Psychology Made Easy by Sofekun Ayomide|1

PSY 111:

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Basic Concepts of Psychology: - History of Psychology

- Definitions of Psychology
- Methods of Psychological
Investigations
2. Psychological Basis of Behaviour
3. Motivations and Emotions
4. Social Basis of Behaviour
5. Learning
6. Sensation and Perception
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1. Basic Concepts of Psychology

- History of Psychology
- Definitions of Psychology

1.1. History of Psychology

Remember you must acclimate yourself at the base camp before
attempting to climb the peak. Before delving into a particular field of
study you must have an understanding of the record of past events,
with an interpretation of their cause and an assessment of their
importance. Hence, we will be considering
 Why do we study the History of Psychology
 History of Psychology
 How psychology evolved as a discipline
 The Major influences
 Various Psychological Schools of thought

NOTE: A solid foundation on the History of Psychology helps in

understanding the matters arising and issues outlined in this course; as
reference would be made to actors in the History of psychology and
various schools of thought. Thus success in your journey through
Psychology in the 1st and 2nd semester begins here.

So let’s begin;
1.1.1. Why do we Study the History of Psychology
- The major reason why it is mandatory for us to study the history
of Psychology is to have a knowledge base i.e. to know what has
already been investigated and understood;
- To make connections in an incredibly diverse field of study
- To discover interesting characters and personalities in the history
of psychology
- To understand the record of past events in psychology
- To be able critique our current thinking about psychology. E.g.
we may want to ask in the current mindset in psychology the
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most appropriate that will be refined and augmented in the years

to come or with its being replaced.
- To understand the ethical issues pertaining to psychological
questions e.g. i. Do we change behaviour or leave it
unadulterated
ii. How do we handle emotional distress for
participants of certain studies?
iii. Do we just keep theoretical understanding
or insist on the real word application.

1.1.2. History of Psychology

Today, psychology is defined as “the scientific study of behaviour
and mental processes.” Philosophical interest in the mind and
behaviour dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia,
Greece, China and India. The history of psychology as a scholarly
study of the mind and behaviour dates back to the Ancient Egypt.
Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s, when it
developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the
United States. Psychology borders on various other fields including
physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology,
anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of the
humanities.
The founders of psychology were philosophers. The ancient
Greeks are important antecedents to modern/Western ideals largely
influenced by Aristotle and Plato. Therefore, psychology has its roots
in philosophy. Between the 5th and 4th century BC, Plato had raised
issues of psychological importance. E.g. he asked the questions ‘What
is knowledge’? ‘What is love’? Is there a relationship between our
thoughts and behaviour? Plato was referred to as a dualist because he
believed in the mind and body.
However, Aristotle may be referred to as the originator of psychology
because he was the first to discuss a fundamentally psychological
issue, he discussed topics like sensation, memory, sleep, etc and he
also talked about systematic observation. Aristotle, born in 384 BC
was the first known writer in the field of psychology. Aristotle used
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the term ‘psyche’ to refer to the essence of life; this term is translated
to mean soul or mind.
1.1.3. So how did Psychology evolve as a discipline?
Psychology was not considered an area of study until the 1870’s when
the ideas of the industrial revolution were applied to the field of
philosophy and physiology.
Psychology as a self – conscious field of experimental study began in
1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated
exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. The
German scientist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first
laboratory of psychology in the University of Leipzig in 1879 and
established the first Psychological journal in 1881. He was the first to
apply the scientific method to the field of psychology. Wundt
campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline. His work
focused on consciousness – the awareness of immediate experience.
As a result of his persistency and effort, Psychology became an
academic field of study. To this day, Wilhelm Wundt is regarded as
the ‘Founder of Experimental Psychology’.
1.1.4. What were the major influences?
Roman pragmatism and skepticism towards science and philosophy
gave added impetus to the growth of psychology. Apart from that, the
renaissance (rebirth) of science between the 4th and 16th century AD
added further to the growth of psychology in Europe. One of those
who supported this postulated the Doctrine of innate ideas that is to
suggest that we are all endowed from birth with inborn ideas. Like
Plato, he was a dualist (Aristotle). By the 17th Century, Psychological
ideas began to emerge as an out proof of empirical and rational
philosophy. Subsequently, science displaced religion as an authority
on understanding. By the 18th century, psychology began to emerge as
a science with conjunction with the studies of the nervous system. At
this point, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) founded experimental
psychology; he established the first laboratory for the study of
Psychology in the University of Leipzig in 1879. Wundt campaigned
to make Psychology an independent discipline in addition he used
scientific methods to study fundamental Psychology processes such as
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mental reaction times in response to visual or auditory stimuli e.g. He

measured how long it took an individual to detect the sight and sound
of a bell struck. In 1874, he published a book on the principles of
physiological Psychology. In this book, he outlined the connection
between physiology and Psychology. It promoted his theory that
psychology is a separate scientific discipline that requires
experimental methods to study mental processes. When he established
a Psychology Laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in
1879, many Psychologists and historians believed this to be the
formal beginning of Psychology as a scientific discipline. Wilhelm
Wundt was responsible for creating the first School of Psychology
thought called Structuralism. Structuralism, the first major school of
thought in Psychology maintains that complex conscious experience
can be broken down into elemental structures or parts of sensation and
feelings. Wundt studied consciousness using a method of looking
inwards at one’s own experience in what he called Introspection. This
group of scientists used the method called Introspection which was a
process of self-examining where the person described and analyze
thoughts as they occur. Wilhelm Wundt established the first
Psychology journal in 1881; he was the first to apply scientific
method to this field. One of Wundt’s students, Granville Stanley Hall
(1844-1924) was vital to bringing the science of Psychology to
America. He founded the American Psychological Association and
became its first president. He started America’s first research
laboratory at the John Hopkins University in 1883 and he started the
first journal of Psychology in America.

1.2. Definitions of Psychology

The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study

of the ‘psyche’, or soul "breath, spirit, soul" and - logia. "study of" or
"research"). The Latin word psychologia was first used by the
Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book,
‘Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae’ in the late 15th century or
early 16th century.[9] The earliest known reference to the word
psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The
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Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats the Body,

and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[10]

In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of

mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions". This
definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. However, this
meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such as John
B. Watson, who in his 1913 manifesto defined the discipline of
psychology as the acquisition of information useful to the control of
behavior. Also since James defined it, the term more strongly
connotes techniques of scientific experimentation.[11][12] Folk
psychology refers to the understanding of ordinary people, as
contrasted with that of psychology professionals.[13]

Psychology may be seen as the scientific study of the human

mind and its functions especially those affecting behaviour in a given
context. Psychology can also be defined as the mental characteristics
or attitude of a person or group. However, there is an avalanche of
definitions by Scholars, academic and field psychologists, Psychology
can easily be defined as the scientific or systematic study of behavior
and inter-relationship.

1.2.1. Goals Of Psychology

The goal of psychology is to describe, explain, predict and control
behaviour and mental processes. Thus, the goals of psychology
may be highlighted:
 Description
 Explanation
 Prediction
 Control

1.2.1.1. Description
Psychology is a science. It aims to understand the behaviour of others
and gather information about the way the brain works to better serve
humanity. By observing different human behaviours, psychologists
determine what is normal and healthy and what is unhealthy.
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Psychology analyzes the thoughts, feelings, actions and goals of

people through the help of various case studies, observations and
surveys. Description is when a vivid report is given about human
behaviour.
It can be easily described as an unbiased report.
1.2.1.2. Explain
When the reason(s) why something is the way it is given(i.e. the
reason for the behaviour). Why does this behaviour occur? Under
what circumstances will it occur again? In order to explain
behaviour, psychologists must conduct experiments to ensure that
the behaviour is not an anomaly. If there’s only one person (or
animal) exhibiting this behaviour, it certainly isn’t a cultural norm.
1.2.1.3. Predict
Based on the past observed behaviour, a psychologist aims to
predict how that behaviour will appear again in the future and if
other people will exhibit the same behaviour. What will happen
next is foreseen based on the trend, i.e. things that are presently
happening.
1.2.1.4. Control
Control is the act of influencing behaviour. Psychology
demonstrates how to initiate, stop and encourage behaviour and
how you can get a person to change his/her behaviour.
1.2.2. SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
There are four scopes of psychology. This includes:
1. Observable Behaviours e.g. Speech, Gestures and Actions.
2. Inferred Behaviour e.g. thoughts, feelings e.t.c.
3. Non-observable Behaviour e.g. dreams, motives, feelings etc.
4. Physiological Changes that accompany behavior e.g. blood
pressure etc.
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1.2.3.Psychological Schools of Thought.

1.2.3.1. Structuralism
Structuralism is the first school of thought in psychology. A
structuralist analyses consciousness using the method of
introspection. They break down consciousness into elements:
sensation, images, feelings and try to discover the laws connecting the
elements. Introspection seemed to be a difficult exercise, i.e. it was
difficult to observe humans and put the elements together.
1.2.3.2. FUNCTIONALISM
They came as an opposition to structuralism. They felt that
consciousness should not be divided into parts or elements. The
functionalists were influenced by the works of Charles Darwin on
natural selection. Charles Darwin believed that functional
characteristics are passed from one generation to another and this
makes them survive. In the same way, consciousness has adaptive
function. This school of thought was interested in the mind. If the
mind functions well, then one would be able to survive. The mind is
functional, adapts, help one to survive. They were interested in mental
activities; functionalism started in America. To them, the mind
interacts with the environments continually. They contributed a lot to
learning, problem solving and animal study they used the methods of
introspection and comparative method. John Dewey worked on
problem solving.
1.2.3.3. BEHAVIOURISM
This was a major revolution in psychology. This school was founded
by American psychologist: Broadus John Watson. He dissatisfied
with the earlier approaches and the idea that psychology was the study
of the mind. He rejected consciousness and mind because they are not
observable. He felt psychology should be a real scientific discipline, a
science of behavior and that behaviour should be in terms of stimulus-
response connections or variables; because stimulus and response can
be seen. They introduced the use of animals or humans, and they are
responsible for many of our learning theories.
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1.2.3.4. GESTALT
This approach began in Germany and Russia during the late 19th
century in response the molecular approach of structuralism. The
school was based in Germany. GESTALT means configuration. His
famous students were WOLFGANG KOHLER and KURT KOFFKA.
The founder of the school was Max WERTHELMER. Perception can
be traced to Gestalt. They are responsible for our own knowledge of
perception. Wertheimer believed that people’s experience are
combined, it is bigger than the parts. Gestalt psychologists argue that
conscious sensations can be examined, but for what it is: To the
Gestalts, the laws of psychology is the laws of system not of parts.
1.2.3.5. PSYCHOANALYSIS
Its founder was SIGMUND FREUD in 1895.He developed his theory
from clinical experiences (neurology). He believed that what
motivates humans are the unconscious. That human are controlled
primarily by drives and urges hidden within the unconscious. The
techniques used in psychoanalysis are: dream interpretation, slip of
the tongue, free association, hypnosis (power of subjection).
Psychoanalysis is responsible for ideas used in the treatment of others
(clinical approach). Freud proposed that human psyche could be
divided into 3 parts ID, ego and super ego. ID is the completely
conscious, impulsive like portion of the psyche that operates in
pleasure principle. EGO is the part of the psyche that is usually
reflected most directly in a person’s emotions. The Super Ego is the
component of the psyche that dictates person’s actions.
1.2.3.6. HUMANISM
The founding fathers are ABRAHAM MASLOW and CARL
ROGERS they believed that humans are free agents, conscious,
creative and born with an inner motivation to fulfill their (SELF-
ACTUALIZATION) potentials. Their focus centered in the
phenomenological perspective, looks inward toward one’s subjective
experience they believed that the world is different for all of us,
because we all perceive it differently and because each of us, as a
whole, is unique. THERE IS NO SHARED REALITY. This was
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based the beliefs that we can understand behaviour only by examining

each individual each individuals unique self-perception.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR.
The physical structure of the body plays an important role in the
behaviour of an individual. The most important physical structure for
psychologists is the nervous system. The nervous system carries
orders from the brain and spinal cord to various glands and muscles; it
also carries signals from stimuli receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
If you wanted to blink your eye a signal would be created in the brain,
then it would be transported by neurons to the muscle controlling the
eyelid.
2.1. NEURONS.
The base of the nervous system is the neuron. Neurons are cells that
are specialized for communicating information. They are the basic
tissue and element of the nervous system.
Neurons have of basic structure of:
 One cell body
 One axon
 One or more dendrites

The cell body (or soma) is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing
the cell nucleus. The soma makes use of nutrients to supply energy
for neuronal activity.

The Axons are organelles that carry information away from the
cell body. Axons may be as small as several microns or as long as
several meters in giraffes and whales. The axons main job is to
send a signal to the dendrites of another neuron, but some say that
they may also receive signals in certain situations. Each neuron has
only one axon, but the axon may have branches with what are
terminal buttons at its end.

Dendrites are organelles that sense the neurotransmitter secreted by

the axon of another neuron. Most neurons have more than one
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dendrite. Dendrites and axons do not directly touch each other;

there is a gap called a synapse.

2.2. THE TRANSMISSION OF THE SIGNAL

The transmission of the signal is basically the same in all cells, the
signal is sent across the synapse by the axon and the dendrite of the
next cell picks up the signal.
Synapse
The synapse is a gap between two cells. Synapses are one way
junctions between neurons and other cells. The neurotransmitter is
emitted from the axon of one cell and usually goes to the dendrite of
the next cell. Sometimes the signal goes to the soma or the axon of the
next cell instead of the dendrite. Arnold Wittig, 2001
Neurotransmitter
The terminal button at the end of the axon holds the synaptic vesicles.
When the signal reaches the end of the axon, the vesicles discharge a
chemical called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals
that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between
a neuron and another cell. There are approximately 40 to 60 different
chemicals that are used as neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters
from the axon fit into receptors of the dendrite on the next neuron.
They will then both excite the cell and make it fire or inhibit it and
stop it from doing so. The sum of the excitation and inhibition of the
neuron is called the graded potential. If the graded potential is greater
than that cell’s threshold, then the cell fires, sending the message to
the next cell. List of neurotransmitters;
Resting potential
When the cell hasn’t fired for a certain amount of time it is considered
at its resting potential. The resting potential of a neuron is approx. -70
mV because the membrane surrounding the cell lets in positive
potassium ions (k+) and negative chloride ions (CI-) and keeps out
positive sodium ions (Na+). It is easier to fire a cell that is at its
resting potential than one than that is in the refractory phase.
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Action potential
When the graded potential passes the neurons threshold, an action
potential takes place. The action potential sends the signal the entire
length of the cell, which can be referred to as the all-or-none
principle. During firing, the inside of the cell becomes positive, which
is sometimes incorrectly called Depolarization and should be called
the raising phase of the action potential. After the action potential hits
its peak, the cell starts the refractory phase.
Refractory Phase
After the action potential changes the neuron from the negative to
positive, there is a refractory phase where it changes back to negative.
At the beginning of this period, it is impossible for another signal to
be transmitted, this is called absolute refractory phase. After the
absolute refractory phase is the relative refractory phase is the relative
refractory phase where it is possible to send another signal but more
excitation than normal is needed.
Signal Strength
For the signal to be passed from one neuron to the next it must have
enough energy to break a point called the threshold. Once the
threshold is broken, the signal is transmitted. The neuron fires at the
same strength every time. The strength of a signal is decided by how
many different neurons are being fired and at what frequency they are
being fired.
Glial Cells
The amount glial cell to every neuron in the nervous system is
disputed. Glial cells function as a support for the neurons; they
produce the myelin sheath which surrounds some neurons and also
form part of the blood-brain barrier. The blood-barrier is a structure
that prevents certain substances in the bloodstream from reaching the
brain. Many axons are sheathed with tubes of myelin, which is fatty
material. Myelin is produced by the glial cells. The myelin sheaths on
axons have gaps, which are called the nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated
sheaths help transmit information quickly and efficiently.
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2.3. ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is organized into the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system.

2.3.1. The Chart of the Nervous System

The Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal Cord Autonomic Division Somatic Division

(Regulates internal (Carries information to

environment, carries the CNS from the senses
information from the CNS and from the CNS to the
to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles)
glands)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(Arouses the body) (Calms the body after arousal)

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system has a fundamental role in the control
of behaviour. It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both
encased in bone which shows their importance. Both the brain and
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spinal cord receive signals from the afferent neurons and send signals
to muscles and glands through efferent neurons.
The peripheral Nervous system
Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous
system is part of the peripheral nervous system. The nerves in the
peripheral nervous system are split up into the autonomic and
somatic. The somatic connect the central nervous system to sensory
organs (such as the eye and ear) and muscles, while the autonomic
connect other organs of the body, blood vessels and glands.
The glandular systems
The body has two types of glandular systems: the endocrine, which
generally secretes hormones through the bloodstream, and the
exocrine which secrete fluids to the other surfaces of the body, such
as sweating.
Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands release their secretions into ducts which in turn
release them onto the surface of organs. Examples of exocrine glands
are sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, etc. The pancreas
is both an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland hence; one should
keep that in mind. It secretes digestive enzymes that are released into
the digestive system while it also contains the islets of Langerhans
which secrete insulin into the blood.
Endocrine glands
 Pituitary gland
 Adrenal Cortex
 Adrenal Medulla
 Thyroid Gland
 Parathyroid gland
 Islets of Langerhans
 Gonads
 Placenta
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Structure and function of the brain

The brain has three distinct areas; the hindbrain, midbrain, and the
forebrain.
Fig.1.0. Diagram showing the brain structure

Hindbrain
The hind brain is a well protected central core of the brain and
includes the cerebellum, reticular formation and the brain
stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of
sensory perception and motor output. Damage to the cerebellum is
called Ataxia. Ataxia is the lack of balance, uncoordinated movement
and severe tremors. Another part of the cerebellum is involved in the
learning and remembering of motor tasks. It utilizes constant
feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. The brain
stem contains the Pons, and the medulla oblongata. The Pons
meaning ‘bridge’ connects the two halves of the cerebellum, lying
above it. The Pons produces chemicals that help us maintain our
sleep-wake cycle. The Pons relays sensory information between the
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brain and spinal cord. The medulla controls reflex actions such as
breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. The reticular formation is
a part of the brain which is involved in stereotypical actions, such as
walking, sleeping, and lying down.
Midbrain
This part of the brain is located between the hindbrain and the
forebrain making up a part of the brain stem. All sensory and motor
information going to and from the fore brain and the spinal cord must
pass through the midbrain. It can also be referred to as the relay
station of the brain. It is crucial for hearing and sight. It contains the
Substania Nigra. The Mid-brain is the brain region rich
dopamine neurons. The degeneration of these dopamine neurons
makes it difficult for the person to walk and the hand becomes shaky
like Parkinson diseases.

Forebrain
The fore brain is the anterior most division of the developing
vertebrate brain that contains the most complex neural network in the
CNS. The forebrain is the most prominent part of the brain. It is the
most important to psychology. It is composed of many substructures
called the Limbic System. The Limbic System is a collection of
several different structures that plays a major role in Controlling
Emotions. Some parts inhibit responses others Excite responses. The
Limbic system is supported by the brain stem and buds above it. The
fore brain consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia
and the Cerebral cortex. The Thalamus is considered ‘the great
relay station of the brain’.
Function: The Thalamus is a relatively large anatomical structure
located in near the center of the brain. The Thalamus consists of many
separate clusters of neurons called nuclei. It is through the thalamus
that all auditory, visual, taste and touch sensory signals must pass to
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and from specific parts of the Nervous system. It receives messages

from the eyes, ears and the spinal cord and then project it to the
appropriate areas of the cortex. It functions as the clearing house for
motor impulses that needs direction. When brain commands are sent
to the various regions of the brain, it is the thalamus that sends them
along the proper channels.
NOTE: Many of the drugs that induce hallucinations work by
disrupting normal processing in the thalamus.
The Cortex is responsible for emotional feelings and Emotional
behaviour.
The Hypothalamus is a small structure roughly the size and shape of
an almond. It is located between the thalamus and the pituitary gland.
It consists of various nuclei, each with different but complementary.
These nuclei are involved in basic survival behaviours such as sexual
activity, drinking, eating, aggression and fear.
NOTE: Stimulation of the lateral (side) area of the hypothalamus
will cause an animal to eat voraciously even if it has just consumed a
meal, while stimulation of the ventromedial (middle of the lower area
from the word Ventral Median) area of the hypothalamus will
prompt the animal to stop eating even if it is starving.

Some nuclei in the hypothalamus are involved in regulating the

body’s internal temperature. It also regulates the activities of the
pituitary gland (which regulates hormonal secretions from other
glands throughout the body). The Hypothalamus governs
Motivations and Emotion.
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3. MOTIVATIONS AND EMOTIONS

For every behaviour there must be a motive. Behaviour is
anything human does. For every behaviour, there is a motivation
behind it.
Motivation refers to the ways in which our activities are
initiated, sustained and directed. It can also be defined as the
biological, emotional, cognitive or social forces that activate and
direct behaviour. Literally, the word is being derived from the Latin
word ‘movere’. Most of our motivated activities can be thought of as
the beginning with a need. When the need is met, the motivational
sequence will end naturally.

Other definitions of Motivations include internal state or condition

that activates behaviour and gives it direction. Motivations can also be
defined as desires or wants that energizes and direct goal oriented
behaviour. It can also be define as influence of needs and desires on
the intensity and direction of behaviour. Motivations can also be
defined as arousal, direction and persistent of behaviour.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATIONS
1. Activation: This is demonstrated by initiation and production of
behaviour such as going to the university.
2. Persistency: It can be demonstrated by continued effort to the
determination to achieve a goal. Often times, there are
obstructions on the way.
3. Intensity: This is the vigor of responding to particular stimuli.
4. Incentive: A motivated behaviour can be energized by the pull
of external stimuli. On the other hand, we have the external
stimulus which is the push of internal stimuli.

SOURCES OF MOTIVATIONS
1. Behavioural/ External: e.g. unpleasant consequences, the fear
to fail motivates
2. Social Motivation: e.g. imitate positive models be a part of a
group or a valued member.
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3. Biological Source: e.g. to activate sense in smell, touch, taste,

e.t.c.
4. Cognitive Source: e.g. to pay attention to a particular stimuli;
fear of stealing, fear of corruption
i. Eliminate threat or risk: e.g if there is a fire outbreak,
you don’t need to be told to run your cognitiveness will
tell you.
5. Affective: To decrease bad feeling and to increase good
feelings.
6. Spirituality: e.g. a prophetic declaration – a prayer for all to be
rich.

TYPES OF MOTIVES
 Primary Motives
 Stimulus Motives
 Secondary Motives

 Primary Motives: are based on biological needs that must be met

for survival. Most important primary motives are hunger, thirst,
need for air, sleep, pain avoidance, elimination of waste,
regulation of body temperature.

 Stimulus Motives: They appear to be inmate but are not

necessary for survival. E.g. coming to university.

 Secondary Motives: It accounts for the great diversities in human

activities. In terms of the need to be approved by friends and
others, ones status in society, e.t.c.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. Biological or Physiological Theory of Motivation.
Instinct theory: Motivation completely emphasizes on biological
factors of motivation. This is based on Charles Darwin theory of
evolution. He said instincts elimination of waste prevails at all
cost.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL Theory of Motivation
a. Incentives and needs theory
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b. Maslow Hierarchy of needs theory

c. Goal setting theory
d. Expectancy theory

Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow 1970, proposed a hierarchy of human needs theory.
Maslow was concerned with identifying the needs that push people
into behaviour beyond the most basic fulfillment of survival.
a. Physiological needs: The need for food, survival, water and
other essential things.
b. Safety and security: everybody wants to avoid danger
c. Belonginess and Love: Need for love acceptance and affiliation.
d. Esteem: To achieve competence.
e. Self-actualization: To find self-fulfillment and realize ones
potential to the fullest.

Maslow believes the first point of contact is the physiological need.

Fig.2.0. Diagram showing the Maslow Pyramid

Photo credit: simplypschology.com

Cognitive Theory
Many motivations have their roots from the cognitive theory.
1. Cognitive Dissonance: This theory was developed by Leo
Festinger. This theory states that there is a discrepancy between
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two actions or beliefs. E.g. it deals with how you interpret things
i.e. how you show love and correct it.
2. Attributive Theory: It states that the individual are motivated.
To discover to discover the underline causes of behaviour as
part of the behaviour. E.g. attributing failure to an extent of
stimuli.
3. Intrinsic Motivation: e.g. internal motivations like internal goals.
Intrinsic your own inmate goals.
4. Extrinsic Motivation: e.g. salary – monetary aspects.

4.0. EMOTIONS
Emotion seems to rule our daddy live we often make decisions
based on our emotions such as sadness, happiness, frustration,
oppression and so on.
Also, we choose our activities based on our emotions. Examples of
such activities include choosing or deciding to going to class or not.
An emotion is a psychological state that involves three distinct
states.
1. A Subjective experience(subjectively)
2. A physiological response
3. Behavioural or expressive response.
The word emotion is used in different ways by psychologists to
describe a wide range of physiological changes for examples the body
may be stirred up (excitement) or pulled down (depressed). The word
emotion has also been used by neurologists to describe patterns of
nervous activities. By those interested in behaviour, they describe
such actions by weeping or laughing. Most cases, what to do is to
study behaviour. To describe the subjective feeling that bears such
name as: fear, anger, bitterness, e.t.c.
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Emotions add greatly to the meanings of life and the depth of

caring aspects in our relationships.
The roots of the word emotion mean to move. Firstly, the body is
physically aroused. Such body stirrings are what cause people to say
they were ‘moved’ by a play or funeral or an act of kindness
Most people closely identify pounding heart, sweating pants and
‘butterflies’ in the stomach such observations/ evaluations are valid.
Emotions are revealed by marked shifts in voices or tune.
4.1. What hosts Primary motions?
 Fear
 Surprise
 Sadness
 Disgust
 Anger
 Anticipation Joy Acceptance
The largest form or various emotions are called moods. Moods act
as a subtle emotional under arrest that affects much day to day
behaviour.
The facial and bodily undertone of behaviour speaks a language of
their mood and adds an additional message.

4.2. The Study of communication through body movements

3. Posture
4. Gesture
5. Facial Expression
They are informally called body language and formally called
Kinetics. There are different theories that try to explain why we
experience various emotions.
1. The James – Lange Theory
Common sense tells us that when we see a bear, we need to run
because we feel fear which makes us feel aroused.
2. Canon – Bard Theory of Emotions
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They believe there is nothing like an interpretation all you have is

an
EVENT-AROUSAL-EMOTIONS

3. The Schechter’s Singer Theory

Arousal does not produce emotion; arousal must be labeled or
interpreted.

Fig.1.0. Diagram illustrating the Theories of Emotion

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5.0. SOCIAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR

This is a topic in social psychology and from the name ‘social’ it
indicates ‘interaction’. Social psychology deals with how people
relate with others and how it relates to others. Social psychology
studies the interaction between two or more people and how the
behaviour affected others.
5.1. The definition of Social Psychology
It is the scientific study of how individuals think, how they feel
about each other, how they interact with each other and how all of
these influence their behaviour.
Social psychology is a discipline that uses scientific to
understand and explain how the thoughts, the feelings and behaviour
are influenced by the presence of other people.
5.2. Some Social Basis of Behaviour
Bystander Effect: The bystander effect in a situation where the higher
the number of people present in a distress situation the lower the
probability of the victim receiving help from other people present .
Therefore, when there are a few people or one person present in an
emergency, the probability that the victim gets help is higher. So, it
takes longer for a person to offer help when there are more people at
the scene.

5.3. Factors influencing by-stander effect

 Diffusion Of Responsibility (Dor): Diffusion means spread. The
desire to help would be shared if there are more people but if there
less people, there would not be a room for such diffusion. The
Diffusion of Responsibility is created by the presence of other
people or observers. Simply put, when many people are around a
situation requiring help, the individuals present feel no
responsibility to help because they feel the others should help.
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 Appropriate And Sociallyacceptable Behaviour:

Individuals feel it is inappropriate and socially unacceptable to
help when they witness other observers or other people fail to help.
They interpret the failure of other people to react as an indication
that, offering help is not necessary or that it is unacceptable. So, a
victim is likely to receive help when surrounded by a group or
when alone.

 Gender, Culture And Age

 Social Influence: Social influence is a social psychological

behaviour the attempts or efforts by one or more persons to change
our attitudes or behaviour. It also refers to how an individual’s
thoughts, actions and feelings are influenced by social groups.
Under social influence, we have other behaviours/Social influences
that affect our behaviour.

 Conformity: Conformity is a type of social influence involving a

change in behaviour, belief or thought/ thinking with those of
others i.e. aligns in their ways of thought. Conformity also
indicates an alignment with normative standard of the group we
belong to or the people we align with. Behaviour conformed to can
be negative or positive.

Thus there are two types of conformity:

- Informational Conformity: When we have challenges/issues in
decision making, the information we get from other people to
solve those problems is known as informational conformity.
- Normative Conformity: This happens when we go along with the
crowd because we want to be accepted or linked or because we
want to avoid embarrassment. It is better to decide with students
with CGPA of 4.50.
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6.0. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation is the process through which we receive information,
convert the information to meaningful stimuli and transmit. As human
beings, we have 5 senses and it is through this senses that we
encounter our world. Sensation is subjective i.e. though people go
through the same things, our reports/ reaction would be different.
Therefore sensitivity varies from an individual depending on one’s
psychological state. To go through sensation, information must reach
a certain level.
6.1. Threshold
6.1.1. Absolute Threshold
The Absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a
stimulus/sensation that one must experience before noticing such
information. Therefore, the Absolute threshold is that minimum level
at which a stimulus is noticeable 50% of the time.
6.1.2. Difference Threshold
The difference threshold is the smallest magnitude of the difference
between two similar objects that makes it noticeable. There are
different threshold for all five senses.
6.2. Sensory Adaptation
Adapting to situation. The raw sensation that gets into the body. All
sensory organs go through a process of transduction.
6.2.1. Sensory organs
6.2.1.1. Sense of Vision
The eye is made up of several functions. The chorea is the transparent
outer covering of the eye behind the chorea we have pupil. The sclera
is the quote opaque part of the eye.