Appendix

k-Space Formalism

Fourier Space or k-Space

An alternate way to understand MRI acquisition schemes is

through the concept of Fourier space, or k-space. Although the
concept of Fourier space is not intuitively easy to understand, it
provides a unified view of all data acquisition schemes used in
imaging. Some pulse sequence methods, such as echo-planar
imaging, are best understood by way of the concept of Fourier
space. The basic premise of the k-space formalism is that any
image can be entirely described by its content in spatial frequen-
cies: that is, how information varies across the image. Thus, for
any image there exists a complementary image containing the
spatial frequencies. Although the term "spatial frequencies" ap-
pears unintuitive, it can be understood by examining the sound
waveform analogy. Any sound waveform can be decomposed
into a sum of elementary frequencies having various amplitudes
and phases. One can reconstruct the waveform by appropriate
combination of the component frequencies.
Let us examine further the concept of spatial frequency as it
pertains to an image. Since images have two dimensions, spatial
frequencies must be separated in perpendicular directions, say x
and y. A spatial frequency may be seen as the number of times
the information in the image changes per unit length of the
image. For instance, let us consider an "infinite" image made of
points spaced every inch in the x direction and every 2 inches in
the y direction (Figure A.1). Therefore, the spatial frequency
along x is 1 per inch and the spatial frequency along y is 0.5 per
inch. One may exactly reconstruct the actual image from knowl-
edge of these spatial frequencies.
A more complicated image would require more than two
spatial frequencies, but the principles remain the same. And
conversely, the actual image can be exactly reconstructed from
knowledge of the spatial frequency components. The math-
ematical operation that is used to go from the Fourier space to
 Fourier Space or k-Space 155

o 0 0 0 0 0 0

o 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
--
0
LO
0

o 0 0 0 DOD

o 0 0 0 DOD

1 / cm
spatial
frequency
Figure A.l. The spatial frequencies of an image comprising a matrix of
dots.

the actual space or vice versa is called Fourier transformation

(Figure A.2). These frequencies are usually called kx and ky, with
the result that the Fourier space is also called k-space. In this
space, low frequencies correspond to slow variations across the
image and therefore contain information about contrast. High
spatial frequencies correspond to rapid variations in the image
and encode details. The resolution in the image is given by the
highest spatial frequencies that may be found in the image.
The Fourier space has certain interesting features that are also
found in holography, which is based on Fourier analysis. For
instance, a given point in the Fourier space does not correspond
to a given point in the actual image. A point in the Fourier space
is associated with a given set of two spatial frequencies, one
along x and the other along y. These frequencies contribute to the
entire image. Fourier imaging and Fourier transformation are
used in many disciplines of physics and engineering. With MRI,
156 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

Image K-space
Space

.. .
,
/

I I
!
/
I ...
::-.l \
• ,1

,
I I ,.

N :~ <J :>-
I
.. ' ,
:' 1 •

': / Fourier
\ ' I!~ ...
; 11J/1
Transfor
"1\ I
I ;·f~· \' ~ ;

. ,.I:
"\
I

" 'II
.\

Figure A.2. The one-to-one correspondence between image space and

k-space.

the link between Fourier space and images is direct, since data
are collected in the computer memory in terms of spatial
frequencies.

Phase Encoding
The k-space image is directly connected to the MRI image by the
Fourier transform operation. As described in Chapter 2,
the phase-encode technique provides an elegant way to encode
the position of spins by virtue of their phase frequencies. The k-
space formalism described below provides an alternate under-
standing of the process of phase encoding.
Using a constant gradient Gx, the precession frequency at loca-
tion x is:

(A.I)
(The relation to equation 2.3 will be noted; equation A.I, how-
ever, refers to the rotating frame, with the result that the static
field component is excluded.)
 Phase Encoding 157

If G x is applied during a given time interval t, spins will have

precessed at an angle 0 determined by:
(A.2)
Since 0 must be between 0 and 1t radians, it appears that the
phase varies cyclically along x axis (gG)) per unit length. The
associated spatial frequency is thus
(A.3)
Similarly, for a gradient G y applied in the y direction, the
corresponding spatial frequency along y axis would be:
(A.4)

Hence, the spatial frequencies are proportional to the gradient

amplitude and the duration of the gradient used to phase-encode
spins. In as much as gradients may vary in time, spatial frequen-
cies are more exactly defined as the integral over time of the
gradient pulse shape (i.e., the area under the gradient pulses).
Basically, the k-space or Fourier space may be represented by
two axes, kx and kyo For technological reasons, sampling of k-
space must be discrete. An MRI acquisition may thus be seen as
a series of data collections that will provide the amplitude and
the phase of a given number of spatial frequencies. When the
amplitude and the phase of those selected spatial frequencies are
known, it is necessary to "reconstruct" the image by means of a
Fourier transformation in both x and y directions.
The number and the pattern of spatial frequencies needed for
the generation of an image depends on the features present (e.g.,
image resolution, field of view). The size of the k-space-that is,
the highest spatial frequency that will be analyzed-determines
the size of the smallest structure that can be seen in the image
(pixel) (i.e., the image resolution). The pixel size p is therefore:
1
Px,y =-k-- (A.S)
xy,max

Since the maximum value achievable for k directly depends on

the maximum gradient intensity available (equations A.3, A.4),
image resolution is limited by gradient hardware. One may also
increase the duration of the gradient, if this is not prevented by
sequence design and signal-to-noise ratio limitations. The small-
est step in Fourier space sampling or the distance between con-
secutive points, assuming all points are regularly spaced,
determines the lowest spatial frequency that can be recognized.
This frequency corresponds to the longest that can be seen in the
158 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

image (i.e., to the field of view). Thus along the x and y direc-
tions, FOV"y is

1
FOV"l/=-- (A.6)
- kxy,min

The number nx,y of k-space points to analyze in either direction

x or y is therefore:

n = kxy,max = FOVx,y (A. 7)

X,l/ k
xy,min Px,y

Thus nx,y is also the number of pixels in the actual image.

Therefore, one must obtain information on as many points in the
k-space as there are pixels in the actual image. Remember, how-
ever, that a point in the k-space does not correspond to a pixel in
the actual image but is linked to the whole image.

Ciassical2DFT Imaging
We now see how the concept of Fourier space applies to conven-
tional spin-echo imaging. In conventional spin-echo imaging,
spatial encoding is obtained through frequency and phase en-
coding as described in Chapter 2. During the pulse sequence, the
data points are recorded during the readout period, and data
acquisition is repeated for successive values of the phase-encode
gradient. These data points, which are acquired sequentially,
form the k-space image. This section describes the congruence of
the data points to that of the k-space.
At the beginning of the pulse sequence, the spatial frequency is
o in both x and y directions, corresponding to the center of the
k-space (point A in Figure A.3). Typically, a gradient pulse is
applied in the first half of the spin-echo sequence on the so-called
readout axis. Let us call this axis x. The amplitude and duration
of this pulse are fixed and determined, so that the corresponding
kx is kx,maJ2, which is determined by image resolution. Simulta-
neously, a gradient pulse of variable amplitude is applied on the
y axis for phase encoding, corresponding to a spatial frequency
kyo Therefore, after these two pulses we have traversed to posi-
tion B in Figure A.3 (at the extremity of a line in k-space). As long
as no other gradient pulse is applied either on x or y axis, the
spatial frequencies remain the same. The effect of the 180 0 RF
pulse is to invert the phase of the transverse magnetization,
which in k-space results in symmetric reflection with respect to
the center. We move now to position C in k-space. During the
echo, a gradient pulse is applied (readout gradient). Signal inten-
 Classical 2DFT Imaging 159

Ky
~.-~~~~~~~~~ C
c'

Kx

Figure A.3. The trajectory of data acquired during. an spin-echo scan.

sity will be discretely sampled at regular intervals t. Each signal

pickup will therefore be associated with a different spatial fre-
quency along the x axis. Between two consecutive signal pick-
ups, spatial frequency will have increased by kx,min' which is
determined by the field of view:

1
kx,mm. r xt =
='~
L7
--
FOV (A.8)
x

In the k-space, the position of the data point being recorded

moves from point C along the kx direction, in steps of kx,min' since
ky does not change. At the center of the echo, we have sampled
nJ2 points in k-space, putting us at point D, which must be at
the center of the kx line. For this purpose, we must satisfy the
condition:

(A.9)

which means that the area of the gradient pulse applied on the
readout axis in the first period is identical to that of the readout
gradient pulse from its start to the top of the echo. From the top
of the echo, the signal is sampled symmetrically over nJ2
points, up to the end of the kx line (i.e., point E). Hence, the total
duration of the readout gradient pulse is ni. On each side of the
160 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

top of the echo, the signal drops according to T2*. One can see
how the gradient pulse intensity, its duration, and the sampiing
rate are tied to the image resolution and the field of view. Shorter
sampling times require stronger gradient pulses.
At this stage of the acquisition process, we have seen that the
sampling of one echo signal for a few milliseconds provides data
for a full line in k-space. To get data on all lines, we must repeat
the whole process again, line after line. To change lines, the
amplitude of the phase-encoding gradient is changed, where-
upon another value of ky is obtained, leading to another point B'
in k-space. Basically, the phase-encoding gradient amplitude is
changed, ensuring that the corresponding spatial frequencies
will vary between -ky,max /2 and +ky,max /2 by ny steps of ky,mix.
Dramatic reduction in scan time can be obtained by changing
the algorithm used to scan the k-space. As seen above, conven-
tional techniques as well as gradient-echo imaging techniques
require the ny lines of the k-space to be scanned individually.
There are, however, other acquisition schemes in which several
lines in the k-space are scanned during a single sequence cycle.
This is the approach used in the pulse sequences based on RARE
(rapid acquisition by refocused echo). Ultimately, the whole k-
space may be scanned in a single cycle, as with echo-planar
imaging (EPI).

Additional Reading
Twieg DB. The k-trajectory formulation of the imaging process with applica-
tions in analysis and synthesis of imaging methods. Med Phys 10:610 (1983).
 Index

A correcting, 108 Bolus-tracking technique,

Abdominal tissues, ghost, from motion, 107- for flow
relaxation times for, 112 measurement 123-
85 Gibbs, 153 124
Acetone, diffusion in phase encode Brain, imaging, 80
coefficient of, 51 gradient use, 149 angiogram, phase contrast
Alderman-Grant (AG) coil, motion, in volume method,119
37 imaging, 115 contrast in images of, 78-
Aliasing wraparound, preventing, 79
Nyquist, 35-36 77 coronal images, 57
in phase shift detection, See also Aliases metastatic disease
125-126 Atherosclerotic stenosis, detection, with
preventing effect on velocity of contrast agents, 71-73
in flow systems, 118-119 blood flow, 101 nuclear magnetic
oversampling for, 36 Attenuation, of fat, using an resonance spectra,
zebra stripe method of, inversion pulse, 64- 136
128 65 proton density weighted
See also Artifacts image of,41
Amplification, of a radio B spectroscopy of, 151
frequency pulse, for Bandwidth, of a 3D-time-of-flight
transmission, 33 radiofrequency pulse, technique for, 115
Analog-to-digital converter 16 Breast, imaging of, 91-94
(ADC), for generating Bernoulli's principle, 101 Breath-hold imaging, 113
information for Birdcage coil, 37 Brownian motion, effect on
computer storage, Blood flow imaging, 50-52
34-35 pulsatile, 111-112
Angiography, 100-129 velocity of C
cardiac, X-ray-based, 88- factors determining, Cardiac imaging,
89 100-102 gadolinium chelate
dark-blood, spin-echo mapping, 123-129 dosages used in, 73
imaging for, 63 in selected vessels, 102 Cardiac triggering, for
Aorta, imaging plane for Blood vessels motion artifact
observing, 89 enhancing the image of, correction, 108
Architecture, of an MRI 54 Carotid arteries, imaging of,
instrument, 25-26 flow velocity in, 102 117
Arthrography, gadolinium sequential-slice 2D, 113 Cartilage, hypointense
chelate dosages used Body imaging, 84-86 signal from, 41--42
in,73 Boltzmann equation, ratio of Central nervous system,
Artifacts, 85 spin populations diagnosing diseases
cardiac triggering, for determined from, 5 of,66
162 Index
contrast media for, 69-74
Cerebrospinal fluid,
imaging, 81
Chelated complexes,
gadolinium, as
contrast agents, 67
Chemical shift (8), 131-132
and artifacts, in fatty
tissue, 85
effect on, of chemical
exchange, 138
values for common
metabolic
compounds, 133
Chemical shift imaging
(CSI), 143, 148-149
Circular polarization, for
spin excitation, 37-38
Clinical applications, 76-99
Coils
phased-array, for pelvic
imaging, 96
types of
for breast imaging, 92-
94
and corresponding
organs imaged, 39
volume, types of, 37
Concentration effect, image
intensity resulting
from, 41-42
Continuous wave nuclear
magnetic resonance,
124-125
Contrast, in fast-spin-echo
sequences, 63
Contrast agents, 66-75
for angiography, 121-122
for brain scans, 78
in clinical trial, list of, 74
for kidney imaging, 86-87
in laboratory trial, list of,
74-75
for spine scans, 81
Contrast-to-noise ratio
(CNR),56-58
Coordinate system, rotating,
5-7
Coupling, of free water and
macromolecular
framework proton
magnetization, 53-54
Current, magnitude of, for
establishing a
gradient, 31
Cysts, renal, 87
D 131
Decay of xy components,
rate of, 40. See also
Free Induction Decay
Decoupling, of separate
transmit and receive
coils, 39
Demodulation, of the
receiver signal, 34
Demyelination, T2-weighted
imaging of, 81
Depth pulse sequence, 141-
142
Depth-resolved surface coil
spectroscopy
(DRESS), 144
Design
coil, 37
magnet, key features of,
26-29
Diffusion imaging, 50-53
Diffusion weighting, 51-52
Dwell time, for signal
sampling, 35
E inversion pulse, 64-
Echo-planar imaging (EPI),
160
Echo signal
defined, 9-11
formation of, in a flowing
liquid, 103
Echo time (TE), 9
defined, 47
length of
and Tl- or T2-weighted
image contrast, 77
and T2-weighted image
contrast, 45
Eddy current, 31-32
from gradient switching,
118
Electronics, of radio
frequency systems,
32-39
Energy, resonant absorption
of, 3
Energy level
higher, transition to, 4
spin, separation in, 4
Energy state, preferred, of a
nucleus, 2
Ethanol
Larmor frequencies of,
resonances from, 132
Even-echo rephasing, 108-
110
Excitation profile
from the Fourier
transform, 15
rectangular, 16
F
Fast rotating gradient
spectroscopy
(FROGS), 144
Fast-spin-echo sequences
(FSE),62
for brain scans, 78-79
for breast scans, silicone
implant, 93-94
for spine scans, 81
Fat
appearance of, in T2-
weighted and FSE
images, 63
attenuation of signals
from, using an
65
myocardial, spin-echo
imaging, 89
Tl of, 45
Fat suppression, 54
in imaging the orbit, 79
inversion time for, 77
in joint imaging, 96
Field gradient echo, 20
Field of view (FOV), 56
in angiography, 122
for breast imaging,
implants, 93
and size of the transmit-
receive coil, 117
for spine scans, 81
Field vectors, canceling
between coils, 30
Filters, to reduce aliasing, 36
Flip angle, defined, 7
Flow effects, 100-129
Flowing media, signal from,
61
Flow rate, continuous wave
nuclear magnetic

resonance for
measuring, 124-125
Flow-sensitive sequences,
83-84
Food and Drug
Administration, U.S.,
field strengths
approved for clinical
use, 26
Foucault's currents, 31
Fourier space, 154-156
Fourier transform, 11, 155-
156
excitation profile from, 15
for frequency encoding,
21
for phase encoding, 22-24
Fourier velocity imaging,
128-129
Free Induction Decay (FlO)
defined,9
and field homogeneity,
133
Fourier analysis of, to
distinguish chemical
shifts; 131-132
for phosphorus
spectroscopic
imaging, 149
pulse sequence, 59
after a second
radiofrequency
excitation, 43
spectrum from, 142
Free precession
defined,9,18
Frequency encoding, 20-21
Fringe field, defined, 28
G defined, 9-10
Gadolinium
for body imaging, 85
in contrast agents, 66-67
dosages of chelates, 74
Ghost images, 106, 107-112
Gradient coils,
characteristics of, 29-
32
Gradient-echo image
effect of proton density
on intensity of, 41-42
of kidneys, 86-87
loss of signal in, 48-50, 103
spinal, pathology
Index 163
detection using, 81 with T2* contrast, 79
Gradient-echo pulse Holography, 155
sequence,40 49- 50 Homogeneity
cine-mode, 91 Bo, and echo intensity, 49
flow-compensated, cine- of a magnetic field,
mode, 89 measuring, 29
in rapid imaging of Bj sensitivity of small
applications, 61-62 surface coils, 38-39
Gradient moment nulling,
110-112 I
Gradient motion refocusing Image contrast, 40-65
(GMR),110-112 defined,56
Gradient power supply, and spatial resolution, 54-
defined,31 58
Gradient pulse spin properties
bipolar, 110-111 responsible for, 40
for phase encoding data, Tl-weighted, 42-45
143 T2-weighted,45-48
Gradient recalled echo Image-selected in vivo
(GRE), 49-50, 59 spectroscopy (ISIS),
for breast imaging, 92-93 144-146
defined, 20 Imaging plane, flow of
flow imaging with, 113- liquid perpendicular
115, 127 to, 102
in-flow effect in, blood Implants, breast, evaluating
flow patterns, 91 . the integrity of, 93
parameters in cardiac Indications, for brain
imaging, 91 scanning, 79
spoiled,64 Inductor, 36-37
TR values used with, Intensity, of a nuclear
short, 63 magnetic resonance
Gradient strength (G), signal,S
defined, 13 Interleaved multislice
Great vessels, imaging of, imaging, 118
87-91 to avoid slice cross talk,
Gyromagnetic ratio (y), 4 61-62
Intermediate frequency (IF),
H output frequency
Hahn spin-echo (HSE), 147 corresponding to, 33
Internal auditory canal
imaging sequence based (lAC), imaging of, 79
on,59 Inversion delay time, 77
Hardware system Inversion pulse, for contrast
components, 25-39 improvement, 64
Heart Inversion recovery (IR)
imaging of, 87-91 magnetic resonance
short and long axis angiography, 116
images, 90 and saturation of
Helium, liquid, in stationary spins, 117
superconducting In vivo localized volume
systems, 28 spectroscopy, 140-
Hemorrhage, detecting 142
with fast-spin-echo Iron, in contrast agents, 66-
sequence contrast, 81 67
164 Index
Iron oxide,
superparamagnetic,
effect on T2
weighting, 47
Isochromats, 106-107, 141-
142
moving, phase evolution
of,110-111
J of,83
J-coupling
factors affecting, 138
in spin-echo pulse
sequences, 48-50
Joints, shoulder and wrist,
95-96
K homogeneity of,
Kidneys
gadolinium chelate
dosages used in, 73
scan protocols in imaging,
86-87
k-space, 60, 154-160
L angiography (MRA),
Larmor equation, 4, 130, 131
Larmor frequencies, 4, 5-6,
34,49-50
change with magnetic
field gradient, 14-16
and frequency of a
rotating frame, 18
and magnetic field
gradient pulses, 19
and molecular exchange,
138
of moving spins versus
stationary spins, 109-
110
output frequency
corresponding to, 33
tuning of resonators to, 36
Lesions, preoperative
localization of, 79
Line width
effect on, of molecular
exchange, 138
of spectrum peaks,
nuclear magnetic
resonance
spectroscopy, 136-137
Liver
nuclear magnetic
resonance spectra of, Muscle
142 spectroscopy of, 150-151
pathologies of, signal Tl of,45
behavior, 85 Musculoskeletal imaging,
transverse images, 86 94-96
Liver spectroscopy, 151-153 Myocardial spin tagging, 88
Lumbar region Myocardium, motion in, 108
slice prescription for
transverse imaging N
Navigator echo method, in
Tl-weighted image, 82 cardiac imaging, 108
Niobium-titanium alloy, for
M superconducting
Magnet, structure and magnets,27
characteristics of, 25- Nitrogen, liquid, in
29 superconducting
Magnetic field systems, 28
Nuclear magnetic resonance
measuring, 28 (NMR), phenomena
along the z axis (8z), 13 involved in, 1-11
Magnetic field gradient Nucleus, sodium, energy
pulse, 12-24 states of, 3
Magnetic moment, defined, Nyquist criterion/Nyquist
2 frequency, 35
Magnetic resonance
0
112-122 Occupational safety,
Magnetization, recovery of, exposure to fringe
7-9 fields, 28
Magnetization transfer (MT) Off-resonance
contrast, 53-54 magnetization, 58
Magnitude contrast Orbit, imaging of, 79
magnetic resonance Orthophosphoric acid,
imaging, 120-121 exchange rate in
Manganese, for contrast tissue, 139
media, 66-67 Oscillating magnetic field
Metabolic disorders, vector (B 1), 3
phosphorus Oversampling, to avoid
spectroscopy in, 151 aliasing, 36
Misregistration, in slice
selection, 143 P
Molecular exchange, effect Pancreas
of, on nuclear lesions of, detecting, 87
magnetic resonance normal, water excitation
spectra, 138-143 for imaging, 88
Molecular structure, Paramagnetic metals, 66
determination of, Paramagnetic nuclei,
using NMR, 1 detecting
Motion compensation,107- spectroscopically, 130
112 Pelvic imaging, 96-99
Multiplanar reconstruction pH
(MPR), 81, 83 change during exercise,
Multiplets, number of, in 150-151
spin coupling, 138 in tissue, chemical shift of

inorganic phosphate
for measuring, 139
Phase
and flow characteristics,
103-107
vector, defined, 18-19
Phase contrast magnetic
resonance imaging
angiography using, 117
pulse sequence for, 118
Phase dispersion, 17
during the echo time, 51
and signal loss, 104-105
Phase-encode (PE) gradient
pulse, 59, 63
Phase encoding, 21-24, 156-
158
techniques for, 148-149
Phase shift
due to differing
precessional
frequencies, 19-20
and flow velocity, 125
in stationary spins, 105
Phosphocreatine, reference
molecule, 132
Phosphorus spectroscopy
image-selected in vivo
spectroscopy for, 146
of muscle, 150-151
Pixel, 55-56
Polarization, linear, 37-38
Popliteal vessels
contrast agent use in
imaging, 122
flow in, 129
rephase-dephase method
for imaging, 121
Positron emission
tomography (PET),
130
Postprocessing methods, 81,
83
Preamplifier, receiver, 34
Precession
frequency of, 156
of a spinning magnetic
moment, 2, 3-4
Preemphasis, to correct
eddy currents, 31-32
Presaturation
to attenuate stationary
spin signals, 129
in fast rotating gradient
spectroscopy, 144
in proton spectroscopy,
148
to select tissue for spectral
analysis using, 142
Pressure difference, and
blood flow, 100-101
Prostate gland, T2-weighted
image, 98
Proton
energy states of, 2-3
exchange effects on
nuclear magnetic
resonance, 138
gyromagnetic ratio of, 4
Larmor frequencies of, 4
localized spectroscopy of
brain examination, 151
with a spin-echo pulse
sequence, 149, 151
with stimulated echo
acquisition mode, 148
spin density N(H), 41-42
water
enhancing the
relaxation rate of, 67
role in magnetic
resonance imaging, 7
Pulsatility, phase changes
due to, 106
Pulsed field gradient, for
selective study of a
region, 142
Pulse sequen!2e generator
(PSG), defined, 31
Pulse sequences, 59-65
printout showing primary
parameters, 77
Q chelate dosages used
Quadrature phase sensitive
detector (QPD), 34
R 42-45
Radio frequency (RF)
adiabatic pulse, 141
excitation during a
magnetic field
gradient pulse, 14-17
off-resonance pulse
and contrast, 58
and spin saturation, 53-
54
preinversion pulse, 145-
Index 165
146
shielding an MRI magnet
from external sources
of,25-26
Radio frequency field vector
(B 1), effect on the
spin magnetization
vector, 5-7
Rapid acquisition by
refocused echo
(RARE),160
Rapid acquisition with
relaxation
enhancement
(RARE), 62-63
Rate constants, for spin
relaxation, 7-9
Readout (RO) gradient
channel, 59-60
Receiver (REC) window,
60
characteristics of, 33-34
Reference molecules, for
measuring chemical
shift, 132-133
Region of interest, selection
of, after spectroscopic
data is acquired, 149
Relaxation, 8-9, 77
for macromolecular
protons, 53-54
Relaxation time
for flowing spins, 102
in heart imaging, 91
and residual x-y
magnetization, 63-64
Relaxivity, of contrast
agents, 67
Renal imaging, gadolinium
in,73
Repetition time (TR),
radiofrequency pulse,
Rephase-dephase method,
120-121
Resistive magnets versus
superconductive
magnets, 26-27
Resolution, and spatial
frequency, 155
Resonance effect, 1-3
in terms of spin
excitation, 3-4
166 Index

Resonance frequency, Sine pulses, 15, 16 resonance

dependence on Single-sideband modulator spectroscopy, 136-
magnetic field and (SSB),33 137
gyromagnetic ratio, Single-slice imaging, in parameters for cardiac
14-15 angiography, 102 imaging, 91
Resonators, for signal Slice cross talk, 62 in phase shift detection,
detection, 36-37 Slice-select (55) gradient 125-126
Respiration, as a source of pulse, 59 pure T1 or T2 contrast
artifacts, 107-108 Slice selection, 142-143 from, 61-62
Respiratory gating, for defined, 16 signal loss in, flowing
motion artifact and gradient strength, 30 liquid, 103
reduction, 108 Spatial encoding, of nuclear vector evolution during,
Retrospective gating, in magnetic resonance 49-50
cardiac imaging, 108 signals, 12-24 Spin ensemble
Rotating frame Spatial frequencies, 154-156 magnetization vector,
zeugmatography, Spatial modification of 4-5
142-143 magnetization Spin-lattice relaxation time
(SPAMM),88 (Tl),7-9
S Spatial resolution modification with contrast
Saddle coil, 37 and image contrast, 54-58 agents, 66-70
Scalar coupling, effect in for pelvic imaging, 96 Spin magnetization vector
nuclear magnetic Spatial tagging (STAG), 88 (Mo)
resonance Spectroscopic imaging (51), defined, 5
spectroscopy, 136- 148 dynamics of, 11
137 Spectroscopy, 130-153 effect on frequency field
Scan protocols, 76-78 localized methods, 144- vector (B 1), 5-7
Scout images 146 free precession of, 18
defined, 78 Spectrum, nuclear magnetic Spin-phase effect, 104
shoulder, 95-96 resonance, defined, Spin properties, 40-41
Self-diffusion coefficient, 131-132 Spin relaxation, defined, 7
50-52 Spinal cord stenosis, 84 Spin-spin relaxation, 7-9
Sensitivity, 37 Spin angular momentum, modification with contrast
hardware, effect on defined, 2 agents, 66
signal-to-noise ratio, Spin density (N), 41-42 Spin-spin splitting, 137
55 image weighted by, 77 Spleen
Shielding, to reduce fringe Spine, imaging of lesions of, detecting, 87
fields, 28-29 coils for, 78-79 signal from, 87
Shielding factor (P), 131 for diagnosing pathology, Stability, of a static
Shim coils / shimming 79,81-87 magnetic field, 27
defined, 28 effect of contrast agent Steady state/free precession
in nuclear magnetic use on, 73 (SSFP) technique, 64
resonance effect of T2 weighting on, Steady state sequence
spectroscopy, 133- 48 breast images from, 93-94
134 Spin-echo sequence, 9-11, during the detection
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 32,85 period, 100
34-35 effect on, of a field Stimulated echo acquisition
factors determining, 55-59 gradient pulse, 51 mode (STEAM), 147-
improving with use of an fat-suppressed, 87 148
adiabatic pulse, 141 Fourier space application Stroke, early detection of, 53
intrinsic, and coil to, 158-160 Superconductive magnets
dimension, 38-39 for joint visualization, 96 versus resistive
Silicone implants, inversion multislice, for cardiac magnets, 26-27
time for suppressing imaging, 89 Superparamagnetic iron
the image from, 77 in nuclear magnetic oxide particles, effect

on T2, 47
Surface coil volume
localization, 140-141
Switching time, for a
gradient field, 31
Synovial fluid, detection of,
96
T reference molecule,
T1 weighting
for brain scans, 78-79
defined,43
effect of, on contrast, 58
for generating images,
with spoiled gradient
recalled echo
sequences, 64
for joint visualization, 96
in nuclear magnetic
resonance
spectroscopy, 133
spin-echo, for kidney
imaging, 86-87
for spine imaging, 81
in time-of-flight
applications, 113
T2 weighting
for brain pathology
visualization, 78
for breast pathology
visualization, 93-94
defined,45
effect of, on contrast, 58
for joint visualization, 96
in nuclear magnetic
resonance
spectroscopy, 133
for spine pathology
visualization, 81
with two echoes, 77
T2* effect, 48-50, 133
generation from an
Index 167
unspoiled gradient V
recalled echo, 64 Vascular tissue versus
hemorrhage detection stationary tissue,
using, 79 contrast-to-noise ratio
Temperature, measuring of,58
changes in, with Vector quantities, defined, 2
diffusion imaging, 53 Velocity mapping, 123-129
Tetramethyl silane (TMS), Venous flow, portal,
evaluating with bolus
132 tagging, 124-125
Thermal energy transfer, Viscosity, and velocity of
and spin relaxation, blood flow, 100-101
8-9 Volume data, gradient
Time evolution, of recalled echo
magnetization sequences for
vectors, 20 acquiring, 63
Time-of-flight (TOF) Voxel,56
methods, flow signal
enhancement using, W
112-113, 127 Wash-in effect, in
Tissue angiography, 102
perfusion of, affecting Washout effect, in
phase dispersion and angiography, 102-103
diffusion weighting, Water
52 bound and free, effects on
properties affecting the images, 41-42
signal-to-noise ratio, diffusion coefficient of, 51
55 exchange reactions, in
Toxicity, of gadolinium tissue, 139
chelates, 69-70 protons of
Transmission, amplification enhancing the
of a radio frequency relaxation rate of, 67
pulse for, 33 role in magnetic
Two-dimensional Fourier resonance imaging, 7
transformation Wraparound effects, in flow
(2DFT) imaging, 23- encoding, 129
24
classical, 158-160 Z
Zebra stripe method, 127-
U 128
Uterus, T2-weighted image, +z vector, characteristic rate
98 of recovery of, 40