)

Note: a and b can be in any units of length as long as they are both the same.

Inductance (L)
Note: a and b can be in any units of length as long as they are both the same. However, l
must be in the units shown.

Impedance (Z0)

Note: a and b can be in any units of length as long as they are both the same. C has units of
Farads and L has units of Henries. ln = loge, log = log10

Speed of Light (%c)

Note: V has the same length units as c.

Cutoff Frequency

Note: a and b must be in units of length shown.

Angular Linear Rate

Note: This is the amount of phase rotation per unit length.

Reflection Coefficient & VSWR

Note: Γ is unitless. VSWR is written as a VSWR:1 ratio.

Attenuation

Equations for coaxial cable attenuation used to be offered here, but while re-designing this
page and attempting to verify the equations, I discovered (or probably re-discovered) that
theoretical values versus published measured values for real-world cable varied a lot at every
frequency. RG6 coax, for example, can have a loss at 1 GHz ranging from a little over
5 dB/100 feet to nearly 10 dB/100 feet, depending on the dielectric type, actual conductor
and dielectric diameters, and it seems very importantly, the construction of the outer shield
conductor. A single layer of loosely woven braid versus a one or more dense layer(s) of braid
and one or more layer(s) of metal foil versus semi-rigid versus hardline coaxial cable makes
calculation using a simple, one-size-fits-all equation impossible.

Therefore, I have removed the equations I used to have and instead recommend that you visit
coaxial cable manufacturers' websites and consult their published data and decide what value
of attenuation per foot, meter, etc., is most appropriate for your real-world applications.

Coaxial Cable Specifications

Properties of Coaxial Cable Dielectrics
(c = speed of light in a vacuum)
Time Delay Propagation
Dielectric Type (ns/ft) Velocity
Solid Polyethylene (PE) 1.54 0.659c
Foam Polyethylene (FE) 1.27 0.800c
Foam Polystyrene (FS) 1.12 0.910c
Air Space Polyethylene (ASP) 1.15-1.21 0.840c-0.880c
Solid Teflon (ST) 1.46 0.694c
Air Space Teflon (AST) 1.13-1.20 0.850c-0.900c

Properties of standard coaxial type cables have been very

much standardized for many years. Unless you buy rogue stock from a supplier, if you abide
by the manufacturer's application guidelines, there should not be any surprises. Do not make
a bend of smaller recommended radius, do not expose the cable to excess temperatures,
vibration, mechanical stress, or chemicals. Be absolutely certain to attach the coaxial cable
into a properly designed connector, printed circuit board, or other type termination, paying
careful attention to insulation and dielectric strip lengths, solder temperatures and dwell
times, and shielding preparation. Do all that, and you will be assured a long lifetime from
your cable system.

Check this out - someone referenced this page on Wikipedia.

Properties of Popular Coaxial Cables

Note that attenuation values are given at 400 MHz, but can - and do - often have
significantly different values at other frequencies. Always check with a coaxial cable vendor
for values specific to the type you plan to use.

Dielectric Capacitance O.D. dB/100 ft Vmax

Type (/U) MIL-C-17 Z0(Ω) Type (pF/ft) (in.) @400 MHz (rms) Shield
LMR-100A 50.0 FE 31 0.110 14 2,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-195 50.0 FE 25 0.195 7.0 3,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-200 50.0 FE 24 0.195 6.5 3,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-300 50.0 FE 24 0.300 4.0 5,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-400 50.0 FE 24 0.405 2.5 8,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-500 50.0 FE 24 0.500 2.0 8,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-600 50.0 FE 23 0.590 1.6 8,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-900 50.0 FE 23 0.870 1.1 8,000 Braid+Foil
LMR-1200 50.0 FE 23 1.200 0.8 8,000 Braid+Foil
RG-4 50.0 PE 31 0.226 11.7 1,900 Braid
RG-5 52.5 PE 29 0.332 7.0 3,000 Braid
RG-5A/B 50.0 PE 31 0.328 6.5 3,000 Braid
RG-6 /2-RG6 76.0 PE 20 0.332 7.4 2,700 Braid
RG-6A /2-RG6 75.0 PE 21 0.332 6.5 2,700 Braid
RG-8 52.0 PE 30 0.405 6.0 4,000 Braid
9914 (RG-
50.0 PE 25 0.403 2.6 300 Braid+Foil
8)
RG-8A 52.0 PE 30 0.405 4.5 5,000 Braid
RG-8X 50.0 PE 26 0.242 8.0 2,500 Braid
RG-9 51.0 PE 30 0.420 5.9 4,000 Braid
RG-9A 51.0 PE 30 0.420 6.1 4,000 Braid
RG-9B 50.0 PE 31 0.420 6.1 5,000 Braid
RG-10 52.0 PE 30 0.463 6.0 4,000 Braid
RG-10A 52.0 PE 30 0.463 6.0 5,000 Braid
RG-11 /6-RG11 75.0 PE 21 0.405 5.7 4,000 Braid
RG-11A /6-RG11 75.0 PE 21 0.405 5.2 5,000 Braid
RG-12 /6-RG12 75.0 PE 21 0.463 5.7 4,000 Braid
RG-12A /6-RG12 75.0 PE 21 0.463 5.2 5,000 Braid
RG-17A 52.0 PE 30 0.870 2.8 11,000 Braid
RG-22 /15-RG22 95.0 PE 16 0.405 10.5 1,000 Braid
RG-22A/B /15-RG22 95.0 PE 16 0.420 10.5 1,000 Braid
RG-23/A /16-RG23 125.0 PE 12 0.650 5.2 3,000 Braid
RG-24/A /16-RG24 125.0 PE 12 0.708 5.2 3,000 Braid
RG-34 /24-RG34 71.0 PE 22 0.625 5.3 5,200 Braid
RG-34A /24-RG34 75.0 PE 21 0.630 5.3 6,500 Braid
RG-35 /64-RG35 71.0 PE 22 0.928 2.8 10,000 Braid
RG-35A/B /64-RG35 75.0 PE 21 0.928 2.8 10,000 Braid
RG-54 58.0 PE 26 0.245 3,000 Braid
RG-55B 53.5 PE 29 0.200 11.7 1,900 Braid
RG-58 /28-RG58 53.5 PE 29 0.195 11.7 1,900 Braid
RG-58A /28-RG58 52.0 PE 30 0.195 13.2 1,900 Braid
RG-58B 53.5 PE 28 0.195 14.0 1,900 Braid
RG-58C /28-RG58 50.0 PE 31 0.195 14.0 1,900 Braid
RG-59/A /29-RG59 73.0 PE 21 0.242 10.5 2,300 Braid
RG-59B /29-RG59 75.0 PE 21 0.242 9.0 2,300 Braid
RG-62/A/B /30-RG62 93.0 ASP 14 0.242 8.0 750 Braid
RG-63/A/B /31-RG63 125.0 ASP 10 0.405 5.5 1,000 Braid
RG-65/A /34-RG65 950.0 ASP 44 0.405 16 @5MHz 1,000 Braid
RG-71/A/B /90-RG71 93.0 ASP 14 0.245 8.0 750 Braid
RG-79/A/B /31-RG79 125.0 ASP 10 0.436 5.5 1,000 Braid
RG-83 35.0 PE 44 0.405 9.0 2,000 Braid
RG-88 48.0 50 0.515 0.7 @1MHz 10,000 Braid
2.8
RG-108/A /45-RG108 78.0 PE 20 0.235 1,000 Braid
@10MHz
RG-111/A /15-RG111 95.0 PE 16 0.478 10.5 1,000 Braid
RG-114/A /47-RG114 185.0 ASP 7 0.405 8.5 1,000 Braid
RG-119 /52-RG119 50.0 ST 30 0.465 3.8 6,000 Braid
RG-120 /52-RG120 50.0 ST 30 0.523 3.8 6,000 Braid
RG-122 /54-RG122 50.0 PE 31 0.160 18.0 1,900 Braid
RG-130 /56-RG130 95.0 PE 17 0.625 8.8 3,000 Braid
RG-131 /56-RG131 95.0 PE 17 0.683 8.8 3,000 Braid
/100-
RG-133/A 95.0 PE 16 0.405 5.7 4,000 Braid
RG133
RG-141/A 50.0 ST 29 0.190 9.0 1,900 Braid
RG-142/
/60-RG142 50.0 ST 29 0.195 9.0 1,900 Braid
A/B
RG-144 /62-RG144 75.0 ST 20 0.410 4.5 5,000 Braid
RG-164 /64-RG164 75.0 PE 21 0.870 2.8 10,000 Braid
RG-165 /65-RG165 50.0 ST 29 0.410 5.0 5,000 Braid
RG-166 /65-RG166 50.0 ST 29 0.460 5.0 5,000 Braid
RG-174 50.0 31 0.110 14.7 Braid
RG-177 /67-RG177 50.0 PE 31 0.895 2.8 11,000 Braid
RG-178/
/93-RG178 50.0 ST 29 0.072 29.0 1,000 Braid
A/B
RG-179 /94-RG179 70.0 ST 21 0.100 21.0 1,200 Braid
RG-179A/B /94-RG179 75.0 ST 20 0.100 21.0 1,200 Braid
RG-180 /95-RG180 93.0 ST 15 0.140 17.0 1,500 Braid
RG-180A/B /95-RG180 95.0 ST 15 0.140 17.0 1,500 Braid
RG-210 /97-RG210 93.0 ASP 14 0.242 8.0 750 Braid
RG-211/A /72-RG211 50.0 ST 29 0.730 2.3 7,000 Braid
RG-212 /73-RG212 50.0 PE 29 0.332 6.5 3,000 Braid
RG-213 /74-RG213 50.0 PE 31 0.405 5.5 5,000 Braid
RG-214 /75-RG214 50.0 PE 31 0.425 5.5 5,000 Dbl Braid
RG-215 /74-RG215 50.0 PE 31 0.463 5.5 5,000 Braid
RG-216 /77-RG216 75.0 PE 21 0.425 5.2 5,000 Braid
RG-217 /78-RG217 50.0 PE 31 0.545 4.3 7,000 Braid
RG-218 /79-RG218 50.0 PE 31 0.870 2.5 11,000 Braid
RG-219 /79-RG219 50.0 PE 31 0.928 2.5 11,000 Braid
RG-223 /84-RG223 50.0 PE 12 0.211 8.8 1,900 Dbl Braid
/110-
RG-302 75.0 ST 20 0.201 8.0 2,300 Braid
RG302
/111-
RG-303 50.0 ST 29 0.170 9.0 1,900 Braid
RG303
/112-
RG-304 50.0 ST 29 0.280 6.0 3,000 Braid
RG304
/116-
RG-307/A 75.0 80 17 0.270 7.5 1,000 Braid
RG307
/113-
RG-316 50.0 ST 29 0.102 20.0 1,200 Braid
RG316
/126-
RG-391 72.0 23 0.405 15.0 5,000 Braid
RG391
/126-
RG-392 72.0 23 0.475 15.0 5,000 Braid
RG392
/127-
RG-393 50.0 ST 29 0.390 5.0 5,000 Braid
RG393
/128-
RG-400 50.0 ST 29 0.195 9.6 1,900 Braid
RG400
/129-
RG-401 50.0 ST 29 0.250 4.6 3,000 Cu. S-R
RG401
/130-
RG-402 50.0 ST 29 0.141 7.2 2,500 Cu. S-R
RG402
/131-
RG-403 50.0 ST 29 0.116 29.0 2,500 Braid
RG403
/133-
RG-405 50.0 ST 29 0.086 13.0 1,500 Cu. S-R
RG405

Coaxial cable
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Coax" redirects here. For the act of coaxing, see Persuasion.

RG-59 flexible coaxial cable composed of:

1. Outer plastic sheath

2. Woven copper shield
3. Inner dielectric insulator
4. Copper core

Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced /ˈkoʊ.æks/), is a type of electrical cable consisting of an

inner conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting shield, with the two separated by a
dielectric (insulating material); many coaxial cables also have a protective outer sheath or
jacket. The term coaxial refers to the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric
axis.

Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high-frequency electrical signals
with low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone trunk lines, broadband internet
networking cables, high-speed computer data busses, cable television signals, and connecting
radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded cables
because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to give a precise, constant
conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.

In his 1880 British patent, Oliver Heaviside showed how coaxial cable could eliminate signal
interference between parallel cables.

Coaxial cable was used in the first (1858) and following transatlantic cable installations, but
its theory was not described until 1880 by English physicist, engineer, and mathematician
Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in that year (British patent No. 1,407).[1]

Applications

Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications
include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas, computer
network (e.g., Ethernet) connections, digital audio (S/PDIF), and distribution of cable
television signals. One advantage of coaxial over other types of radio transmission line is that
in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to
metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of
transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external
electromagnetic interference.

Description

Coaxial cable cutaway (not to scale)

Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a solid copper,
stranded copper or copper plated steel wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all
enclosed by a shield, typically one to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape.
The cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the outside of the shield is
kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied to the center conductor.
When using differential signaling, coaxial cable provides an advantage of equal push-pull
currents on the inner conductor and inside of the outer conductor that restrict the signal's
electric and magnetic fields to the dielectric, with little leakage outside the shield.[citation needed]
Further, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from interfering with
signals inside the cable, if unequal currents are filtered out at the receiving end of the line.
This property makes coaxial cable a good choice both for carrying weak signals that cannot
tolerate interference from the environment, and for stronger electrical signals that must not be
allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.[2] Larger diameter cables and
cables with multiple shields have less leakage.

Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and
microwave transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections.[3]

The characteristic impedance of the cable (Z0) is determined by the dielectric constant of the
inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. In radio frequency systems,
where the cable length is comparable to the wavelength of the signals transmitted, a uniform
cable characteristic impedance is important to minimize loss. The source and load
impedances are chosen to match the impedance of the cable to ensure maximum power
transfer and minimum standing wave ratio. Other important properties of coaxial cable
include attenuation as a function of frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality.
[2]

Construction

Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power
handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost. The inner conductor might be solid or
stranded; stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner
conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is often used as an inner conductor
for cable used in the cable TV industry.[4]

The insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic, or air with
spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of the dielectric insulator determine some of
the electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene (PE) insulator,
used in lower-loss cables. Solid Teflon (PTFE) is also used as an insulator, and exclusively in
plenum-rated cables.[citation needed] Some coaxial lines use air (or some other gas) and have
spacers to keep the inner conductor from touching the shield.

Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield. This allows
the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and the inner
dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat. Sometimes the braid
is silver-plated. For better shield performance, some cables have a double-layer shield. [4] The
shield might be just two braids, but it is more common now to have a thin foil shield covered
by a wire braid. Some cables may invest in more than two shield layers, such as "quad-
shield", which uses four alternating layers of foil and braid. Other shield designs sacrifice
flexibility for better performance; some shields are a solid metal tube. Those cables cannot be
bent sharply, as the shield will kink, causing losses in the cable. When a foil shield is used a
small wire conductor incorporated into the foil makes soldering the shield termination easier.
[examples needed]

For high-power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz, coaxial cable with a solid
copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upward. The outer conductor is
corrugated like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner conductor is held in position by a
plastic spiral to approximate an air dielectric.[4] One brand name for such cable is Heliax.[5]

Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) material to maintain

the spacing between the center conductor and shield. The dielectric losses increase in this
order: Ideal dielectric (no loss), vacuum, air, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene
foam, and solid polyethylene. An inhomogeneous dielectric needs to be compensated by a
non-circular conductor to avoid current hot-spots.

While many cables have a solid dielectric, many others have a foam dielectric that contains as
much air or other gas as possible to reduce the losses by allowing the use of a larger diameter
center conductor. Foam coax will have about 15% less attenuation but some types of foam
dielectric can absorb moisture—especially at its many surfaces—in humid environments,
significantly increasing the loss. Supports shaped like stars or spokes are even better but more
expensive and very susceptible to moisture infiltration. Still more expensive were the air-
spaced coaxials used for some inter-city communications in the mid-20th century. The center
conductor was suspended by polyethylene discs every few centimeters. In some low-loss
coaxial cables such as the RG-62 type, the inner conductor is supported by a spiral strand of
polyethylene, so that an air space exists between most of the conductor and the inside of the
jacket. The lower dielectric constant of air allows for a greater inner diameter at the same
impedance and a greater outer diameter at the same cutoff frequency, lowering ohmic losses.
Inner conductors are sometimes silver-plated to smooth the surface and reduce losses due to
skin effect.[4] A rough surface extends the current path and concentrates the current at peaks,
thus increasing ohmic loss.

The insulating jacket can be made from many materials. A common choice is PVC, but some
applications may require fire-resistant materials. Outdoor applications may require the jacket
to resist ultraviolet light, oxidation, rodent damage, or direct burial. Flooded coaxial cables
use a water-blocking gel to protect the cable from water infiltration through minor cuts in the
jacket. For internal chassis connections the insulating jacket may be omitted. [examples needed]
Twin-lead transmission lines have the property that the electromagnetic wave propagating
down the line extends into the space surrounding the parallel wires. These lines have low
loss, but also have undesirable characteristics. They cannot be bent, tightly twisted, or
otherwise shaped without changing their characteristic impedance, causing reflection of the
signal back toward the source. They also cannot be buried or run along or attached to
anything conductive, as the extended fields will induce currents in the nearby conductors
causing unwanted radiation and detuning of the line. Standoff insulators are used to keep
them away from parallel metal surfaces. Coaxial lines largely solve this problem by confining
virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable. Coaxial lines can
therefore be bent and moderately twisted without negative effects, and they can be strapped
to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them, so long as provisions are
made to ensure differential signalling push-pull currents in the cable.

In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates primarily in the

transverse electric magnetic (TEM) mode, which means that the electric and magnetic fields
are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation. However, above a certain cutoff
frequency, transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) modes can also propagate, as
they do in a hollow waveguide. It is usually undesirable to transmit signals above the cutoff
frequency, since it may cause multiple modes with different phase velocities to propagate,
interfering with each other. The outer diameter is roughly inversely proportional to the cutoff
frequency. A propagating surface-wave mode that only involves the central conductor also
exists, but is effectively suppressed in coaxial cable of conventional geometry and common
impedance. Electric field lines for this TM mode have a longitudinal component and require
line lengths of a half-wavelength or longer.

Coaxial cable may be viewed as a type of waveguide. Power is transmitted through the radial
electric field and the circumferential magnetic field in the TEM mode. This is the dominant
mode from zero frequency (DC) to an upper limit determined by the electrical dimensions of
the cable.[6]

Connectors
Main article: RF connector

A male F-type connector used with common RG-6 cable

Important parameters

Coaxial cable is a particular kind of transmission line, so the circuit models developed for
general transmission lines are appropriate. See Telegrapher's equation.

Schematic representat
ion of the elementary components of a transmission line Schematic representation of a coaxial
transmission line, showing the characteristic impedance
Physical parameters

In the following section, these symbols are used:

 Length of the cable,

 Outside diameter of inner conductor,
 Inside diameter of the shield,
 Dielectric constant of the insulator, The dielectric constant is often quoted as the relative
dielectric constant referred to the dielectric constant of free space When the insulator is a
mixture of different dielectric materials (e.g., polyethylene foam is a mixture of polyethylene
and air), then the term effective dielectric constant is often used.
 Magnetic permeability of the insulator, Permeability is often quoted as the relative
permeability referred to the permeability of free space The relative permeability will almost
always be 1.

Fundamental electrical parameters

 Shunt capacitance per unit length, in farads per metre.[8]

 Series inductance per unit length, in henrys per metre.

 Series resistance per unit length, in ohms per metre. The resistance per unit length is just the
resistance of inner conductor and the shield at low frequencies. At higher frequencies, skin
effect increases the effective resistance by confining the conduction to a thin layer of each
conductor.
 Shunt conductance per unit length, in siemens per metre. The shunt conductance is usually
very small because insulators with good dielectric properties are used (a very low loss
tangent). At high frequencies, a dielectric can have a significant resistive loss.

Derived electrical parameters

 Characteristic impedance in ohms (Ω). The complex impedance Zo of an infinite length of

transmission line is:

Where R is the resistance per unit length, L is the inductance per unit length, G is the
conductance per unit length of the dielectric, C is the capacitance per unit length, and s = jω
= j2πf is the frequency. The "per unit length" dimensions cancel out in the impedance
formula.
At higher frequencies, the reactive terms usually dominate R and G, and the cable
impedance again becomes real-valued. That value is Zo, the characteristic impedance of the
cable:

Assuming the dielectric properties of the material inside the cable do not vary appreciably
over the operating range of the cable, the characteristic impedance is frequency
independent above about five times the shield cutoff frequency. For typical coaxial cables,
the shield cutoff frequency is 600 Hz (for RG-6A) to 2,000 Hz (for RG-58C).[9]

The parameters L and C are determined from the ratio of the inner (d) and outer (D)
diameters and the dielectric constant (ε). The characteristic impedance is given by[10]

Attenuation (loss) per unit length, in decibels per meter. This is dependent on the loss in the
dielectric material filling the cable, and resistive losses in the center conductor and outer
 shield. These losses are frequency dependent, the losses becoming higher as the frequency
increases. Skin effect losses in the conductors can be reduced by increasing the diameter of
the cable. A cable with twice the diameter will have half the skin effect resistance. Ignoring
dielectric and other losses, the larger cable would halve the dB/meter loss. In designing a
system, engineers consider not only the loss in the cable but also the loss in the connectors.

Choice of impedance

The best coaxial cable impedances were experimentally determined at Bell Laboratories in
1929 to be 77 Ω for low-attenuation, 60 Ω for high-voltage, and 30 Ω for high-power. For a
coaxial cable with air dielectric and a shield of a given inner diameter, the attenuation is
minimized by choosing the diameter of the inner conductor to give a characteristic impedance
of 76.7 Ω.[13] When more common dielectrics are considered, the lowest insertion loss
impedance drops down to a value between 52 and 64 Ω. Maximum power handling is
achieved at 30 Ω.[14]

The approximate impedance required to match a centre-fed dipole antenna in free space (i.e.,
a dipole without ground reflections) is 73 Ω, so 75 Ω coax was commonly used for
connecting shortwave antennas to receivers. These typically involve such low levels of RF
power that power-handling and high-voltage breakdown characteristics are unimportant when
compared to attenuation. Likewise with CATV, although many broadcast TV installations
and CATV headends use 300 Ω folded dipole antennas to receive off-the-air signals, 75 Ω
coax makes a convenient 4:1 balun transformer for these as well as possessing low
attenuation.

The arithmetic mean between 30 Ω and 77 Ω is 53.5 Ω; the geometric mean is 48 Ω. The
selection of 50 Ω as a compromise between power-handling capability and attenuation is in
general cited as the reason for the number.[13] 50 Ω also works out tolerably well because it
corresponds approximately to the feedpoint impedance of a half-wave dipole, mounted
approximately a half-wave above "normal" ground (ideally 73 Ω, but reduced for low-
hanging horizontal wires).

RG-62 is a 93 Ω coaxial cable originally used in mainframe computer networks in the 1970s
and early 1980s (it was the cable used to connect IBM 3270 terminals to IBM 3274/3174
terminal cluster controllers). Later, some manufacturers of LAN equipment, such as
Datapoint for ARCNET, adopted RG-62 as their coaxial cable standard. The cable has the
lowest capacitance per unit-length when compared to other coaxial cables of similar size.

All of the components of a coaxial system should have the same impedance to avoid internal
reflections at connections between components (see Impedance matching). Such reflections
may cause signal attenuation. They introduce standing waves, which increase losses and can
even result in cable dielectric breakdown with high-power transmission. In analog video or
TV systems, reflections cause ghosting in the image; multiple reflections may cause the
original signal to be followed by more than one echo. If a coaxial cable is open (not
connected at the end), the termination has nearly infinite resistance, which causes reflections.
If the coaxial cable is short-circuited, the termination resistance is nearly zero, which causes
reflections with the opposite polarity. Reflections will be nearly eliminated if the coaxial
cable is terminated in a pure resistance equal to its impedance.

Coaxial Cable Characteristics

By H. Mark Bowers

In my summer column we began a review of the research conducted by Oliver Heaviside

(1850 to 1925), an English physicist, engineer, and mathematician whose research helped
define our industry. If you’ve not read my last column covering resistance, reactance and
impedance, you may wish to before proceeding. https://broadbandlibrary.com/resistance-
reactance-and-impedance/

Coaxial cable basics

Most of us are familiar with coaxial cable, which has been deployed in cable television since
the first systems were constructed in the 1940s and 1950s. Now let’s build on my last column
with an examination of the coaxial transmission line. Coaxial cable has an inner conductor
surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. The term
coaxial is used because the inner and outer conductors share a common geometric axis.

In 1880 Oliver Heaviside studied the so-called skin effect in telegraph transmission lines. He
concluded that wrapping an insulating casing around a transmission line increased both the
clarity of the signal and durability of the cable. He patented the first coaxial cable the
following year (British Patent No. 1407). Four years later, in 1884, the first commercial
coaxial cable was manufactured by Siemens. See Figure 1.

Coaxial cable is used to transport high frequency electrical signals with relatively low loss
and is used in a variety of applications and industries. It differs from other shielded cables in
that the dimensions of the cable conductors and connectors are more precisely controlled to
provide for {the} efficient transfer of electrical energy from source to load while shielding
the signal from outside interference.

In the analysis that follows, most coaxial cable parameters can be characterized by well
established formulas; however, with the exception of characteristic impedance (Z0) we’ll not
review them as mathematical analysis is not my general intent.

The outer sheath is usually maintained at ground potential, with the center conductor at some
potential other than ground. As we might expect, coaxial cable operates in an intuitive
fashion at lower frequencies (for example, 60 Hz) since it is simply two conductors separated
by an insulating material. At higher frequencies, however, performance and analysis become
complex.

Figure 1. Coaxial cable construction

Figure 2. Equivalent coaxial cable at high frequency

Figure 3. Simplified equivalent coaxial cable

Coaxial cable equivalent circuit

At higher frequencies, the coaxial cable takes on complex characteristics that can be best
shown as a series of ‘distributed’ values of inductance, resistance, capacitance, and
conductance. See Figure 2.

Coaxial cables are often analyzed as ‘lossy’ elements with lumped capacitance and
inductance values, although the electrical performance of a length of coaxial cable
transporting high frequency signals is more complex than this.

Series resistance

The DC resistance of a coaxial cable is provided per unit length, with the resistance of the
center conductor and sheath usually given separately. For example, manufacturers published
data for the resistance of .500” P3 cable is 1.35 ohms per 1k ft for the center conductor
and .37 ohm per 1k ft for the sheath. Loop resistance is the sum of these values.

Series inductance

A length of coaxial cable, although straight, contains some inductance due to the magnetic
field around the center conductor as energy is transferred. This magnetic field is represented
as a series inductor specified in (micro) henries per unit length.

Shunt capacitance
Shunt capacitance represents the capability of the coaxial cable to carry a charge. Since the
center conductor and sheath are separate conductors at different voltage potentials separated
by a dielectric, a length of coax contains capacitance and is specified in (pico) farads per unit
length.

Shunt conductance

Conductance is the opposite of resistance. It is the measure of how easily an electric current
flows through a material. Conductance is designated by the letter G and is rated in siemens
(S), or originally in mhos (Ʊ ohm spelled backwards) for us old timers. Mathematically,
conductance is the reciprocal of resistance: G = 1/R. Generally, shunt conductance is small in
coaxial cable because modern dielectric materials have excellent properties with a low
dielectric constant. At higher frequencies, however, the dielectric will allow some
conductance (leakage) between the center conductor and the sheath.

Dielectric loss

Dielectric losses arise from energy absorption as the electric field rapidly changes polarity
and occurs when conductance is greater than zero. It represents one of the major losses in
coaxial cable at high frequencies. The energy lost is dissipated as heat, and increases directly
with the applied frequency (and applied RF voltage).

RF attenuation

At higher frequencies skin effect increases the effective AC resistance by confining

conduction to a thin outer layer of each conductor. In addition to the increase in resistive loss,
where high frequencies exist the effect of dielectric loss becomes significant as well. I’m not
including a formula for calculation of RF attenuation, because in my experience the
calculated results often vary significantly from the manufacturer’s published data for a
variety of reasons. So, always use the manufacturer’s published RF attenuation data when
available.

Characteristic impedance

As discussed in my last column, impedance represents the total opposition to current flow
and includes the effects of resistance along with inductive and capacitive reactance. Because
reactive components are often present (unless the circuit is resistive only), impedance is
usually a complex value, meaning it has both magnitude and phase components. Most
manufactured cables (including non-coaxial) have a specified characteristic impedance Z 0.
The Z0 of a transmission line of infinite length is the impedance in ohms at a specified
frequency.

Characteristic impedance has valuable application that can be more readily understood in
terms of its effect on source-to-load energy transfer. If the input of a coaxial cable with a Z 0
of 75 ohms is connected to a signal source with 75 ohm impedance and the output of the
cable is connected to a 75 ohm resistive load, all energy is transferred from source to load
(zero reflected energy). We will examine this idea further in my next column.
In coaxial cable Z0 is determined by the cables’ resistance, capacitance, inductance and

conductance as shown in the following formula.

where:

Z0 = characteristic impedance (ohms)

R = series resistance per unit length (ohms)

L = series inductance per unit length (henrys)

G = conductance per unit length (siemens)

C = shunt capacitance per unit length (farads)

j = angular momentum (phase) introduced by the inductive and capacitive components

Now examine Figure 3. Since the resistive (R) and conductive (G) components in modern
coaxial cable are relatively low compared to other factors, the first Z 0 formula can be
simplified to

for a lossless line. Note that the ratio of L/C must remain approximately 5625 to yield a Z0 of
75 ohms for cable television application. This ratio between series inductance and shunt
capacitance arises from the ratio of the spacing between the inner and outer conductors plus
the type and quality of dielectric material. This yields a third formula which will be familiar
to many of you. where:

εk = dielectric constant
D = inside diameter of the outer conductor (sheath) in inches or mm.
d = outside diameter of the inner conductor (center conductor) in inches or mm.