Transmission Media

In this
We discussed many issues related to· the physical fayer in Chapters 3 through 6.
y located below, .
chapter, we discuss transmission media. Transmission media are actuall
the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer. You
could say·that
ission
transmission media belong to layer zero. Figure 7.1 shows the position of transm
media in relati~n to the physical layer. .

f
i; .
I
~,
Figure 7.1 Transmis_#on f!ldium and physical layer .

Physical layer ,- I Pb~i@l ayer I

Receiver

L . ----~.. _J
l

t Transmission medium
i ..... -.- ~
- ..,
~-·-..
..,.-
-
..

Cable or air

infor-
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
~ ,.: ~ ,. : ma,t.ion,frp_m•.a.6Qµr~ to ~ q.estioatioQ. for example, the
transmission medium for two
yeyh,te,e."'.· ._ ,._...:...:.
. people having a dinner conversation 'is the air. The air caintl~o;'be'_usaj t<?;CQn
is~on~ ~ ~
f
t message in a smoke signal or semaphore: For a written message, th~ transm
medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.
ission
In data communications the definition of the information and the transm
medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space,
metallic cable,
a conversion
or fiber-optic cable. The information is usualJy a signal that is the result of
of data from another form.
with the
The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started
by telegraph
invention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century. Communication
was sJow and dependent on a metallic medium.
one was
Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the teleph
ic medium
invented in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also needed a metall
human voice.
to cany the electric signals that were the result of a conversion from the

191

srn
19.2 CHAPTER 7 77«NSMISSION MEDIA

- .
. i-,••
'
l
tlle .rommunication wu, however, uh.reliable due to the poor quality of ~ wires. The J
lines were often noi,y tlfd the technology was unsophisticated. · . '
~· Wirelest comm,inlcation statttd in 1895 when Hertz was abte to send high-
frequency signals. Later, Marconi devised a method to send telegraph-type message,
over the Atlantic Ocean.
• "'I • • ... .

We have come a long way. Better metallic media have been invented (twisted-
pair and coaxialcab~esrfor exan_ii>le). The use pf optical fibers bas increased the data
rate incredibly. Free space (air, vacuum, and
water) is used more efficiently, in part
due to the technologies (such as modulation and multiplexing) discussed in the previous
chapters.
As discussed in Chapter 3, computers and other telecommunication devices use
signals to represent data. These signals are transmitted from one device to another in the
form of electromagnetic en<;rgy, which is prop~gaf;ed tbrpugh transmission media.-
. FJectro~tjc eqergy,
a combination of e~ec.tric.~d magnetic fields vibrating in
relation to each other, includes wwer, i:acf.io waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet
~t, and~ gamma; ~~ cosmic rays. Each of these c~nstitu~ ~ portion of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. Not all portions of the spectrum are cwrently usable for telecolll;1Du-
nicati.~. however. The media to harness those that are usable are also limited to a few
types. .
In telecommunications, transmission ·media can be divided-into two broad categ<r
ries: guided and·unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is fiee space. Figure 7.2 shows this taxonomy.

,·
Figure 7.2 Classesof(ianirnlssion media {:i
ii
't
{1
' .,-------------, .J
..
' I
'I

Twislcd-pair Coaxial Fiber-optic

. cable cable
Free space
cable

7.1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling
along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the fonn of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the fonn of light.
 SECT'ION7.I GUIDEDMEDIA 193

Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (nom,ally copper). each with Its own plMtic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure 7.3.

Flgure 7.3 'Twisttd..pair Mb/~

---
---......

·. _,,-·
,. -.,.

'-. , __:;::;-,~ ~·.

. • '_. ~
-
- ~

' :it.: '\

i\ .
•· I

I -- ;..;,,,,--... ....-... ....... :.....--... ~~ .. -·~· •

I One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference: The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one ~f the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwant¢<1 signal~~-
lf the two wires are paralle~. !he eff~ of th~ ~w~ted signals is not the same in
both wires because they are ~ different locations relativb to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e.g.,-one is closec and the other is farther). This results in~ difference at the receiver. By
a
twisting the pairs, bal~ is°inaintained. :Eoq:~ample, suppose fu one twist, one wire
is closer to the noi$C source and_the o~r. js-f;uther; il\.the next twist, the reverse is true.
Twisting makes it probable that both arew~s eqµally.
affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk). This means that the ~iver, which calculates the difference between
the two. receives no unwanted signals. The iin~anted signals are mostly canceled out.
From the above discussion, it ·is clear that the"number of twists per unit of length
(e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the.cable;,• ·
)··· . .
Unshielded Venus Shklded Twisted-P air Cable
. ..
The most common .tw.i~ted-pair cable used -in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable
for its use called shielded .twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided-
mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
I•
_· -t~~~of c_ able ~Y'P~ ~g, the pe~~tio n of noiseJ~(,~ f?~~~ : ~J!-.i . . I
bulkier and more expensive. Figure 7..'f shows ffie difference between lf.ll>, and~ ...~~~ 1
Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is seldom used outside of IBM. I

Categories
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify
I
unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined by cable
quality, with I as the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for
specific uses. Table 7.1 shows these categories.
Connector,
The most common UTP connector is RJ4S (RJ stands for registered jack), as shown
io Figure 1.5. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in
only one way.
194 CHAPTER 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 7•4 UTP and STP cahlt.t

--ctI

LUl'P
b.STP

1able 7.t Categories ofunshielded twisted-pair cables

Unshielded twisted-pair used in telephone . . Telephone _

Unshielded twisted-pair originally used in 2
T-lines ._. . .. · · :·
3 lmprdye4 C~t 2 used in LANs 10 LANs
4 lmP(oved CAT 3 used in Token Ring networks · 20 LANs
5 Cable wire is normally 24 AWG with a jacket .100 LANs
and outside sheath
5E An extension to category 5 that includes 125 LANs
extra features to minimize the crosstalk and
electromagnetic interfere.nee
6 A new category with·matched components 200 LANs
.. ' .. .
~ming from the same manufacturer The · " :.. ·-~· · ·
~ · c a b l e ~ at a 200:Nffi~s data ~~e~~: ·J-T::"·
-~;j;~~~{("

· 7 Sometimes called SSTP (shielded screen · · 600 LA'Ns

twisted-pair). Each pair is individualJy
wrapped in a helical metallic foil folJowed by
a metallic foil shield in addition to the outside
sbeath. The shield decreases the effect of
crosstalt and increases the data rate.

Ptrformanet
One way to measure the perfonnance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuatiOQ ·
versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencic,. · 1
However, Figure 7.6 shows that with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured ii
decibels per kilometer (dB/Ian), sharply increases with frequencies above JOO kHz. Noce
that gllllgt is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
r~
 SECTION 7.1 GUIDED MEDIA 195

Figure 7.5 UTP coMector

nlnln
1234'56.78

RJ-45 Pemale RJ-45 Male

Figure 7.6 UTP perf.orma!J:Ce

. ..,_ 26gaugc
. 20

18

16

114
~ 12
18 gauge
g
·a 10
-. H s
<
6

iE:::::::::__---~
10 100 1000
/(kHz)

Applicalioll,!
·~ Q b l e s are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. 1be
local loop-the line that connects subscnoers to the central telephone ofti~ y~ ~ ,1.
consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. We discuss telephone networks in Chapter 9.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
We discuss DSL technology in Chapter 9.
Local.area networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T. also use twisted-pair cables.
We discuss these networks in Chapter 13.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax} canics signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted-
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of
196 CHAPTER 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

having two wtrC· ·S: coax h

as a.central core conductor of solid or stranded
copper) enclosed 1n an insulating sheath, whic wire (usuaJl·'I
of metal fu'l b 'd h is In tum encft·--• •. 7
• • ~ m an :
both ' '
hi d l"l1 'or
· a com bination of the two The outer metalt1· outer conduc t f
Thi as a s el against noise and as the second cond · . scrv~, ..
c wrapping t
uctor, which completes the circuit. !,
~co nd ~ is also enclosed in an insulatin
t""'~·~7~,y
Y• plastic cover (see FigU.te 7.7).
g sheath, and the whole cable If

Figure 7~7 Coaxial cabk

-
I I.- •I I I I .. I

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cab les ~ categorized by their radio government
(RG) ratings. Each RG nwn-
ber denotes a unique set of physical specifica
tions, inchiding the wire gauge of the
inner con~uctor, the thickness and type of the
inner insulator, the construction of the
shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Each cable defined by an RG rating is
adapted for a specialized function, as shown in
Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

·,, ·•·•Y.,-'-";•r•ir..i•"~, J:t &'' l"i .,~ ,,:,.:,.,.,,
·,.t~1;".d .••
• -~· ty;.,_ , ,,~.).l,.... •b··· ;t,:;, .
:-{, ,. ~-j =~ ~ ~ t l , 7 )~.: ..~:·- ~ -:..·. ··;
· RG-59: . .
,:
75 0 Cable TV
RG-58 son Thin Ethernet
RG- 11 son . Thick Ethernet

Coaxial Cable Connecton

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need
coaxial connectors. The most common
type of connector used today is the Bayone..Neil
l-Concelman (BNC), connector.
Figure 7.8 show s three populiu- types of thes
e connectors: the BNC connector, the
BNC T connector, and the BNC tenninator.
1be BNC connector is used to connect the
end of the cable to a device, such as a
TV set The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet
networks (see Chapter 13) to branch
out to a connection to a computer or other devi
ce. The BNC terminator is used at the
end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the sign
al.
 SECTION 7.1 GUIDED MEDIA 197

Figure 7.8 BN<; C<Htntctr>rs

BNCT
Cable
j

"'
BNC connector . .so.n
BNC t.enninltor
Oround
wire

~ -.
As we did with twisted-pair'cables,·we can melisure the performanc
e of a coaxial cable.
cables than in
We notice in Figure 7.9 that il;J.e attenuation' is much .higher in coaxial
tf
~-p air cabie. in other words,'hlfhough coaxial cabilhas a inuch
'bigher bandwidth,
the signal weak ens rapidly Md reij ~ the'frequ~. nt" ~se of
. ...
repeaters.
.

Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable.performance . I . '

O.W..9mm
35

30

10 f 1

t
s I

1.0 10 100
0,01 0.1
/(kHz)

Applications
coaxial net-
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single
one networks
work could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital teleph
ever, coaxial
where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. 'How
optic cable.
cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with fiber-
ional cable
Cable TV networks (see Chapter 9) also use coaxial cables. In the tradit
cable TV providers
TV network. the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however,
198 CHAPTER 7 11WvSMISSION MEDIA

replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial c
only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises. Cable TV uses RO•
coaxial cable.
Another common apptlcatioh of couial cable Is in traditional Ethernet LANs (
Olapter 13). Because of its high bandwidth. and consequently high data rate, co
cable WU chosen for digital transmission iJ1 early Ethernet LANs. The 1OBase-2 or
Ethemet, 'Uses RO-~B ooexial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at io
with a range of 185 m. tbe 10Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RO-11 (thick coaxial
to trak\Smit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m. Thick Ethernet has specialiud comlCC

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and ttansmits signals in the form of Ii
To understand optical fl~, we first ne¢ io explore-several aspects of the nature of li
. . Light tra~ls. in a straight ~e as long as it is moving throµgh a single uniform
s~. Ha ray.of light ~veliog dirough one substance.suddeniy enters another subs
(of a different density), ·the ray .changes· direction.. Fi~ 7.10 shows how a ray of li
changes direction ·when·g~irig fro~ ·amore dense·to a iess dense substance.

Figure 7.10 Bending oflight ray

Less Less
dense dense
:': ~- -f : , .''...~ ~~:1.
-~ -.. ~rt f ~-· ···~ ~~
;t:}(£:'~~-f_;:;
I< critical angle,
.L,i~L/'.:,
= I critical angle,
.. .-:~-~ '/'

I> critical angle,

: ;-·.; ·: ~~ ~·
refractioo refraction reflectioo

As the figure snows, if the angle of incidence / (the angle the ray makes with the
line perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical
angl~L~~l ay refracts_and moves closer to the su~a~~;J.f~~ ; - ~ of incidence.,j '
equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the .interface. If the angle is greater than
the critical angle, the ray_~fleets (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser sub-
stance. Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs
from one substance to another.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic cort
is sUITounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the
two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off
the cladding instead of being refracted into it. See Figure 7.11.

Propagation MOths
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light
along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multi-
mode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index (see Figure 7.12).
 SECTION 7./ GUIDED MEDIA 199

Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

lltdfa Receiver

Fagure 7.ll Propagalionmodes _

Multimode Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source

move through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable
depends on the sbueturc of the CQl'C. as shown in figure 7.13.
In multiolode step-iada __., tbe dcnsiry of lhe core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of ligh1 moves through this ~ t density in a straight

k
I'
line until it reaches the interf'ICC of the core and the cladding. At the interfacc, there is
an abrupt change due to a lower densiry; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The
terin step index refers to the suddmoess l)f this change. which cootri~tes to the distor-
tion of the signal as· it passes through the fiber.
A scoond type of fiber, called multimode graded-indn: fiber, dec:rcases this distor-
tion of th~ signal through the cable. The word inda here refers to the index otrefnction..
As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density. A graded-index fiber,
therefore, is one with vuyin8 densities. Densiry is highest al the center of the core and
decreases gradually to its • ~ at the edge. Figme 7.13 shows the impact of this vari-
able density on the propagation of light beams.

Singl~ Mode Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light
'
I
J
I
that limits beams to a small range of angles. all close to the horizontal. The single- I
l
mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diamcter than that of multimode
fiber, and with substantially lower density (mdex of rc:fractioo). The decrease in density
results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of beams
almosl horizontal, ln this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical. and
delays are negligible. All the beams mivc al the destination "together' and can be ! i
recombined with little distortion to the signal (sec Figure 7.13). I
I
'I
 200 CHAPTER. 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 7.13 Modts

JU1 ~ Dmhlldoll

JU1Source Tlestioadoa

b. Maltimode, snded-ladu

JU1Source
JUl
Dcstinatioa

C. Single mode

Fiber Sizes .
Optical fibers are·defined by the ratio of the diameter of their -core to the di.
their cladding, both expressed in ·micrometers. The common sizes are sliown in
Note that the last size listed is for single-mode only.-·

TabJe7J I ' I '

---
-
'
62.51125 62.5 125 Multimode,
100/125 100.0 125 Multimode,
7/125 7.0 125 Single mode

Cabk Comi,01ilion
Figure 7.14 shows the composition of a typical fiber-optic cable. The outer jacket is
of either PVC ocTeflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable.
is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is lUJUU--.
plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consist,
cladding and core.

Fiber-Optic Cabk Connecton

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure 7.IS.
 SECTION 7.1 GUIDED MEDIA IOI

Figure 7.14 Fibtr con.ttMlction

Du Pont Kevl11r
/ ro, ~trtngth

Olastor
pwtic core

Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

SC connector ST cooneciOr

Mf-RJ cooncctor .

. .:
' '. . ~- . ..
~ . . ·. .. '
Toe subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull
··-- .•~ g.._system_. The str~ight~tip (ST) connector is used·for connecting cable to
a
networking devices. It uses bayonet locking syst~m and is~Qlate. ~able4-~ ~<;::.
MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45. '·

Performance
The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure 7 .16 shows a very interesting
phenomenon in fiber-op~c cable. Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair
cable and coaxial cable. The perfonnance is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times
less) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.

ApplicaJilJns
Fiber-optic-cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is
cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer
202 CHAPTER 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 7.16 Opticalfibtr peiformanct

100 . .\. _.
)() '
-.
'•

10
s

l·3
o.s

0.1
o.os

___
l200L__ _l...J.400 1600.1.----:-l-::.800::--~
0.0l L_800_1__ _l000_,1__ _
.
Wavelength (nm) ..'
.

data at a~ c>f~I600 Gbps. The SO ~ ri~two~t' that ~~ ·discuss in Chapter. 17

such a· backbone.
optical fiber and coaxial
Some cable TV companies use a combination of
ides the backbone structUl'I
thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber prov
~,s,,,'Jbi~lit ~;~~s~-effi
coaxial cable provide; .the conµ~tfon to th~ user.p_;e
at the user end does not ju
.figuration since the iiatrow bandwidth requirement
use of optical fiber. . . ·.. . .
(Fast Ethernet) and 10008
Local-area networks such as IOOBase-FX network
. .Skt f ~Y..:.. :f aii..~ "" .
als o~ fif?ei.:-optJc __qlble.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber ~

ntages over metallic cable (twli

Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several adva ~
pair or coaxial). -
atically higher band
0 Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support.dram
ial cable. Currently, data
(and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coax
limited not by the mediun
and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are
available.
by the signal generation and reception technology
nce is significantly I(,
0 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic tran•smission dista 50 km without rcqu f
for
than that of other guided meditVA signal can run
ial or twisted-pair cabJc,
regeneration . We need repeaters every 5 km for coax
agnetic noise cannol
0 lmml.Ulity to electromagnetic interference. Electrom
ftber-optic cables.
stant to corrosive mati.
0 Resistance to corrosive materiabi. Glass is more resi
than copper.
 SEC110N 7.2 UNGUID ED MEDIA: WIRELESS 203

□ Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
□ Gnater Immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

Disad~ tages :there.are some ciisadvantages i.n the use of optical fiber.
□ lmtallation and ~~~ ce. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. ltc;
installation and miintenanoe requ~-expertise that is nofyet available everywhere.
-. Q Unidirectional ~l p~~o~ ~atio n of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional commu.nicad'on, two fibots an, needed.
Cl C. The cabl~.~d the int¢~ces are.rc,atively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If tlie·defuand for bandwidth-is not'high, often the use of optical fiber
canriot be justified.." ", . ' . . .. . ' '

r. · 7.2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided ;media·tiinsprirt electr~ma~etic :wave~.~ithout using_a_:physical conductor.
This type of communication is ~ft~n referr~ tg .as wirel.~ ~o~un ication . Signals
-~ ~(?m18lly k~~t .~~~ fr~.·~pac~_aii_d thufare,a~ailai? . . .
l~ to_~yone who has a
. ·.·. :·
device capable ofreceiving them:.:·. ·. . . . .. . ·.
. : ~gure'7.Jt ~~ows ~~P.~:¥<>f.~~-e~~trQmagnetl{specnvm , ranging from 3 kHz to
900 THz, used for wrr¢less,_co)mnuni catfon. . .. . . ,. ,.. . ..

Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic-spectrumfor ~i,:eless communic;alio,:i

300 400 900

3
· GHz 1llz 1llz
- · ·kHz

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in•several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and ljne-of-sight propagation, as show~J ~ F~gure 7.18.
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of tne
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions
from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends
on the amount of power in the signal:.The greater the power, the greater the distance. In
sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upw~d into the ionosphere
(the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to
earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight
lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,·.facing each other,
 ,I
.,

ii!..
204
CHAPTER 7 11WISMISSION MEDIA
(
]
.J
~
Figure 7.18 Propagatio" mtthods

IOIIOlphae lonmphere ~I
I
,.
~
I
;

•
i
I

Ground propagalioo
(below 2 MHz)
Sky propagation
(2-30MHz)
I
t
l

,.
~

'~
and either tall enough or close ·enough together ·notto be.affected by tho
the earth. Line~f-sight prop~gation is .tricky because radi~ .tr~oµssiOIII
completely focused. . . . . ..
. 1be section of .the electromagnetic .spectrum defined as radio way~ and
:is divided uito eight range~•.called baiids, each regulated by govetjµnenc
~ ~ a r e ~ from very i9wfrequer,cy (VLF)'io ~ l y liigii ,,.,,"...,..
Table 7.4 lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and ~~ .
. .- .
~ . . . ~

Table 7.4 Bands

VLF (very low frequency) 3-30kHz Long-range

navigation
Lf (low frequ~ncy) _ . 30-300kHz .Ground Radio/
~avisational
MF (middle frequency) 300kHz-3 MHz Sky . AM radio
--·
i HF (high frequency) 3-30MHz Sky Citiz.e~ band (
ship/aircraft .~
!
I
commurucatioa
VHF (very high frequency) 30-300MHz Sky and
line-of-sight
UHF (ultrahigh frequency) 300 MHz- 3 GHz Line-of-sight UHF TV, cell\&llt
paging, salClUII s
SHF (supemigb frequency) 3-30GHz Line-of-sight
EHF (exuemely high 30-300GHz Line-of-sight Radar, satellh• ~ <·
frequency)

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio wa.
waves, and infrared waves. See Figure 7.19.
 I

UIDED MEDIA : WIR

ELESS 2" 5 I
SECTION l. l UNG
I
II

tr:rznsmission wa ves
Figure 7.19 Will'less

Infrared
Radio wave MJcrowave

Radio Waves tw ee n ra di o w av es and microwaves,

elec-
n be y called
clear-cut demarcatio d 1 GHz are noJV1311
Although there is no s be tw ee n 3 kH z an
d m ic ro -
ranging in frequencie d 300 GHz are calle
tromagnetic waves ie s be tw ee n 1 ·an tter
o w av es ; ~ v es ra nging in frequenc th er th an . th e frequencies, is a be
radi aves:. ra
e behavior ·o f the·w
waves. However, thation/ · -· ;·· - •.; ··:.. . · · its
criterion for classific e m~st an antenna transm
p~ ar e· om nidir~tional. When
R ad io ~ fo r th th at the sending and
- . rw av es
l directio ns . T hi s m ea ns
at can
are propagated in al ruia ·sends waves th
radio waves, they igne d. A se nd in g an te
dvantage,
do not have to be al l property has a disa
receiving antennas om ni di re ct io na
iv ed by an y ~ iv in g antenna. Th
e
a ar e su sc ep tib le to interference by
be re ce e antenn
es transmitted by on e frequency or band
.
too. The radio wav al s-us in g th e sa m travel
another antenna that
may send sign
th at pr op ag at e ·in the sky ~ od e, can
Radio waves, parti
cularly those waves nd id at e for long-distance br
oadcast-
es a
. go od ca
m ak es radio wa~
Jong di ~ oc es . This alls.
ing sucti as AM radi
o. _
d m ed iu m fr eq ue nc ies, can penetrate w
an advantage
Radio waves, parti
cularly those of.low d a di sa dvantage. It is an
ag e an
ch ar ac te ristic ca n be both an adva nt
al s in si de a bu ild in g. It is a disadvan-
Thi~ receive sign
us e. fo r ex am pl e; an AM radio can to ju st in si de or ou tside a building. The
be c.a n1unicatio n. rowave
o t isolate a com mpared to the mic
tage because we ~ un de r 1 .. G H z, co
latively naqow, just narrow, leading to a
raciio· wa:ve _b3!1d -ts·~e ivided into subbands, the subbands 3;fC also
is.d
band. When this band .
low ~ rate for digi
tal communications
on tie s (e .g ., th e FCC in the United
d by auth
A lm os t th e en tire band is regulate rm ission-from the auth
orities.
. nd requ ire s pe
part 'of the ba
- ~Stat.es). Using any

ntenna ctions.
Omnidirectwnal A send ou t signais in aJJ dire
nn as that v-
io wav es use om ni directional ante e of transm ission, we can have se
Rad the purp os
ength, strength, and directional antenna.
Based on the wavel 20 shows an om ni
. Figure 7.
eral types of antennas

Applications em usefuJ for muJlicastin

g,
waves make th
acteristics of radio dio, television, mar
i-
~ o~idirec~o1 nal chsearnder but many receivers, AM and FMasratin g.
e tic
•~ whic~ there s on ones , and paging are examples o f mul
time radio, cordJe
ss ph
206
CHAPTER 7. TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 7•26 Omnidi~ctional antenna

Mi~rowaves •
•
~
'<
•I
~
•
I ' •
~
.. • ' •
-· . •
•

een I ·and 30(J-GHz are called micro-

- Electromagnetic waves-having frequencies betw
waves.
transmits microwave waves, they
Microwaves are unidirectional.·When an antenna
ing and ·receiving antennas need to .
can be narrowly focused. This means that the send
obvious advantage. A pair of antennas ·
be 4lligned. The ,unidirectional property has an
of aligned antennas. The following
can be aligned without interfering with another pair
agation:
describes some characteristics:of microwave prop
towers with the mounted antennas
0 Microwave propagation is line-_of-si~t. ·sine~ the
need to.be in ~ t_siftht of each other; towers that
are.f¥ apart ~eed to be very tall. '
obstacles do not allow two short
as
The curvature of the earth as well other blocking
by using microwaves. Rep eaters ~ •often needed for long-
towers. to commun• icate
• • •
. I
•
distance com mum cat1 on.
w~ls. This ~haract~ristic can be
□ Very high-frequency micf~wav~s-cannot penetrate .
a disa4vantage if.receivers are-inside buildings
GHz. Therefore wider subbands
0 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299
can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible
n from authorities.
0 Use of certain portions of the band requires permissio

Unldirtitional Antenna
send out signals in one direction . Two
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that
munications: the parabolic dish and the
types of antennas are used for microwave com
horn (see Figure 7.21 ).
etry of a parabola: Every line
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geom
reflects aff the curve at angles such that
parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight)
the focus. The parabolic dish works as a
aJJ the lines intersect in a common point called
 UNGUI/J £D M£/JIA : WIRELESS UY1
SECTION 7.2

Figure 7.21 Unidi~criona/ antennas

Foc us~+ ==J.J

LDls bant maa b. Hom uitam a

.• I

directing them to a com mon point. _In

funnel, -~at~hing a wide· range of waves and
than would be possible with a single-pomt
this way, more of the signal is recovered
. , . .• . . ... . .
receiver. ed at the dish. Toe micro-
Outgoing trimsmissio~ broadcast through .a
are horn aim
in a rev~rsal of the receipt path.
waves .hit the dish and are deflected outward
A horn antenna_ i~~-like a gjgantic ~oo
p. Ou~ oing ~sq ljss io~ s are broadcast
d outward in a series of narrow para llel
up a stem .(rese~bling a handle) and deflecte
ssions are collected by the scooped shape of
bea ms by the curved head. Received transmi .
c dish, and are deflected down into the stem
the horn, in a manner similar to the paraboli
. . :.
I ., . ' Applications · • · ·
.
pro pert ies, are very use ful,.~!!.,~1!~.1:1.!"cast ~
Microwaves, due to thei r unidirectional ~•- ....-,,~., .. ·
-to- one ) com mun icat ion is need ed betw een the sender and the receiver.i,,Th ey. . . are"·
(one
in cell ular pho nes (Ch apte r 16), sate llite n~twO:rks (Chapter l6); and wireless LAN s
used
(Chapter 14). I ! .·

'f
Jofrared
z to 400 TH z (wavelengths from I mm
lntrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GH ared waves, having high
rnuqication. Infr
to 770 nm), can be used for short-range com rfer-
advantageous characteristic prevents inte
frequencies, canqot penetrate walls. This
een one syst em and ano ther ; a sho rt-ra nge communication syst em in one roo m
ence betw ote
next room. When we use our infrared rem
cannot be affected by another system in the
the remote by our neighbors. However, this
con trol, we do not interfere with the use of In
useless for long-ran ge com mun icat ion.
same characteristic makes infrared signals
ide a building because the sun 's rays contain
~ti on , we cannot use infrared waves outs
infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
 MEDIA
208 CHAPTER 7 TRANsMISSION

App/icatiollS
on.
ost 400 TH z, has an excelle nt potential f~r data transmissi
The i ~ band, alm y high data rate.
e ban dw idth can be use d to transmit digital data with a ver
Such a ~d the use of infrared
ra~ d Da ta Ass oci atio n (lrD A), an ~sociation for sponsoring
Th e lnf n between
for u$i ng ,th e~. signals for communicatio
wa':5, h~ ~ta bli she d sta
rds
nda
, mic
rds
e, PC s, ind printers. For example, some manufacture
rs
· de VI ~ such as keyboa commu-
rt that allows a wireless keyboard to tance
a specia l por t called the IrD A po
provide 75 kbps for a dis
originaJJy defined a data rate of
nicate with a PC. The standard
defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
up to 8 m. The recent standard tran smit through ~ne of sight; the
IrDA port on
signal s def ine d by IrD A
·Infrared ur.
the keyboard needs to point
to the PC for transmission to occ

. . DED RE
MMEN ADIN G
7.3 RECO
~.
following
abo ut subjec ts discus sed in•this chapter, we·recoinmend the
For more details the end of the text.
ks. The item s in bracke ts [.' ..] refer to the reference list at
boo

Books . '

cus sed in Sec tion 3.8 of [GW 04], Chapter 4 of [Sta04], Sec-
Transmission media is dis ssion media
and 2.3 of [Tan03 ]. [SSS05 ] gives a full coverage of trans~
tion 2.2

7.4-~ KEY TERMS

lrDAport
angle of incidence
line-of-sight propagation
Bayone-Neil-Concelman (BNC)
connector microwave
cladding _ MT-RJ
coaxial cable multimode graded-index fiber
core multimode step-index fiber
critical angle omnidirectional antenna
electro~gnetic spectrum optical fiber
fiber-optic cable parabolic dish antenna
ber
gauge · Radio Government (RG) num
ground propagation radio wave
guided media reflection
horn antenna refraction
infrared wave RJ45