Nutrition in Plants

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IGCSE Biology Edexcel Your notes
Nutrition
Contents
2.18 T he Process of Photosynthesis
2.19 Photosynthesis Equations
2.20 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis
2.21 Leaf: Structure & Adaptations
2.22 Plants & Mineral Ions
2.23 Practical: Investigating Photosynthesis
2.24 Balanced Diet
2.25 Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements
2.26 Variation in Energy Requirements
2.27 Human Alimentary Canal: Structure & Function
2.28 Peristalsis
2.29 Role of Digestive Enzymes
2.30 Bile: Production & Storage
2.31 Bile: Function
2.32 Small Intestine: Structure & Adaptations
2.33B Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample
Page 1 of 58
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2.18 The Process of Photosynthesis

Your notes
Photosynthesis Theory
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which energy from sunlight is transferred to the
chloroplasts in green plants
Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment found inside chloroplasts
Green plants use this energy to make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials
carbon dioxide and water
At the same time, oxygen is made and released as a waste product
Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates
from raw materials using energy from light
Plants are
Autotrophs – they can make complex molecules (glucose) from simple molecules (carbon
dioxide and water)
Producers - they can make their own food and so are the first organism at the start of all
food chains
The products of photosynthesis
Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration
They can also use it to
Produce starch for storage
Synthesise lipids for an energy source in seeds
To form cellulose to make cell walls
Produce amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen and other
mineral ions absorbed by roots
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Your notes
The fate of glucose produced in photosynthesis
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Exam Tip
Your notes
If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is carbon dioxide and
water.Although required for the reaction to take place, light energy is not a substance and
therefore cannot be a raw material.
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2.19 Photosynthesis Equations

Your notes
Photosynthesis Equation
Photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation as shown below:
Word equation for photosynthesis
Where do the reactants come from and where do the products go?
This equation can also be shown as a balanced chemical equation
Six carbon dioxide molecules combine with six water molecules to make one glucose
molecule and six oxygen molecules
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Your notes
The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis
Exam Tip
The photosynthesis equation is the exact reverse of the aerobic respiration equation so if you
have learned one you also know the other one! You will usually get more marks for providing the
balanced chemical equation than the word equation.
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2.20 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

Your notes
Limiting Factors
Plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their rate of photosynthesis is
limited by whatever factor is the lowest at that time
So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such short supply
that it restricts life processes
There are three main factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis:
Temperature
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor as the
amount needed is relatively small compared to the amount of water transpired from a plant so
there is hardly ever a situation where there is not enough water for photosynthesis
The number of chloroplasts or the amount of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts can also affect the
rate of photosynthesis
Temperature
The temperature of the environment affects how much kinetic energy all particles have – so
temperature affects the speed at which carbon dioxide and water move through a plant
The lower the temperature, the less kinetic energy particles have, resulting in fewer successful
collisions occurring over a period of time
Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, increasing the likelihood of
collisions between reactants and enz ymes which results in the formation of products
At higher temperatures, however, enz ymes that control the processes of photosynthesis can be
denatured (where the active site changes shape and is no longer complementary to its
substrate) – this reduces the overall rate of photosynthesis
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Your notes
The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
The intensity of the light available to the plant will affect the amount of energy that it has to carry
out photosynthesis
The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate
from increasing further because it is now in short supply
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Your notes
Graph showing the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. At low light intensities,
increasing the intensity will initially increase the rate of photosynthesis. At a certain point, increasing the
light intensity stops increasing the rate. The rate becomes constant regardless of how much light
intensity increases as something else is limiting the rate.
Carbon dioxide concentration
Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate
from increasing further because it is now in short supply
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Your notes
A graph showing the effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
The number of chloroplasts (as they contain the pigment chlorophyll which absorbs light energy
for photosynthesis) will affect the rate of photosynthesis
The more chloroplasts a plant has, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
The amount of chlorophyll can be affected by:
Diseases (such as tobacco mosaic virus)
Lack of nutrients (such as magnesium)
Loss of leaves (fewer leaves means fewer chloroplasts)
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s quite simple. In
the section of the graph where the rate is increasing (the line is going up), the limiting factor is
whatever the label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the graph is. In the section of the graph where
the rate is not increasing (the line is horiz ontal), the limiting factor will be something other than
what is on the x axis – choose from temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.
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2.21 Leaf: Structure & Adaptations

Your notes
Leaf Structure
Plant leaves have complex structures with layers of different tissues containing specially
adapted cells
The table below describes the different structures in a leaf and their functions
Leaf Structures Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

The specialised cells in leaves have adaptive features which allow them to carry out a particular
function in the plant
Adaptations of Plant Leaves for Photosynthesis Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
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2.22 Plants & Mineral Ions

Your notes
Mineral Ions
Photosynthesis provides a source of carbohydrates, but plants contain and require many other
types of biological molecule; such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acid (DNA)
As plants do not eat, they need to make these substances themselves
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but proteins, for example,
contain nitrogen as well (and certain amino acids contain other elements too)
Two fundamental mineral ions required by plants are nitrogen and magnesium, without a source
of these elements, plants cannot photosynthesise or grow properly
Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil by root
hair cells
‘Mineral’ is a term used to describe any naturally occurring inorganic substance
Mineral Ion Function and Deficiencies in Plants Table
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Your notes
The effect of mineral deficiencies on plants
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2.23 Practical: Investigating Photosynthesis

Your notes
Practical: Evolution of Oxygen
We can demonstrate the evolution of oxygen (from the process of photosynthesis) using water
plants such as Elodea or Cabomba - types of pondweed
As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released
As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of the
pondweed
Apparatus
Beaker
Water plant
Funnel
Boiling tube
Splint
Bunsen burner (for the oxygen test)
Heat proof mat
Method
Take a bundle of shoots of a water plant
Submerge them in a beaker of water underneath an upturned funnel
Fill a boiling tube with water and place it over the end of the funnel
As oxygen is produced, the bubbles of gas will collect in the boiling tube and displace the water
Results and analysis
Show that the gas collected is oxygen by relighting a glowing splint
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Your notes
Experiment to show the evolution of oxygen from a water plant
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Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis

Although plants synthesise glucose during photosynthesis, their leaves cannot be tested for its Your notes
presence as the glucose produced is quickly used up, converted into other substances and
transported or stored as starch.
Starch is stored in the chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a
reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising
Apparatus
Beakers
Leaf tissue
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Gauz e platform
Prongs
Ethanol
Apron
Safety goggles
Gloves
Iodine solution
White tile
Investigating the requirement for light in photosynthesis
Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:
Method Part 1
Destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect
the results of the experiment
Following de-starching, partially cover a leaf of the plant with aluminium foil and place the plant
in sunlight for a day
Remove the covered leaf and test for starch using iodine using the method below
Method Part 2 - Testing the leaf for starch
Drop the leaf in boiling water
This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls
Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
Rinse the leaf in cold water
This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution
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Your notes
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Your notes
Testing a leaf for starch

In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the
leaf
The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as it did not
receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to sunlight will turn
blue-black
This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch
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Your notes
Photosynthesis cannot occur in sections of the leaf where light cannot reach the chloroplasts
Safety
Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that
stage of the experiment, the Bunsen burner should be turned off
The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a
Bunsen burner with an open flame
Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work
When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation
Page 26 of 58
Your notes
CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
C - We are changing whether there is light or no light
O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and siz e of the plant
R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
M1 - We will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - We will control the temperature of the room
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Practical: Investigating Carbon Dioxide & Photosynthesis

The iodine test for starch can be used to investigate the requirement for carbon dioxide in Your notes
photosynthesis
Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:
Apparatus
Conical flasks
Potassium hydroxide solution
Clamps
Clamp stands
A plant
Beakers
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Gauz e platform
Prongs
Ethanol
Apron
Safety goggles
Gloves
Iodine solution
White tile
Method
Destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect
the results of the experiment
Following destarching, enclose 1 leaf with a conical flask containing potassium hydroxide
The potassium hydroxide will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air
Enclose another leaf with a conical flask containing no potassium hydroxide (control
experiment)
Place the plant in bright light for several hours
Test both leaves for starch using iodine solution
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Your notes
Photosynthesis cannot occur without carbon dioxide

Results
The leaf from the conical flask containing potassium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it
could not photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide
The leaf from the conical flask not containing potassium hydroxide should turn blue-black as it
had all necessary requirements for photosynthesis
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Your notes
CORMS evaluation
C - We are changing whether there is carbon dioxide or no carbon dioxide
O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and siz e of plant
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity
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Practical: Investigating Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis

Starch is stored in chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a Your notes
reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising
This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by using
a variegated leaf (one that is partially green and partially white)
Apparatus
Beakers
Leaf tissue (leaves must be variegated)
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Gauz e platform
Prongs
Ethanol
Apron
Safety goggles
Gloves
Iodine solution
White tile
Method
This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls
This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
Safety
Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that
stage of the experiment, the Bunsen burner should be turned off
The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a
Bunsen burner with an open flame
The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas that
contain chlorophyll stain blue-black
The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is occurring here
and so no starch is stored
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When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation Your notes
CORMS evaluation
C - We are changing whether there is chlorophyll or no chlorophyll
O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and siz e of the plant
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity
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2.24 Balanced Diet

Your notes
The Importance of a Balanced Diet
A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
The necessary key food groups are:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Dietary Fibre
Vitamins
Minerals (mineral ions)
Water
Malnutrition
Having an unbalanced diet can lead to malnutrition
Malnutrition can cause a variety of different health problems in humans
Causes & Effects of Malnutrition Table
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Your notes
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2.25 Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements

Your notes
Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements
Food Groups Functions & Sources Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
Vitamins and minerals are required for many specific functions of the body
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2.26 Variation in Energy Requirements

Your notes
Dietary Needs of Individuals
The nutritional requirements for individuals will vary throughout their lifetime
An individual will still require the same key food groups, but in different quantities depending on
a number of factors such as age, height, sex, activity levels, pregnancy and breastfeeding
Variations in Dietary Requirements Table
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2.27 Human Alimentary Canal: Structure & Function

Your notes
The Structure & Function of the Alimentary Canal
The digestive system is an example of an organ system in which several organs work together to
digest and absorb food
Digestion is a process in which relatively large, insoluble molecules in food (such as starch,
proteins) are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and delivered to cells in the body
These small soluble molecules (such as glucose and amino acids) are used either to provide
cells with energy (via respiration), or with materials with which they can build other molecules to
grow, repair and function
The human digestive system is made up of the organs that form the alimentary canal and
accessory organs
The alimentary canal is the channel or passage through which food flows through the body,
starting at the mouth and ending at the anus
Digestion occurs within the alimentary canal
Accessory organs produce substances that are needed for digestion to occur (such as
enzymes and bile) but food does not pass directly through these organs
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Your notes
The human digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and
accessory organs that work together to break large insoluble molecules into
small soluble molecules
Alimentary Canal and Accessory Structures Table
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Your notes
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Your notes
The Stages of Food Breakdown

Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut):
Ingestion - the taking in of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change
to the food molecules
Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules
Absorption - the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
Assimilation - the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where
they are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion - the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed (as faeces)
through the anus
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2.28 Peristalsis
Your notes
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a mechanism that helps moves food along the alimentary canal
Firstly, muscles in the walls of the oesophagus create waves of contractions which force the
bolus along
Once the bolus has reached the stomach, it is churned into a less solid form, called chyme, which
continues on to the small intestine
Peristalsis is controlled by circular and longitudinal muscles
Circular muscles contract to reduce the diameter of the lumen of the oesophagus or small
intestine
Longitudinal muscles contract to reduce the length of that section the oesophagus or the
small intestine
Mucus is produced to continually lubricate the food mass and reduce friction
Dietary fibre provides the roughage required for the muscles to push against during peristalsis
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Circular and longitudinal muscles in the alimentary canal contract rhythmically to move the partially
digested food mass along in a wave-like action
Your notes
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2.29 Role of Digestive Enzymes

Your notes
The Role of Digestive Enzymes
The purpose of digestion is to break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream
Food is partially digested mechanically (by chewing, churning and emulsification) in order to
break large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food which increases the surface area for
enzymes to work on
Digestion mainly takes place chemically, where bonds holding the large molecules together are
broken to make smaller and smaller molecules
Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of the
digestive system
Enz ymes are biological catalysts – they speed up chemical reactions without themselves being
used up or changed in the reaction
There are three main types of digestive enz ymes – carbohydrases, proteases and lipases
Carbohydrases
Carbohydrases are enz ymes that break down carbohydrates to simple sugars such as glucose
Amylase is a carbohydrase which is made in the salivary glands, the pancreas and the small
intestine
Amylase breaks down starch into maltose
Maltase then breaks down maltose into glucose
Starch is broken down into glucose using two enzymes: amylase and maltase.
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Proteases
Proteases are a group of enz ymes that break down proteins into amino acids Your notes
Pepsin is an enz yme made in the stomach which breaks down proteins into smaller
polypeptide chains
Proteases made in the pancreas and small intestine break the peptides into amino acids
Proteins are broken down using pepsin and other proteases
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Lipases
Lipases are enz ymes that break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids Your notes
Lipase enz ymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine
Diagram showing the digestion of lipids.
Exam Tip
The pancreas is an accessory organ in the digestive system. Food does not pass directly
through it, but it has a key role in producing digestive enz ymes as well as the hormones that
regulate blood sugar (insulin and glucagon).
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2.30 Bile: Production & Storage

Your notes
Bile Production & Storage
Bile is an alkaline substance produced by cells in the liver
Before being released into the small intestine bile is stored in the gallbladder
Bile production and secretion
Exam Tip
Bile contains bile salts, it is these molecules which emulsify the fats, however you can use both
terms interchangeably.
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2.31 Bile: Function

Your notes
The Role of Bile
Bile has two main roles:
1. Neutralising the hydrochloric acid from the stomach
The alkaline properties of bile allow for this to occur
This neutralisation is essential as enz ymes in the small intestine have a higher (more
alkaline) optimum pH than those in the stomach
2. Breaking apart large drops of fat into smaller ones (and so increasing their surface area)
This is known as emulsification
The more alkaline conditions and larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break down the
fat (lipids) molecules into glycerol and fatty acids at a faster rate
Bile salts break large lipid droplets into smaller ones with a larger surface area
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of paper.This
is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking something into smaller
pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of the molecules which make it
up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
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2.32 Small Intestine: Structure & Adaptations

Your notes
Absorption of Food & Water
The Stages of Food Breakdown
Food taken into the body goes through several different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut):
Ingestion
Mechanical digestion
Chemical digestion
Absorption
Assimilation
Egestion
Absorption is the movement of small digested food molecules from the digestive system into
the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)
Absorption of small soluble molecules occurs through diffusion and sometimes active
transport
Water is absorbed (by osmosis) primarily in the small intestine, but also in the colon
After absorption, assimilation and egestion occurs
Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they
are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed (as faeces) through
the anus
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Adaptations of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface Your notes
with millions of villi (tiny, finger-like projections)
These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently
Peristalsis helps by mixing together food and enz ymes and by keeping things moving along the
alimentary canal
Villi of the small intestine
Villi have several specific adaptations which allow for the rapid absorption of substances:
A large surface area
Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase the surface available for absorption
A short diffusion distance
The wall of a villus is only one cell thick
A steep concentration gradient
The villi are well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and
amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood
A lacteal (lymph vessel) runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and
glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph
Enzymes produced in the walls of the villi assist with chemical digestion
The movement of villi helps to move food along and mix it with the enz ymes present
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Your notes
Adaptations of the small intestine
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Exam Tip
Your notes
The way in which the structure of a villus is related to its function comes up frequently in exam
questions so it is worth ensuring you have learned these adaptations and how they influence the
rate of absorption.
Page 54 of 58
2.33B Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample

Your notes
Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample
We can investigate the energy content of food in a simple calorimetry experiment
Apparatus
Boiling tube
Boiling tube holder
Bunsen burner
Mounted needle
Measuring cylinder
Balance/scales
Thermometer
Water
Food samples
Method
Use the measuring cylinder to measure out 25cm3 of water and pour it into the boiling tube
Record the starting temperature of the water using the thermometer
Weigh the initial mass of the food sample
Set fire to the sample of food using the bunsen burner and hold the sample 2cm from the boiling
tube until it has completely burned
Record the final temperature of the water
(Once cooled) weigh the mass of any remaining food and record
Repeat the process with different food samples
e.g. popcorn, nuts, crisps
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Your notes
Different food samples can be burned in a simple calorimetry experiment to compare the energy contents
of the samples
Results
A larger increase in water temperature indicates a larger amount of energy contained by the
sample
We can calculate the energy in each food sample using the following equation:
Energy transferred (J) =
(mass of water (g) x 4.2 x temperature increase (°C)) ÷ (mass of food (g))
The Energy Content of Popcorn and Walnuts Table
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Your notes
Limitations
Incomplete burning of the food sample
Solution: Relight the food sample until it no longer lights up
Heat energy is lost to the surroundings
Solution: Whilst heat lost means that the energy calculation is not very accurate, so long as
the procedure is carried out in exactly the same way each time (with the same distance
between food sample and boiling tube), we can still compare the results
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Experimental design considerations: CORMS

In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this: Your notes
Change - We are changing the type of food in the sample
Organisms - This is not relevant to this investigation as we aren't using an organism
Repeat - We will repeat the investigation several times for each food sample
Measurement 1 - We will measure the change in temperature of the water
Measurement 2 - The mass of the food will be measured after the food sample has burned
out
Same - We will control the volume of water used, the distance between the food sample
and the boiling tube during burning, the food will also be relit every time it goes out until it no
longer lights
Page 58 of 58

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IGCSE Biology Edexcel Your notes

2.18 The Process of Photosynthesis

The fate of glucose produced in photosynthesis

2.19 Photosynthesis Equations

Word equation for photosynthesis

The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

2.20 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

2.21 Leaf: Structure & Adaptations

Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

2.22 Plants & Mineral Ions

The effect of mineral deficiencies on plants

2.23 Practical: Investigating Photosynthesis

Experiment to show the evolution of oxygen from a water plant

Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis

Testing a leaf for starch

Practical: Investigating Carbon Dioxide & Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis cannot occur without carbon dioxide

Practical: Investigating Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

2.24 Balanced Diet

2.25 Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements

2.26 Variation in Energy Requirements

2.27 Human Alimentary Canal: Structure & Function

The Stages of Food Breakdown

2.29 Role of Digestive Enzymes

Proteins are broken down using pepsin and other proteases

Diagram showing the digestion of lipids.

2.30 Bile: Production & Storage

Bile production and secretion

2.31 Bile: Function

2.32 Small Intestine: Structure & Adaptations

Adaptations of the Small Intestine

Adaptations of the small intestine

2.33B Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample

Experimental design considerations: CORMS

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