ME 1222

APPLIED MECHANICS

CHAPTER 03

STATICS RIGID BODIES:

EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS OF FORCES

Department of Mechanical Engineering, General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University

 CONTENT
CHAPTER 03 – Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces
1) Introduction
2) Forces and Moments
2.1 External and Internal Forces
2.2 Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
2.3 Vector Products
2.4 Vector Products: Rectangular Components
2.5 Moment of a Force about a Point
2.6 Varignon’s Theorem
2.7 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
3) Scaler Products of Two Vectors
3.1 Applications
3.2 Mixed Triple Products of Three Vectors
3.3 Moment of a Force about a Given Axis
4) Moments of a Couple
4.1 Addition of Couples
2
5) System of Forces: Reduction to a Force and Couple
 1. INTRODUCTION
• Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible. In general, the size
of the body and the specific points of application of the forces must be considered.

• Most bodies in elementary mechanics are assumed to be rigid, i.e., the actual
deformations are small and do not affect the conditions of equilibrium or motion
of the body.

• Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and how to
replace a given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system.
➢ Moment of a force about a point
➢ Moment of a force about an axis
➢ Moment due to a couple

• Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent

system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one couple.
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 2. FORCES AND MOMENTS
2.1 External and Internal Forces
• Forces acting on rigid bodies are divided into two groups.

EXTERNAL FORCES INTERNAL FORCES

• Exerted by other bodies on the rigid • Hold together the particles forming the
body under consideration. rigid body.

• They are entirely responsible for the • If the rigid body is structurally composed
external behavior of the rigid body, of several parts, the forces holding the
either causing it to move or ensuring component parts together are also
that it remains at rest. defined as internal forces.

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 2.1 External and Internal Forces Contd…

Translation :
The forward motion of the truck, during
which each straight line keeps its original
orientation is known as a translation.

Rotation :
The force exerted by a jack placed under the
front axle would cause the truck to pivot
about its rear axle. Such a motion is a
rotation.

• If unopposed, each external force can impart a

• External forces are shown in a free-body diagram. motion of translation or rotation, or both.

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2.2 Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
Principle of Transmissibility :

• The conditions of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body remain unchanged if a force

F acting at a given point of the rigid body is replaced by a force F’ of the same
magnitude and same direction, but acting at a different point, provided that the
two forces have the same line of action.

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2.2 Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
Contd..

• Moving the point of application of force F to the rear bumper does not affect the
motion or the other forces acting on the truck.

• Principle of transmissibility may not always apply in determining internal forces and
deformations.

• We can replace force P2 with a force P’2

having the same magnitude, the same
direction, and the same line of action but
acting at A instead of B

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 2.3 Vector Products
• Concept of the moment of a force about a point is more easily understood through
applications of the vector product or cross product.
• Vector product of two vectors P and Q is defined as the vector V
which satisfies the following conditions:
1.Line of action of V is perpendicular to plane containing P
and Q.
2.Magnitude of V is V = PQ sin 
3.Direction of V is obtained from the right-hand rule.

• Vector products:
- are not commutative, Q  P = −( P  Q )
- are distributive, P  (Q1 + Q2 ) = P  Q1 + P  Q2
- are not associative, ( P  Q )  S  P  (Q  S )
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 2.4 Vector Products: Rectangular Components
• Vector products of Cartesian Unit Vectors,
𝑖Ԧ × 𝑖Ԧ = 0 𝑗Ԧ × 𝑖Ԧ = −𝑘 𝑘 × 𝑖Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ
𝑖Ԧ × 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑘 𝑗Ԧ × 𝑗Ԧ = 0 𝑘 × 𝑗Ԧ = −Ԧ𝑖
𝑖Ԧ × 𝑘 = −Ԧ𝑗 𝑗Ԧ × 𝑘 = 𝑖Ԧ 𝑘×𝑘 =0

• Vector products in terms of rectangular coordinates :

𝑉 = (𝑃𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑃𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑃𝑧 𝑘) × (𝑄𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑄𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑄𝑧 𝑘)

= (𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑧 − 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑦 )Ԧ𝑖 + (𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑧 )Ԧ𝑗 + (𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑦 − 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑥 )𝑘

𝑖Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ 𝑘
= 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧
𝑄𝑥 𝑄𝑦 𝑄𝑧

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 2.5 Moment of a Force about a Point
• A force vector is defined by its magnitude and direction. Its effect on the rigid body
also depends on its point of application.
• The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r  F
• The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the plane containing O
and the force F.
• Magnitude of MO measures the tendency of the force to cause
rotation of the body about an axis along MO.
M O = rF sin  = Fd
The sense of the moment may be determined by the right-hand
rule.
• Any force F’ that has the same magnitude and direction as F, is equivalent if it also has
the same line of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
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 2.5 Moment of a Force about a Point Contd..

• Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but negligible

depth and are subjected to forces contained in the plane of the
structure.

• The plane of the structure contains the point O and the force F.
MO, the moment of the force about O is perpendicular to the plane.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the sense of the
moment vector is into the plane of the structure and the magnitude of
the moment is negative.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure counterclockwise, the sense of

the moment vector is out of the plane of the structure and the
magnitude of the moment is positive.

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 2.6 Varignon’s Theorem
• The moment about a given point O of the resultant of several
concurrent forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the
various forces about the same point O.

𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 + ⋯ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ2 + ⋯

• Varignon’s Theorem makes it possible to replace the direct determination of the

moment of a force F by the moments of two or more component forces of F.

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 2.7 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

• The moment of F about O,

Ԧ
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹, 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑦Ԧ𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑀𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑀𝑧 𝑘

𝑖Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ 𝑘
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

𝑀𝑜 = (𝑦𝐹𝑧 − 𝑧𝐹𝑦 )Ԧ𝑖 + (𝑧𝐹𝑥 − 𝑥𝐹𝑧 )Ԧ𝑗 + (𝑥𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐹𝑥 )𝑘

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 2.7 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
Contd..

The moment of F about B,

𝑀𝐵 = 𝑟Ԧ𝐴/𝐵 × 𝐹Ԧ

𝑟Ԧ𝐴/𝐵 = 𝑟Ԧ𝐴 − 𝑟Ԧ𝐵

𝑟Ԧ𝐴/𝐵 = 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑦𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵 𝑗Ԧ + (𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 )𝑘

𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘

𝑖Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ 𝑘
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 𝑦𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵 (𝑧𝐴 − 𝑧𝐵 )
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧
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 2.7 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force Contd..

For two-dimensional structures,

𝑀𝑜 = (𝑥𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐹𝑥 )𝑘)
We can verify that the moment of F about O is perpendicular to the plane of
the figure and that it is completely defined by the scalar

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑥𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐹𝑥

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵 𝐹𝑧 𝑘

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑧
= 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 𝐹𝑦 − 𝑦𝐴 − 𝑦𝐵 𝐹𝑧

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.1

A 100-lb vertical force is applied to the end of a lever which is attached

to a shaft at O.
Determine:
a) Moment about O,
b) Horizontal force at A which creates the same moment,
c) Smallest force at A which produces the same moment,
d) Location for a 240-lb vertical force to produce the same moment,
e) Whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is equivalent to the
original force.

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.2
The rectangular plate is supported by the brackets at A and B and by a wire CD.
Knowing that the tension in the wire is 200 N, determine the moment about A of the
force exerted by the wire at C.

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 3. SCALER PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
• The scalar product or dot product between two vectors P and Q is
defined as
𝑷 ∙ 𝑸 = 𝑷𝑸 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕)
• Scalar products:
- are commutative, 𝑃∙𝑄 =𝑄∙𝑃
- are distributive, 𝑃 ∙ 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑄1 + 𝑃 ∙ 𝑄2
- are not associative, (𝑃 ∙ 𝑄) ∙ 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
• Scalar products with Cartesian unit components,
𝑃 ∙ 𝑄 = (𝑃𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑃𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑃𝑧 𝑘) ∙ (𝑄𝑥 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑄𝑦 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑄𝑧 𝑘)
𝑖Ԧ ∙ 𝑖Ԧ = 1 𝑗Ԧ ∙ 𝑗Ԧ = 1 𝑘∙𝑘 =1 𝑖Ԧ ∙ 𝑗Ԧ = 0 𝑗Ԧ ∙ 𝑘 = 0 𝑘 ∙ 𝑖Ԧ = 0
𝑃 ∙ 𝑄 = (𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧 )
𝑃 ∙ 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑥 2 + 𝑃𝑦 2 + 𝑃𝑧 2 = 𝑷2
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 3.1 Scaler Product of Two Vectors: Applications
• Angle between two vectors:
𝑃 ∙ 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧
𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑧
cos 𝜃 =
𝑃𝑄
• Projection of a vector on a given axis:
𝑃𝑂𝐿 = 𝑃 cos 𝜃 =projection of P along OL
𝑃 ∙ 𝑄 = 𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃
𝑃∙𝑄
= 𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑂𝐿
𝑄
• For an axis defined by a unit vector:
𝑃𝑂𝐿 = 𝑃 ∙ λ
𝑃𝑂𝐿 = 𝑃𝑥 cos 𝜃𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 cos 𝜃𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧 cos 𝜃𝑧
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 3.2 Mixed Triple Product of Three Vectors
• Mixed triple product of three vectors,

𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑃 × 𝑄 =scalar result
• The six mixed triple products formed from S, P, and Q have
equal magnitudes but not the same sign,
𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑃 × 𝑄 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑄 × 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑄 ∙ 𝑆Ԧ × 𝑃
= −𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑄 × 𝑃 = −𝑃 ∙ 𝑆Ԧ × 𝑄 = −𝑄 ∙ 𝑃 × 𝑆Ԧ
• Evaluating the mixed triple product,
𝑆Ԧ ∙ 𝑃 × 𝑄 = 𝑆𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑧 − 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑦 + 𝑆𝑦 𝑃𝑧 𝑄𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑧
+𝑆𝑧 𝑃𝑥 𝑄𝑦 − 𝑃𝑦 𝑄𝑥
𝑆𝑥 𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑧
= 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧
𝑄𝑥 𝑄𝑦 𝑄𝑧
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 3.3 Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
• Moment MO of a force F applied at the point A about a point O,
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ

• Scalar moment MOL about an axis OL is the projection of the

moment vector MO onto the axis,
Ԧ
𝑀𝑂𝐿 = λ ∙ 𝑀𝑜 = λ ∙ (𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹)

• Moments of F about the coordinate axes,

M x = yFz − zFy
M y = zFx − xFz
M z = xFy − yFx

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 3.3 Moment of a Force About a Given Axis Contd..

• Moment of a force about an arbitrary axis,

𝑀𝐵𝐿 = λ ∙ 𝑀𝐵
Ԧ
𝑀𝐵𝐿 = λ ∙ (𝑟Ԧ𝐴/𝐵 × 𝐹)

𝑟Ԧ𝐴/𝐵 = 𝑟Ԧ𝐴 − 𝑟Ԧ𝐵

• The result is independent of the point B along the

given axis.

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.3
A cube is acted on by a force P as shown. Determine the moment of P
a) About A.
b) About the edge AB.
c) About the diagonal AG of the cube.
d) Determine the perpendicular distance between AG and FC.

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 4. MOMENT OF A COUPLE
• Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude, parallel lines of
action, and opposite sense are said to form a couple.

• Moment of the couple,

𝑀 = 𝑟Ԧ𝐴 × 𝐹Ԧ + 𝑟Ԧ𝐵 × (−𝐹)
Ԧ

𝑀 = (𝑟Ԧ𝐴 − 𝑟Ԧ𝐵 ) × 𝐹Ԧ

= 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ
𝑀 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑑

• The moment vector of the couple is independent of the choice of

the origin of the coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can be
applied at any point with the same effect.
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 4. MOMENT OF A COUPLE Contd..

➢ Two couples will have equal moments if,

• F1d1 = F2 d 2

• the two couples lie in parallel planes, and

• the two couples have the same sense or the tendency

to cause rotation in the same direction.

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 4.1 Addition of Couples
• Consider two intersecting planes P1 and P2 with each containing a
couple,
𝑀1 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ1 in plane P1

𝑀2 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ2 in plane P2

• Resultants of the vectors also form a couple.

𝑀 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑅 = 𝑟Ԧ × (𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝐹Ԧ2 )

• By Varigon’s theorem :
𝑀 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ1 + 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ2
𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2
• Sum of two couples is also a couple that is equal to the vector sum of the
two couples.
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 4.2 Couples can be Represented by Vectors

• A couple can be represented by a vector with a magnitude and direction

equal to the moment of the couple.

• Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.

• Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., the point of application is not
significant.

• Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.

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 4.3 Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

• Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying its action on the
body.

• Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net effect on the
body.

• The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and couple
vector, i.e, a force-couple system.

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4.3 Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple Contd..

• Moving F from A to a different point O’ requires the addition of a different couple

vector MO’
𝑀𝑜′ = 𝑟 ′ × 𝐹Ԧ

• The moments of F about O and O’ are related,

𝑀𝑜′ = 𝑟 ′ × 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ + 𝑠Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ + 𝑠Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ
= 𝑀𝑜 + 𝑠Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ
• Moving the force-couple system from O to O’ requires the addition of the
moment of the force at O about O’.
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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.4
Determine the components of the single couple equivalent to the couples
shown.

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5. SYSTEM OF FORCES: REDUCTION TO A FORCE AND COUPLE

• A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of force-couple systems acting at a

given point O.
• The force and couple vectors may be combined into a resultant force vector and a
resultant couple vector,
Ԧ
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = ෍(𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹)

• The force-couple system at O may be moved to O’ with the addition of

the moment of R about O’ ,
𝑀𝑂𝑅′ = 𝑀𝑂𝑅 + 𝑠Ԧ × 𝑅
• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can be reduced to the same force-couple system.
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 5.1 Further Reduction of a System of Forces

• If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually perpendicular, they can be
replaced by a single force acting along a new line of action.

• The resultant force-couple system for a system of forces will be

mutually perpendicular if:
1. the forces are concurrent,
2. the forces are coplanar, or
3. the forces are parallel.

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 5.1 Further Reduction of a System of Forces Contd..

• System of coplanar forces is reduced to a force-

couple system 𝑅 and 𝑀𝑂𝑅 that is mutually
perpendicular.

• System can be reduced to a single force by moving

the line of action of 𝑅 until its moment about O
becomes 𝑀𝑂𝑅

• In terms of rectangular coordinates,

xR y − yRx = M OR

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.5
For the beam, reduce the system of forces shown to
(a) an equivalent force-couple system at A,
(b) an equivalent force couple system at B, and
(c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the support reactions are not included, the given system will not maintain
the beam in equilibrium.

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.6
Three cables are attached to the bracket as shown. Replace the forces with an
equivalent force-couple system at A.

SOLUTION:
• Determine the relative position vectors for
the points of application of the cable forces
with respect to A.

• Resolve the forces into rectangular

components.

• Compute the equivalent force,

𝑅 = ෍ 𝐹Ԧ

• Compute the equivalent couple,

Ԧ
𝑀𝐴𝑅 = ෍(𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹)
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 REFERENCES

❖Vector Mechanics for Engineers – Statics and Dynamics (11th Ed.), Beer F.P.,
Johnston E.T. Jr., McGraw-Hill, INC

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