Lighting Methods in The Byzantine Period

Corning Museum of Glass
LIGHTING METHODS IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD AND FINDINGS OF GLASS LAMPS IN

ANATOLIA
Author(s): B. Yelda Olcay
Source: Journal of Glass Studies, Vol. 43 (2001), pp. 77-87
Published by: Corning Museum of Glass
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24190900
Accessed: 28-04-2020 11:19 UTC
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LIGHTING METHODS
IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD
AND FINDINGS OF GLASS LAMPS
IN ANATOLIA
B. Yelda Olcay
light and argued that light was the first (primary)

be considered in liturgical and spiritual condition of spiritual life.4
The concept
terms. In fact,of
these light in areChristianity can
two viewpoints One of the several ways of honoring promot
interrelated. The philosopher Justinianus and ed people in ancient Greece and Rome was car
Ignatius Theophorus, bishop of Antioch, identi rying a light before them. This tradition, which
fied baptism with light. The day of Christ's bap was applied during funeral ceremonies and cul
tism was called "light (illumination) festival" or tic rites, was adopted by Christianity. The use of
"enlightenment." In the liturgy of the Eucharist, lamps to illuminate the icons of saints in church
light (the sun) symbolizes Christ. The illumina es is related to the illumination of portraits of the
tion of priests toward Jesus is the first theme of Roman emperors.5
the theologian Symeon (9497-1022).1 John Kli In addition to their roles as lighting devic
max (before 579-about 650) defines angels as es and ceremonial objects, lamps and candles
the light of priests and states that monastery life served a symbolic purpose, especially in the lit
illuminates all people.2 Gregoiy Palamas (about urgy. They were thought to have a metaphysi
1296—1359)3 based his "Energies" doctrine on cal value, and considerable meaning was at
1. According to his biography, written by Niketas Stetha ence of the desert Fathers as reflected in the Apophthegmata
tos, Symeon was educated in Constantinople and became a Patrum. See A. Kazhdan, "John Klimax," in The Oxford Dic
senator in the 10th century. However, he abandoned his ca tionary of Byzantium [note 1], pp. 1060-1061.
reer and entered the Stoudios Monastery. The rich imagery 3. Although he was destined by his aristocratic background
of Symeon's works is dominated by two typically Byzantine for imperial service, Palamas chose the monastic life instead,
themes: palace life, as centered on the figure of the emperor, and he went to Athos in 1316. He wrote numerous tracts,
and the circle of merchants and craftsmen. See A. Kazhdan, letters, and sermons dealing with hagiography, liturgy, ascet
"Symeon the Theologian," in The Oxford Dictionary of By icism, and prayer. See A. Papadakis, "Gregory Palamas," in
zantium, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium [note 1], p. 1560.
1991, p. 1987. 4. G. Podskalsky, "Light," in The Oxford Dictionary of By
2. After receiving a general education, John Klimax took zantium [note 1], p. 1227.
monastic vows at the age of 16. He lived as an anchorite at 5. G. Galavaris, "Some Aspects of Symbolic Use ofLights
the foot of Mount Sinai and eventually became the hegoume in the Eastern Church," Byzantine and Modern Greek Stud
nos of the Sinai Monastery. His major work, The Ladder of ies, v. 4, 1978, p. 69.
Paradise or The Heavenly Ladder, summarizes the experi
77
tached to where they were located in the church. they include the social structure as well as the
The earliest of the written sources that discuss financial position of churches. The typicon of
the symbolism of light are the sermons on bap the Pantocrator (Zeyrek) Monastery, dated 1136,
tism by Gregorius of Nazianzos, who lived in is a particularly significant example because it
the fourth century. He maintained that "those describes the illumination system from the very
who have gone to the other world will revive founding of the monasteiy and displays the kinds
the light they have." Three centuries later, So of lamps used in the 12th century.13 In the text
phronius of Jerusalem wrote that lamps and can of the typicon, three styles of church lighting
dles symbolize the infinite light. The expression are explained. The first is for regular services,
"torches of bridal procession," used by Cyril of the second concerns arrangements for important
Jerusalem, represented marriage with the soul festivals, and the third and most elaborate per
of Christ.6 tains to Easter celebrations.
Paul Silentiarios's phrase "the stars of Heav According to the Pantocrator typicon, church
en"7 refers to lamps suspended from a dome. lighting devices can be divided into several cat
After the ninth century, Symeon of Salonika re egories:
ported that three lamps indicated the Trinity, sev
en lamps represented the seven omnipotences 1. Single lamps, which are called "candelai,
(merits), and 12 lamps symbolized the 12 apos photogogoi, kaniskia, thryallides, crateres" in
tles of Christ.8 Another meaning attributed to the registers. Lamps for everyday use were
12 lighted lamps (polycandela) is of Eastern ori made of glass, those designed for special pur
gin. The 12 craters of the polycandela that were poses were made of silver, and some rare ex
used in the synagogues are believed to symbol amples were gilded. This group includes the
ize the signs of the zodiac.9 "tricandela" or "triphyeis thryallides," which
Unfortunately, it is not possible to answer consisted of three lamps that were attached to
more specific questions about the use of illumi one another. Each of these devices was sus
nation in churches. The only publication on this pended with two lamp hangers.
subject is a 1981 article by L. Bouras10 that is
based on the monastery registers and the typi
con of the Pantocrator (Zeyrek) Monastery in
Istanbul. Drawing from the sources mentioned 6. Ibid., p. 70.
7. G M. Crowfoot and D. B. Harden, "Early Byzantine and
above, Bouras provided a typology of church
Later Glass Lamps," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, v. 17,
lighting devices of the 11th and 12th centuries pts. 3-4, 1931, p. 200.
and supplied information about how they were 8. L. Bouras, "Byzantine Lighting Devices," Jahrbuch der
österreichischen Byzantinistik, v. 31, no. 2, 1981, p. 483.
employed. A more general view of church light
9. A. Engle, Light. Lamps and Windows in Antiquity, Jeru
ing is found in a 1988 article by S. Boyd" that salem: Phoenix, 1987, pp. 16-17.
also introduces the metallic openwork lamps 10. Bouras [note 8], pp. 479-490.
found in the Kumluca Treasure. 11. S. Boyd, "A Bishop's Gift: Openwork Lamps from the
Sion Treasure," Argenterie Romaine et Byzantine. Actes de la
The best sources for the types and uses of Table Ronde, Paris, October 11-13, 1983, Paris: de Boccard,
church lighting devices are the monastery reg 1988, pp. 191-209.
isters and typicons. Since the keeping of regis 12. Bouras [note 8], p. 479.
13. Tojiikôv rfjç ßamJiKrjg povrjç rov navroKpdropoç,
ters in monasteries was obligatory after 861, the
1136. For a French translation, see P. Gautier, "Le Typikon
most detailed information is found from that
du Christ Sauveur Pantocrator," Revues des Etudes Byzantines,
time onward.12 Typicons are important because v. 32, 1974, pp. 27-131.
78
2. The "phonariawhich is mentioned as a supports the idea that this chorus was octagonal
lantern (globe lamp) containing one or more and that each side held two lamps.
candles. This sort of lamp was often used in
open areas, outdoors, or at military reviews. Another group of lighting devices that ap
pears in the records is referred to as "abenai,
3. The candlestick, which is termed "do alysidia, bastagia, kremastaria, dracondaria."
dekaphotia, manoualia, ovelis-kolychniai, stata The first four of these terms pertain to openwork
reai." Candlesticks were placed in front of icons holders containing glass lamps. The meaning of
for worship. High-based candlesticks consisted dracondaria is unknown.
of six, seven, eight, or 12 candle holders placed In Byzantine architecture, the lighting prac
on a disk. They were usually made of bronze, tices of churches are also applied to burial
but some examples were fashioned from iron. grounds. One of the most significant historical
In addition, the inventory of the Hagia Sophia, resources on this subject is the notes of a pil
Church of the Holy Wisdom, in Istanbul, dated grim named Egeria who traveled to Asia Minor
1396, includes candlesticks made of jade and in 381-384.15 One of her stops during that jour
rock crystal. ney was the Hagia Thecla in Silifke, where she
witnessed a ceremony in the monastery's burial
4. Lamnai ve kosmetaritzia. This group of ground. She wrote: "There were numerous
lamps is not well understood. They appear to lamps and candlesticks in the ceremony, which
have been metal strips with candle holders, started in front of the Anastasis scene in the
which extended over the screen epistyles. A early hours of the morning. These lamps and
fresco showing this type of lamp is in the south candles were lit with the fire taken from the
western cemetery chapel of the church of Aphen lamps that had been burning constantly in the
diko in Mistra. cemetery."16 The oil that was burned in such
lamps was regarded as holy. Therefore, burned
5. Polycandela, which are also called "pala oil from lamps in key Christian centers was
mai" and "stephanitai." These were generally emptied and taken away, to be replaced with
made of bronze, and they exist in both disk and new oil by the pilgrims who visited those places.
cross forms. Polycandela hold many glass lamps This tradition is known to have continued for
(ladikina), but some of the later examples con many years.17
tained candlesticks. Some Byzantine paintings provide important
information on candlesticks used in cemeteries.
6. Choroi. This complex lamp type dates Two are found on the southern wall of the west
from the Middle Byzantine period. It is polyg ern cross arm of the third southeastern chapel of
onal in form, and it holds more than one poly
candelon and/or suspension lamps. Choroi are
especially appropriate for the lighting of domed
churches. Paul Silentiarios uses this term to 14. Paulus Silentiarius, Descriptio S. Sophiae et ambonis,
v. 2, ed. J. P. Migne, 1865, pp. 823-826. For an English trans
refer to lamps that were suspended from thelation, see Crowfoot and Harden [note 7], note 4.
cornice at the ceremonies for the opening of the 15. J. Wilkinson,Egeria's Travels, London: S.P.C.K., 1971.
Hagia Sophia.14 According to the Pantocrator 16. Ibid., pp. 123-124.
17. G Vikan, Byzantine Pilgrimage Art, Washington: Dum
typicon, the southern church's chorus had 16
barton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1982, pp. 10
craters or polycandela. The number of lamps12.
79
Saint Nicholas Church in Myra (Demre), which above the stem was filled with oil, and the wick,
was a leading metropolitan center in Anatolia placed in the oil, was lighted.19 Some stems are
during the Middle Ages. The pictures, which made of solid glass, while others are hollow,
are located above the sarcophagus in the arm of The wick is placed inside hollow stems and sup
the cross, confirm that candlesticks were used ported by a metal holder on solid stems,
during funerals. A source about Saint Artemios Beginning in the late Roman period, stemmed
that is dated 643-644 states that candles were lamps were commonly used in areas under Byz
used for prayers in martyria.18 antine rule. Today, this type of lamp is still pro
Metal, terra-cotta, and glass lighting devices duced in the Near East, and it can be found in
are known to have existed during the Byzantine synagogues and mosques.20 Axel von Saldern
period. The metal objects are well preserved, suggested that the shape may be derived from
and this allows typologies to be constructed for funnels of Isings form 74.21 The earliest exam
them. On the other hand, since few glass lamps pies were found in Bet She'arim in Galilee.22
have survived without damage, it is difficult to The finds from Anatolian excavations, which
suggest the various forms they may have taken. have become more numerous since the 1980s,
However, the complexity of this task has been have revealed some stylistic variations in
eased by finds from recent excavations, espe- stemmed lamps. At Saint Nicholas Church in
cially in Anatolia, which are helping us to un- Myra, which includes a sixth-century foundation
derstand medieval glass production and trade in containing the grave of Nicholas, three building
that region. This article presents a typology of levels have been unearthed. The earliest of these,
Byzantine glass lamps, which, according to re- which is probably of the sixth century, was de
cent finds, were made in three styles that varied stroyed either by Arab invasions or by an earth
in form and size from century to century. quake. This was replaced by a new church, a
domed basilica, in the eighth or ninth century.
Stemmed Lamps The annexes, which constituted the third build
ing stage, were constructed in the 11th century.
In this type of lamp, the stem was placed A century later, the church comp
through the hole of the polycandelon, the goblet ered with earth when the Myros br
nische
18. C. Mango, "Addendum to the Report on Everyday Berichte, v. 57, no. 5, 1984, p. 138, pi. 11. Moreover,
Life,"
Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik, v. 32, 1982,
some p.
fragments of glass lamps and wick holders of a similar
255. kind were found in Alahan, and other parallels were determined
19. The oil was burned in several ways: by placing
to the
havecot
originated in Antakya. See J. Russell, "Byzantine In
ton wick into its crater (socket) in the lamp, by putting the Domestica from Anemurium: The Significance of
strumenta
wick in the metal wick holder and placing the holder into the in R. L. Hohlfelder, City, Town and Countryside in
Context,"
the Early
oil, and setting the wick in a hollow stem. See Crowfoot andByzantine Era, Boulder, Colorado: East European
Harden [note 7], p. 207. The metal holders are of two types.
Monographs; New York: distributed by Columbia University
Press,
One is S-shaped, with one end attached to the rim of 1982, p. 149.
the lamp
and the other immersed in the oil. See P. V. C. Baur,
20."Glass
A. von Saldern, Ancient and Byzantine Glass from Sar
ware," in C. H. Kraeling, ed., Gerasa, City of the dis.
Decapolis,
Archaeological Exploration of Sardis Monographs, no. 6,
New Haven, Connecticut: American Schools of Oriental Re Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard
Cambridge,
search, 1938, p. 517. The other type of metal wick holder is Press, 1980, p. 49.
University
Y-shaped, with the upper arms affixed to the edge of21.
theIbid.
lamp
22.of
rim and the lower part residing in the oil. These sorts M.wick
Uboldi, "Diffusione delle lampade vitree in età tar
holders have been located in many Anatolian settlements,
doantica eand
altomedievale e spunti per una tipologia," Archeo
logia
they are particularly plentiful in the excavations in Medievale, v. 22, 1995, p. 120. For the Bet She'arim
Anamur.
See E. M. Stern, "Antikes Glas in der Südtürkei," Glastech
finds, see Engle [note 9], p. 23.
80
Fig. 1. Stemmed lamps from the excavation of Saint Nicholas Church in
Myra. (From M. Acara and B. Y. Olcay, "Bizans Döneminde Aydlnlatma
Diizeni ve Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi 'nde Kullanilan Aydinlatma Ge
reçleri, " Adalya, v. 2, 1998, p. 262)
its banks.23 The glass finds from this site24 in- finds coincide with the three building periods
elude both solid- and hollow-stemmed lamps. of the church.
An excavation carried out on the north side of Among the various stem forms of the lamps
the church revealed a medieval stratigraphy that excavated in Myra (Fig. 1), solid stems were
has helped researchers to reassemble and iden- plentiful. Knotted stems (Fig. la-d) were found,
tify the glass found there.25 The dates of these together with red slip ceramics that date from the
23. Y. Ötüken, "Likya Ortaçag Araçtirmalari ve Demre Hacettepe University, The Social Sciences Institute, Ankara,
Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Kazisi," Adalya, v. 1, 1996, p. 75. 1997.
24. The glass finds excavated from 1989 to 1995 are the 25. M. Acara and B. Y. Olcay, "Bizans Döneminde Aydln
subject of my Ph.D. dissertation: "St. Nicholas Church Exca latma Diizeni ve Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi'nde Kullam
vation in Demre (Myra) in Antalya, 1989-95: Glass Finds," lan Aydinlatma Gereçleri," Adalya, v. 2, 1998, p. 251.
81
fifth and seventh centuries, on the podium that is they still had a distinctive shape. Studies of the
located on the northeastern side of the church.26 wreck connect it with Fustat and suggest an 11th
The earliest examples of this kind of stem were century date for the finds.32 Other examples of
found with polycandela in the synagogue at Bet this stem type, found in the excavation of Saint
Shean, Israel, which is dated to the fourth and Nicholas Church in Myra, have been dated to the
fifth centuries.27 Recent finds at this site, which 10th and 11th centuries. Eleventh-century par
have been published, confirm that these exam- allels have also been found in Corinth, which
pies could belong to the late Byzantine or early was an important medieval glassmaking center.33
Islamic period.28 Another find-place for stems The hollow-stemmed lamps, which differ in
of this variety is the Church of Saint Theodoras shape and size, are of two types. The first is
in Gerasa, which is known to have been a Near broad in diameter and thin at the lower end of
Eastern center for the production of glass. They the stem, while the second is narrow in diameter
are thought to date to about the year 500.29 and thick in the lower section of the stem. Sev
Another well-documented type of solid stem eral examples of both types have recently been
features a knot in the lower section (Fig. le-h). found in Anatolian excavations at Iznik (Nicea)
Recently published examples show that these Theater (Fig. 2j-o) and Seyitgazi (Nakolea) (Fig.
objects were of medieval date. Three of these 3). At the latter site, broken stems and goblets
stems are undamaged. Two (ninth and 10th cen- were found on the apse mosaic and reassem
turies) were found in Fustat, and the third (eighth bled with the aid of a drawing.34 Another type
century) was excavated in Samaria.30 Because of hollow stem (Fig. 4b, c) was recovered from
these stems are intact, they suggest possible the Tarsus "Cumhuriyet Square" excavation in
forms for the related goblets. Many other lamp southern Anatolia.35 Parallels dating from the
stems of this type were among the finds from the fifth and seventh centuries are known.36 Such
Serçe Limam wreck off the Anatolian coast.31 stems must have been very functional, and the
Although none of these stems was unbroken, placement of the wick made them easy to use.
26. M. Acara, "Seramik Buluntular," in Y. Öttiken, "Demre 33. GR. D. Weinberg, "A Medieval Glass Factory at Cor
Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Kazisinin Ortaçag Araçtirmalarina Kat inth," American Journal of Archaeology, v. 44, 1940, p. 321,
kilari," Sanat Tarihi Dergisi IX, I. Ortaçag ve Türk Dönemi pi. 19/68.
Kazilari Sempozyumu, 9-11 Nisan 1997, Izmir: Ege Üniver 34. B. Y. Olcay, "Ktiçûk Buluntular," in M. F. Ôzçatal,
sitesi Basimevi, 1998, pp. 97-98. "1997 Yili Seyitgazi ilçesi Mozaik Kurtarma Kazisi," VIII.
27. Engle [note 9], p. 44. Miize Kurtarma Kazilari Semineri, Ankara: Kültür Bakanligi,
28. S. Hadad, "Glass Lamps from the Byzantine through Anitlar ve Müzeler Genel Müdürlügti, 1997, p. 534.
Mamluk Periods at Bet Shean, Israel," Journal of Glass Stud 35. B. Y. Olcay, "Tarsus Cumhuriyet Alant Kazisi Cam Bu
ies, v. 40, 1998, p. 68. luntulan," Adalya, v. 3, 1998, p. 170.
29. Baur [note 19], p. 512. 36. D. B. Harden, "Glass," in Excavations at Nessana (Auja
30. R. H. Pinder-Wilson and G. T. Scanlon, "Glass Finds Hafir, Palestine), ed. H. Dunscombe Colt, London: British
from Fustat, 1964-1971," Journal of Glass Studies, v. 15, School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 1962, p. 85, nos. 52-54,
1973, p. 22, figs. 18 and 19; G M. Crowfoot, "Glass," in J. W. pl. XX/52-54; Engle [note 9], p. 32, pi. 19; Saldern [note 20],
Crowfoot, G. M. Crowfoot, and K. M. Kenyon, Samaria-Se p. 51, nos. 274 and 280, pi. 23/274 and 280; E. M. Stern, "An
baste: Reports of the Work of the Joint Expedition in 1931 cient and Medieval Glass from the Necropolis Church at Ane
1933 and of the British Expedition in 1935, v. 3, The Objects murium," Annales de l'Association Internationale pour l'Hi
from Samaria, London: Palestine Exploration Fund, 1957, p. stoire du Verre, v. 9, Liège, 1985 (Nancy, France, 1983), p.
419, fig. 99/4. 46, pi. 3; J. W. Hayes, Excavations Saraçhane in istanbul, v.
31. These finds, which have not been published, are in the 2, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992,
Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Bodrum, Turkey. p. 403, nos. 37 and 38, pl. 151/37 and 38.
32. G. F. Bass, "The Nature of the Serçe Limam Glass,"
Journal of Glass Studies, v. 26, 1984, pp. 64-69.
82
c LJLjL
\
Lj
/li cil (11 Hi (iilii

J k | m n o
Fig. 3. Stemmed lamps from the excavation in Seyit
gazi (Nakolea). (From B. Y Olcay, "Kiiçiik Bulun
tular, " in M. F. Ôzçatal, "1997 Yili Seyitgazi Ilçesi
Mozaik Kurtarma Kazisi," VIII. Miize Kurtarma Ka
Fig. 2. Glass zilari Semineri,
finds Ankara: Kültür Bakanligi,
from Iznik Anitlar (N
cavation. ve Miizeler Genel Miidiirlügü,
(Drawing: author) 1997, p. 540)
d! 11/
Fig. 4. Glass finds from Tarsus "Cumhuriyet Square" excavation. (Drawing: author)
83
j <i | jb
Fig. 5. Lamps with handles from the excavation in Seyitgazi (Nakolea). (From Olcay, 1997)
Lamps with Handles of flaring-rimmed lamps and bases with kicks

were recovered. The lamps with footed bases
This group of bowl-shaped lamps has han- are regarded as a distinct group,
dies, either on the edge of the rim or on the body, Recent studies have produced eviden
to which metal hangers are attached. Some of variation in the placement of handles. On
the bases of these objects are flat, while others objects, the handles are found on the edg
feature a kick. The wick, placed in a metal hold- rim, but on others, they are located on
er, was immersed in the lamp oil.37 Because of the lamp. While these various form
these lamps were easy to use, they were, from doubtedly continued to be used for cent
the late Roman period onward, more popular there are certain clues as to which for
than other lighting devices.38 The earliest dated preferred during particular periods,
example was made in the fourth century. It has In the early period, handles on the edg
a globular body, a base with a kick, and three lamp rim were shaped in such a way that
round handles attached to the body and length- could be held upright. One example, fo
ening toward the bottom. The workmanship of the excavation at Seyitgazi (Nakolea)
this lamp, which is decorated with a lion's head, was restored with pieces found on the
is of high quality.39 saic.41 This type of lamp was also among the
Finds from excavations have supplied signif- finds at the Saint Nicholas Church ex
icant data about types of handled lamps used Myra (Fig. 6).42 The glass recover
during the Byzantine period. The first typolog- Iznik (Nicea) Theater excavation
ical study of these lamps was based on excava- died rim edges that probably cam
tions at Gerasa and Karanis,40 where two kinds died lamps. Parallels for this form,
37. Two kinds of oil are known to have been used in the 38. C. Isings, Roman Glass from Dated Finds, Archaeolo
lamps. The first is fish or vegetable oil, and the second is beesgica Traiectina, v. 2, Groningen and Djakarta: J. B. Wolters,
wax. Another type of oil that may have been employed in 1957, form 134.
this manner is known by its Greek name, elaion. This oil was 39. "Recent Important Acquisitions Made by Public and
made from a mixture of turpentine, sesame seeds, and nuts Private Collections in the U.S. and Abroad," Journal of Glass
(such as pistachios, peanuts, and walnuts). In addition, lin Studies, v. 14, 1962, p. 141, no. 14.
seeds and several flowers were crushed to obtain oil. See A. 40. Crowfoot and Harden [note 7], pp. 196-208.
Kazhdan and A. M. Talbot, "Oil, " in The Oxford Dictionary of 41. Olcay [note 34], pp. 534-535, fig. 3d.
Byzantium [note 1], p. 1519. 42. Acara and Olcay [note 25], p. 254, pi. 2a-d.
84
f? "7
./
>
) \vy Wj -t i
Fig. 6. Lamps with handles from the excavation of Saint Nicholas Church in Myra. (From
Acara and Olcay, 1998, p. 263)
the fifth century, are known from Istanbul, Ana- Myra (Fig. 6e) are dated on the basis of fourth
tolia, and Near Eastern sites.43 and fifth-century examples excavated in Cyprus,
Among the types of handles found on these Karanis, and Jalame.44
lamps is one on which grooves were depressed Evidence is lacking about glass production
with a tool at equal intervals on the flat part that from the seventh to 1 Oth centuries, when the
was attached to the body. Parallels found in Arabs raided Anatolia and several wars were
43. Hayes [note 36], p. 405, nos. 88 and 90, pi. 153/88 and sical Studies at Athens, v. 12, The Minor Objects, Princeton,
90; Stern [note 36], p. 47, pi. 3; R. M. Harrison and N. Christie, New Jersey: the school, 1952, p. 112, no. 734, fig. 14/734.
"Excavations at Amorium: 1992 Interim Report," Anatolian 44. Acara and Olcay [note 25], p. 254, pl. 2e; G. D. Wein
Studies, v. 43,1993, p. 161, fig. 4f; Baur [note 19], p. 526, no. berg and S. M. Goldstein, "The Glass Vessels," in Excavations
29(380), figs. 22 and 29(380); J. Jones, "The Glass," in The at Jalame, Site of a Glass Factory in Late Roman Palestine,
Roman Frontier in Central Jordan, ed. T. Parker, London: ed. G D. Weinberg, Columbia, Missouri: University of Mis
B.A.R., 1987, p. 628, no. 73, fig. 136/73; Engle [note 9], p. souri Press, 1988, p. 82, pi. 4/43, note 179; O. Vessberg, "Ro
69/f; Harden [note 36], p. 84, no. 47, pl. XX/47; Crowfoot man Glass in Cyprus," Opuscula Archaeologica, v. 7, 1952,
[note 30], p. 418, fig. 99/2; G. R. Davidson, Corinth: Results p. 128, pi. V/15and 18.
of Excavations Conducted by The American School of Clas
waged. Nevertheless, it is known that produc- Another form of handled lamps is dated to the
tion and trade continued in traditional glassmak- 11th and 12th centuries (Fig. 6h—j). This form,
ing centers. Recent archeological finds indicate which features a flat handle placed on a globu
that these centers included Syro-Palestinian lar body, as well as a ring or folded base, is doc
coastal sites, Alexandria, Samaria, Baghdad, umented in the miniature of an 11th-century
Iran, and Egypt. One particular location where manuscript.49 Finds from Serçe Limani includ
glassmaking flourished during this time was in ed an intact example of this lamp type.50
Rakka, the capital of the Abbasid Empire.45
However, it is known that production during that Goblet Lamps
time was limited to objects that were regarded
as necessities, such as lamps for churches, bev- Lamps in the form of a wineglass are used
erage containers, and windows. In addition, on a smooth surface. Their oil is lighted with a
ornate decoration gave way to such simpler wick placed in the goblet. Some examples have
techniques as threading, engraving, and wheel handles on the edge of the rim, which allow
cutting.46 Therefore, in identifying types of them to be suspended. These lamps, the earliest
lamps produced during this period, the most im- of which have been dated to fourth-centuiy
portant criteria are the style of embellishment Syria,51 are still in use today. In a publication
and the quality of workmanship. On this basis, about the Gerasa excavation, R V. C. Baur noted
for example, lamps with blue glass threads and that wineglasses thought to have been used as
handles of the same color are dated to the Mid- drinking cups were actually employed as lamps,
die Byzantine period. Published finds from ex- He saw some modern examples in an Athens
cavations reveal that the threading technique was hospital and in Saint Nicholas Church in Bari.52
commonly employed in the eighth century, and Several types of stemmed goblets have been
that it became especially popular in the Near made since the late Roman period, although
East.47 Parallels for this type of lamp have been nothing is known about their function. Since
found in excavations at Saint Nicholas Church numerous examples were found in the excava
in Myra, Saraçhane in Istanbul, and Corinth in tion of Eastern churches and synagogues, it is
Greece.48 The evidence of these finds suggests believed that they were used as lighting devic
that such lamps did not appear before the eighth es. The same can be said for goblets discov
century. ered, together with parts of metal wicks, around
45. E. M. Ruprechtsberger and B. Zouhdi, "Syrisches Glas

48. Hayes [note 36], p. 405, nos. 88 and 90, pi. 153/88 a
aus byzantinischer Zeit," in Syrien: Von den Aposteln zu den
90; Weinberg [note 43], nos. 733 and 734, fig. 14/733 and
Kalifen, Mainz: von Zabern, 1993, p. 278. 49. The lamps suspended over the "Angels Beating D
46. C. Meyer, "Glass from the North Theater
ils" Byzantine
scene (Vatican gr. 1162, fol. 92) are similar in shap
Church, and Soundings at Jerash, Jordan, 1982-1983,"
this type ofBul
lamp. This scene was found in the slide arch
letin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supple of Art Department at Hacettepe Universit
of the History
ment, no. 25, 1987, p. 197. Ankara.
47. Ç. Anlagan and others, Sadberk Hanim Miizesi
50. M. Katalo
Jenkins, Islamic Glass: A Brief History, New Yor
gu, Istanbul: Sadberk Hanlm Miizesi, 1995, The pp. 74-75; Sal
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986, p. 8, no. 40.
dern [note 20], pp. 90-94, nos. 85-87; Harrison and Christie
51. Ruprechtsberger and Zouhdi [note 45], p. 47, no.
pi. 32;30],
[note 43], p. 161; Pinder-Wilson and Scanlon [note Baurp.
[note
23,19], p. 524, nos. 16(235), 17(376),
18(377),
no. 15, fig. 23; F. G van Doorninck, "The Serçe Limaniand 20(870),
Ship figs. 20/16(235), 20/17(376), 18(377),
and 20(870);
wreck: llth-Century Cargo of Fatimid Glass-Ware CulletAIAfor[Archaeological Institute of America]
Byzantine Glassmakers," Istanbul I. Uluslararasi Cam
Newsletter, Sana
v. 10, no. 2, Winter 1995, p. 3.
52. Baur Siçe
ti Sempozyumu, 26-27 Nisan 1988, Istanbul: Tiirkiye [note ve19].
Cam Fabrikalari, 1990, p. 60, pi. 72.
the church building in Anamur.53 Goblets were 7
also found in the excavation of secular build
ings, such as the shops in Sardis.54 /
Once again, recent finds have played a sig
nificant role in our understanding of this lamp Ka
type. During the first 10 years of excavations at
Iznik (Nicea) in western Anatolia (1982-1991),
j
the most numerous glasses found were goblet
stems (Fig. 2a-h). Their quality and workman \
ship suggest that they may have been made in the 2 S> b
same workshop. Some of the stems have a base

and an incomplete goblet. Unfortunately, these
pieces were not found in a dated layer but in fill.
For this reason, they could not be matched with
goblet fragments found elsewhere at the site.
The more common of the two lamp types re /
covered from this excavation is the solid, flat
stemmed goblet; the broken base and edge of J
one example can be clearly seen in Figure 2f-h. r f
The other type has a hollow stem with a bulg 9 —h
ing knot (Fig. 2a-c). It is difficult to suggest a

Fig. 7. Goblets from the excavation of Saint Nich
date for the former type. The simplicity of this
olas Church in Myra. (From Acara and Olcay,
form made it popular for centuries. A closer
1998, p. 264)
dating is possible for the latter type, whose con
vex base and hollow stem are commonly found
in early Byzantine lamps. In size and shape,
especially true of publications pertaining to the
parallels are documented among the finds frommethods of lighting churches during the Byzan
tine period. Information on this subject is con
Sardis and Myra (fifth and sixth centuries), Ana
tained mainly in the archives of monasteries.
mur (fifth and seventh centuries), and Amorium
(eighth and ninth centuries) in Anatolia, as wellFor this reason, the glass finds from Anatolia—
as Gerasa (sixth century) and Samaria (eighth of which lamps constitute the most identifiable
century).55 group—are very important. They were discov
Another Anatolian excavation site that has ered in a datable context, and their dating is
provided a rich assortment of goblet lamps is helpful in determining their function. While this
Saint Nicholas Church in Myra (Fig. 7). In ad article has attempted to use these finds to aug
dition to the examples from the early Byzantine ment our knowledge of Byzantine lighting meth
era mentioned above, the object shown in Figure ods, it has pointed out some questions that re
7e is decorated on the bowl, the solid stem, and main unanswered.
the base. Parallels for this object can be noted
among the eighth-century finds from Gerasa.56 53. Stern [note 36], p. 44.
The limited number of publications that deal 54. Saldern [note 20], p. 55.
55. Ibid., p. 58, no. 351, pi. 24/351; Stern [note 36], pp. 44
with Byzantine glass art do not supply detailed
45, pi. 3; Harrison and Christie [note 43], p. 161, fig. 4a-c;
information about the works they describe. They Meyer [note 46], fig. 8/Y; Crowfoot [note 30], p. 415, fig. 96/7.
also present some problems in dating. This is 56. Meyer [note 46], p. 211, fig. 11/V and X-Z.
87

Lighting Methods in The Byzantine Period

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Lighting Methods in The Byzantine Period

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Corning Museum of Glass

LIGHTING METHODS IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD AND FINDINGS OF GLASS LAMPS IN

light and argued that light was the first (primary)

/li cil (11 Hi (iilii

Lamps with Handles of flaring-rimmed lamps and bases with kicks

45. E. M. Ruprechtsberger and B. Zouhdi, "Syrisches Glas

same workshop. Some of the stems have a base

The other type has a hollow stem with a bulg 9 —h

ing knot (Fig. 2a-c). It is difficult to suggest a

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