9/15/2023 1

9/15/2023 2
9/15/2023 3
9/15/2023 4
9/15/2023 5
9/15/2023 6
9/15/2023 7
9/15/2023 8
9/15/2023 9
 The PN Junction
Metallurgical
Steady State
Na Junction Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
When no external source
P - - - - - + + + + + is connected to the pn
n
- - - - - + + + + + junction, diffusion and
- - - - - + + + + +
Space Charge
drift balance each other
ionized
acceptors
Region ionized out for both the holes
donors
E-Field and electrons
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes
the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region
does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is
denoted by W in pn junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
9/15/2023 10
 The Biased PN Junction
Metal
Contact
“Ohmic
Contact”
_
+
(Rs~0)
Applied
P Electric Field n

_
+
Vapplied
The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied.
There are two types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.
9/15/2023 These are described on then next slide. 11
 Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the
potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and0.3voltsfor germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards
the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current
flowing up to this voltage point, called the knee on the static curves and then a high current flowthrough the
diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

9/15/2023 12
Since the diode can conduct infinite current above this
knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit,
therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to
limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward
current specification causes the device to dissipate
more power in the form of heat than it was designed
for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

9/15/2023 13
 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive
voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied
to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-type material
attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the
junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from
the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the
depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and forms a
potential barrier which prevent the current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

9/15/2023 14
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN
junction and practically zero current flows through the junction
diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small
leakage current does flow through the junction which can be
measured in micro-amperes.
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode
is increased to a sufficiently high enough value,it will cause the
diodes PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche
effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become
shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and
this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve.
Sometimes, this avalanche effect has practical applications in
voltage stabilizing circuits whereaseries limiting resistor is used
with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to apreset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across
the diode. These types of diodesare commonly known as Zener
Diodes.
9/15/2023 15
 The Biased PN Junction

Forward Bias: In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in

width. With this shrinking the energy required for
charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases
Vapplied > 0 exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage
increases, current starts to flow across the junction.
The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow through the diode.
The barrier potential varies for different materials.

Reverse Bias: Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This
causes the electric field produced by the ions to cancel
out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small leakage
Vapplied < 0 current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias
conditions. This saturation current is made up of
electron-hole pairs being produced in the depletion
region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as
scale current because of it’s relationship to junction
9/15/2023 temperature. 16
 Properties of Diodes
Figure 1.10 – The Diode Transconductance Curve2
ID (mA) • VD = Bias Voltage
• ID = Current through
Diode. ID is Negative
for Reverse Bias and
Positive for Forward
IS Bias
VBR • IS = Saturation
Current
~V VD
• VBR = Breakdown
Voltage
• V = Barrier Potential
Voltage

9/15/2023 (nA) 17
 Properties of Diodes
The Shockley Equation
• The transconductance curve on the previous slide is characterized by
the following equation:

ID = IS(eVD/VT – 1)
• As described in the last slide, ID is the current through the diode, IS is
the saturation current and VD is the applied biasing voltage.
• VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room
temperature. The equation to find VT at various temperatures is:
VT = kT
q
k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x 10-19 C
•  is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by the way
the diode is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode current. For a
silicon diode  is around 2 for low currents and goes down to about 1 at
higher currents
9/15/2023 18
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction

Diodes: while blocking current flow in the opposite
direction. The pn junction diode is the typical diode
that has been used in the previous circuits.

A K P n
Schematic Symbol for a PN Representative Structure for
Junction Diode a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse

breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very
accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

A K

Schematic Symbol for a

9/15/2023 Zener Diode 19
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Light-Emitting Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large

Diodes: band gap so movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of light energy.
Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher band gap
energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now
starting to use LEDs because they are extremely
bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

A K representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for a
Light-Emitting Diode

9/15/2023 20
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to

received light. They are constructed so their pn
junction can be exposed to the outside through a
clear window or lens.
A K In Photoconductive mode the saturation current
increases in proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is used in CD
 players.
A K
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode
Schematic Symbols for generates voltage and can be used as an energy
Photodiodes source. This type of diode is used in the
production of solar power.

9/15/2023 21
 Practical work

9/15/2023 22
9/15/2023 23
9/15/2023 24
9/15/2023 25