Work sampling is an important tool for industrial engineers 5.
5. Human factors: Productivity is basically dependent motion and conditions under which it is made) are used to
and operations managers to analyze and improve productivity,
efficiency, and overall performance of a process.
is the statistical technique used for determining the proportion
of time spent by workers in various defined categories of
activity (e.g. setting up a machine, assembling two parts, idle…
etc.).
Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the
times of performing a certain specific job or its elements
carried out under specified conditions, and for analyzing the
data so as to obtain the time necessary for an operator to carry
it out at a defined rate of performance
Method study is the systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a
means of developing and applying easier and more effective
methods and reducing costs
Work measurement is the application or techniques designed
to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a
specified job at a defined level or performance
Productivity is the quantitative relation between what we
produce and we use as a resource to produce them, i.e.,
arithmetic ratio of amount produced (output) to the amount of
resources (input).
Productivity refers to the efficiency of the production system. It
is the concept that guides the management of production
system. It is an indicator to how well the factors of production
(land, capital, labour and energy) are utilized.
(A) CONTROLLABLE (OR INTERNAL) FACTORS
1. Product factor: In terms of productivity means the
extent to which the product meets output
requirements product is judged by its usefulness
2. Plant and equipment: These play a prominent role
in enhancing the productivity. The increased
availability of the plant through proper
maintenance and reduction of idle time increases
the productivity.
3. Technology: Innovative and latest technology
improves productivity to a greater extent.
4. Material and energy: Efforts to reduce materials
and energy consumption brings about
considerable improvement in productivity.
upon human competence and skill. Ability to work
effectively is governed by various factors such as
education, training, experience aptitude etc., of
the employees
6. Work methods: Improving the ways in which the
work is done (methods) improves productivity,
work study and industrial engineering techniques
and training are the areas which improve the work
methods, which in term enhances the
productivity.
7. Management style: This influence the
organizational design, communication in
organization, policy and procedures
(B) UN-CONTROLLABLE (OR EXTERNAL) FACTORS
1. Structural adjustments: Structural adjustments include both
economic and social changes.
2. Natural resources: Manpower, land and raw materials are
vital to the productivity improvement.
3. Government and infrastructure: Government policies and
programs are significant to productivity practices of
government agencies, transport and communication power,
fiscal policies (interest rates, taxes) influence productivity to
the greater extent.
Time study: A work measurement technique for recording the
times and rates of working for the elements of a specified job
carried out under specified conditions and for analysing the
data so as to determine the time necessary for carrying out the
job at the defined level of performance
Synthetic data: A work measurement technique for building up
the time for a job or pans of the job at a defined level of
performance by totalling element times obtained previously
from time studies on other jobs containing the elements
concerned or from synthetic data.\
Work sampling: A technique in which a large number of
observations are made over a period of time of one or group of
machines, processes or workers.
Predetermined motion time study (PMTS): A work
measurement technique whereby times established for basic
human motions (classified according to the nature of the
build up the time for a job at the defined level of performance
Analytical estimating: A work measurement technique, being a
development of estimating, whereby the time required to
carry out elements of a job at a defined level of performance is
estimated partly from knowledge
Standard time is the time allowed to an operator to carry out
the specified task under specified conditions and defined level
of performance.
Allowances The normal time for an operation does not contain
any allowances for the worker. It is impossible to work
throughout the day even though the most practicable,
effective method has been developed.
1.Relaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the
worker to recover from fatigue. Relaxation allowance is a
addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with
the opportunity to recover from the physiological and
psychological effects of carrying out specified work under
specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs.
a. Personal needs allowance: It is intended to
compensate the operator for the time necessary to leave, the
workplace to attend to personal needs like drinking water,
smoking, washing hands.
b. Allowances for basic fatigue: This allowance is
given to compensate for energy expended during working.
2.Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working
under poor environmental conditions that cannot be
improved, added stress and strain in performing the job.
3. INTERFERENCE ALLOWANCE It is an allowance of time
included into the work content of the job to compensate the
operator for the unavoidable loss of production due to
simultaneous stoppage of two or more machines being
operated by him.
4. A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which
may be included in a standard time to meet legitimate and
expected items of work or delays
5. Policy allowances are not the genuine part of the time study
and should be used with utmost care and only in clearly
defined circumstances.
A workforce management (WFM) solution is a software
solution that helps organizations streamline and automate the
processes that manage workers’ time, organize and deploy
their labor force efficiently, enable employee and manager
self-service, and ensure employee safety.
Job design is the allocation of specific work tasks to individuals
and groups.
Theoretical Models of Job Design Organizations may employ
various theoretical approaches for job design.
Taylorism, also known as scientific management, is a
foundation for systematic job design. Frederick Taylor
developed this theory in an effort to develop a “science” for
every job within an organization
Psychological Empowerment Theory posits that there is a
distinction between empowering practices and cognitive
motivational states
Skill variety — This refers to the range of skills and activities
necessary to complete the job.
Task identity — This dimension measures the degree to which
the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece
of work.
Task significance — This looks at the impact and influence of a
job.
Autonomy — This describes the amount of individual choice
and discretion involved in a job.
Feedback — This dimension measures the amount of
information an employee receives about his or her
performance, and the extent to which he or she can see the
impact of the work.
Job simplification is the process of removing tasks from existing
roles to make them more focused
Job rotation is a job design method which is able to enhance
motivation, develop workers’ outlook, increase productivity,
improve the organization’s performance on various levels by its
multi-skilled workers
Hulin and Blood (1968) define job enlargement as the process
of allowing individual workers to determine their own pace
(within limits), to serve as their own inspectors by giving them
responsibility for quality control, to repair their own mistakes,
to be responsible for their own machine set-up and repair, and
to attain choice of method.
Job enrichment increases the employees’ autonomy over the
planning and execution of their own work.
Personal, Fatigue, and Delay Allowances (PF&D) If the
standard daily quota is to be attainable, then these other
activities must be included in the total standard time.
Personal time refers to that portion of an employee's day
during which they attend to their own personal needs.
Personal Rest and Refreshment Rest allowances are
scheduled breaks designed to permit an employee to recover
from fatigue during the workday.
Personal Needs This includes personal hygiene
activities
Personal Avoidable Work Interruptions These include talking
on a cell phone for personal reasons
The rest breaks allow the employees to rejuvenate and refresh
themselves and their productivity following a rest break is
measurably higher than prior to a rest break.
Fatigue is the general feeling of tiredness that is accompanied
by a physiological change in a person's body with the net result
being a decrease in that person's ability to do work
Avoidable delays are usually controllable, either by
management or by the employee.
Unavoidable delays may be predictable, but they may occur at
random times.
A learning curve is a correlation between a learner’s
performance on a task and the number of attempts or time
required to complete the task; this can be represented as a
direct proportion on a graph.
The learning curve theory proposes that a learner’s efficiency
in a task improves over time the more the learner performs the
task.
Diminishing-Returns Learning Curve The rate of progression
increases rapidly at the beginning and then decreases over
time.
Diminishing-Returns Learning Curve The rate of progression
increases rapidly at the beginning and then decreases over
time.
Increasing-Decreasing Return Learning Curve (the S-curve) This
model is the most commonly cited learning curve and is known
as the “S-curve” model.
Complex Learning Curve This model represents a more
complex pattern of learning and reflects more extensive
tracking.
The learning curve is a visual representation of how long it
takes to acquire new skills or knowledge. It is usually described
with a percentage that identifies the rate of improvement.
Takt Time is a measure of the amount of time between the
completion of one unit and the beginning of the next.
Cycle time refers to the average time taken to complete a
single unit. refers to the period a team works on
manufacturing a product before the product gets prepared for
shipment. It is the amount of time required to execute one
operation.
Lead Time refers to the length of time it takes from the date of
receipt of an order to the date of delivery. It e is the interval of
time between the commencement and conclusion of a
procedure.
Pre-processing time is about the time required to create plans
and manage paperwork), and the processing time is the time
necessary to build the product. Post-processing time is a
component of lead time in manufacturing (i.e., the time
needed to deliver the product to the customer).