The Shackle History: The Epigenetic Impact of Slave Trade

By
Fatima Ibrahim Tsiga
Introduction

The gunshots, the police the brutality, and the killing of George Floyed in United State, and the

protesters pulled down of Edward Colston statue in Bristol, England, did not only sparkle a

movement called ‘Black Lives Matter’ but, exposed a long time generational trauma of slavery

and slave trade on blacks race around the world. This is due to black’s history is intimately

connected with slavery. The race has experience four large slave trades, all of which date back at

least to the mid-fifteenth century. The oldest of the slave trades, the trans-Saharan, Red Sea, and

Indian Ocean slave trades, all date back to at least 800 AD. 1 The largest and most studied of the

slave trades is the trans-Atlantic trade slave trade, where beginning in the fifteenth century slaves

were shipped from West Africa, West Central Africa, and Eastern Africa to the European

colonies in the New World.2 Although the Atlantic slave trade was the shortest in duration, it was

the largest and most penetrating of the four slave trades. Between the fifteenth and eighteenth

centuries, upwards of 12 million slaves were taken from the continent of Africa. The total

number of slaves shipped during this same time period in the other three slave trades is

somewhere around 6 million. In total, nearly 18 million slaves were shipped in the four slave

trade over this four hundred year period.3

This forced and massive migration of people radically changed the genetic landscape of present-

day black populations in the world.4 Today African-descendant populations in the Americas and

1
See Nathan Nunn, Shackled to the Past: The Causes and Consequences of Africa’s Slave Trades
2
Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications, London, UK, 1972)
3
Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, Second Edition (Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 2000). Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Bogle-L’Ouverture P
4
K. Adhikari, et al, The Genetic Diversity of the Americas. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 18:
2017. 277–296. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-083115-022331.
elsewhere seek to clarify their genetic ancestry and to better understand their genetic identity and

ancestral origins.5 Therefore, this study; ‘The Shackle History: The Epigenetic Impact of Slave

Trade’ aim to provide a psychological information on the post TAST impact and it epigenetic

impact on black race. To understand this study it is important for us to understand the concept of

“epigenetic” and the brief history of trans-atlantic slave trade and its epigenetic impact.

What is Epigenetic?

The term ‘epigenetic’ was introduced by Conrad Waddington in the early 1940s. 6 He defined

epigenetics as ‘‘the branch of biology which studies the causal interactions between genes and

their products which bring the phenotype into being.’’ 7 In the original sense of this definition,

epigenetics referred to all molecular pathways modulating the expression of a genotype into a

particular phenotype. It study changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype that do not

involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence. 8 These changes can be influenced by

various factors such as environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, and developmental stages.

Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role in regulating gene activity, determining which genes

are turned on or off in different cells at different times.

This concept is important to this study as it provides a novel lens through which we can

understand the enduring effects of historical trauma such as slavery. As the transatlantic slave

trade stands as one of the darkest chapters in human history, it leaves an indelible mark on black

in the African and American continent. While its immediate effects are well-documented, its

5
A. Nelson, The Social Life of DNA: Race, Reparations, and Reconciliation After the Genome. Beacon Press: Boston,
USA, 2016..
6
C,H.Waddington The epigenotype. Endeavour 1942;1:18–20.
7
C.H.Waddington, Towards a Theoretical Biology. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press; 1968. The Basic
Ideas of Biology; p. 1-32.
8
Ratel D, Ravanat JL, Berger F, Wion D. N6-methyladenine: the other methylated base of DNA. Bioessays
2006;28(3):309–315.
long-term impact, particularly at the molecular level, should be a subject of growing interest in

the field of history or psychological history.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and its Impact

Between 1400 and 1900 Africa experienced a terror forced displacement of more than 12.5

million men, women, and children from Africa to the Americas and between 1515 and present,

the descendant of these men, women, and children has had significant social, cultural, health, and

genetic impacts across the world. This is because; the continent Africa as aforementioned

experienced four simultaneous slave trades. The largest and most well-known is the trans-

Atlantic slave trade where, beginning in the 15th century, slaves were shipped from West Africa,

West Central Africa and Eastern Africa to the European colonies in the New World. The three

other slave trades – the trans-Saharan, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean slave trades – are much older

and predate the trans- Atlantic slave trade.

However, the sheer magnitude of the Atlantic slave trades it is natural to ask what effect, if any,

the slave traders had on Black societies. This is an old and much debated question in the African

history literature. A number of authors, dating back to at least the writings of Basil Davidson and

Walter Rodney, argue that the slave trades had a significant adverse impact on the political,

social and economic development of black and their homeland, Africa. 9 With global impacts

reaching to the present day, more than a century and a half after slavery’s abolition. Such records

have fueled a broad understanding of the forced migration from Africa to the Americas and yet

unexplored number of present-day psychological impact it has on black society either in Africa,

America or Europe. This remains underexplored in concert with genetic data.

During the slave trading between Europe, Africa, the Americas and the Caribbean, millions of

Africans were captured, forced aboard European ships and transported in appalling conditions to
9
Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
the Americas and the islands of the Caribbean where the atrocities continued. For the rest of their

lives the captives were enslaved and left to the mercy of their owners. 10 Hundreds of years of

slave trading have certainly affected these societies, where the past is very much part of the

present and will surely be for years to come. It is precisely this link between the past, present and

future which presents us with new perspectives that is confronting the psychology of black

people in new wave of tragedy of the past.

In his book “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa” Rodney argues that the slave trade

fundamentally altered African society. First, the slave trade discouraged state-building and

encouraged slave raiding. It encouraged the capture of slaves for sale and discouraged the

capture of land and the cultivation of a citizenry for the purposes of taxation. Quoting

Rodney ...there have been times in history when social groups have grown stronger by raiding

their neighbors for women, cattle, and goods, because they then use the \booty" from the raids

for the benefits of their own community. Slaving in Africa did not even have that redeeming

value. Captives were shipped outside instead of being utilized within any given African

community for creating wealth from nature" 11 And, if the prisoners were to develop into a true

serf class, then those prisoners would have had to be guaranteed the right to remain fixed on the

soil and protected from sale.12

To support Rodney's underdevelopment thesis; we studied the relationship of the slave trade and

the psychological expression of many black race in the world. Particularly, in relations to the

large momentum movement of ‘Black Lives Matter’ after the killing of George Floyed. This

make us understand how a number of mechanisms in our modern societies are interwoven with

long-ago events.

10
See UNESCO’s Associated Schools Project Network, “Breaking the Silence”, ,
11
Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa…100
12
Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa---118
At its core, epigenetics is one of these mechanisms that give us a better understanding of

historical trauma as it concerned with changes in gene activity that do not involve alterations to

the genetic code itself. These changes can be induced by a variety of factors, including diet,

stress, inhuman experience, racism and exposure to toxins. Importantly, these alterations can be

passed down from one generation to the next, potentially shaping the health and well-being of

future descendants.

The Epigenetic Impact of Slave Trade

While records have shed light on the main trends of the transatlantic slave trade, the effects of

under-documented practices, such as illegal slave trading and details of events after

disembarkation in the Americas, remain less understood.13 The legacy of the transatlantic slave

trade provides a compelling case study for the study of epigenetics. The trauma experienced by

enslaved Africans, including physical abuse, forced labor, and family separation, undoubtedly

had profound effects on their psychological and physiological well-being. Recent research

suggests that these experiences could have led to changes in gene expression that persist across

generations.

Also, little is known about the extent to which enslaved people and their descendants continued

to associate exclusively with those of similar ethnolinguistic origins after generations in the

Americas.14 If such association was common, Americans with African roots would be expected

to have African correlated with geography. Finally, previous studies indicate that individuals

with mixed ancestry have higher levels of African ancestry in genomic regions inherited through

the female line.

13
D. Head, Slave Smuggling by Foreign Privateers: The Illegal Slave Trade and the Geopolitics of the Early Republic.
J. Early Repub. 33, 2013. 433–462.
14
L.F. Edwards, ‘‘The Marriage Covenant is at the Foundation of all Our Rights’’: The Politics of Slave Marriages in
North Carolina after Emancipation. Law Hist. Rev. 14, 1996. 81–124.
One key mechanism through which this trans-generational transmission of trauma may occur is

through the regulation of stress response genes. Chronic exposure to stress can lead to

dysregulation of these genes, potentially leading to increased susceptibility to stress-related

disorders such as anxiety and depression. Studies have shown that these effects can be passed

down to offspring, suggesting that the trauma experienced by enslaved Africans could still be

reverberating through their descendants today.

Additionally, the nutritional deprivation and exposure to infectious diseases experienced by

enslaved populations could have led to epigenetic changes that impact health outcomes in

subsequent generations. For example, studies have shown that prenatal exposure to famine can

lead to changes in DNA methylation patterns that are passed down to offspring, increasing their

risk of developing metabolic disorders later in life.

Conclusion

The epigenetic impact of the transatlantic slave trade in Africa is a complex and multifaceted

phenomenon that warrants further investigation. By understanding how historical trauma can

leave a lasting mark on the genome, we can gain insights into the intergenerational effects of

slavery and work towards addressing the lingering inequalities that persist today.