PART 14 CHAPTER 1 PHOTOGRAPHY - DEFINITIONS, HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND PRINCIPLES DEFINITION OF TERMS A. PHOTOGRAPHY 1. Literal definition: The word photography is derive of two Greek words phos which means “light” and graphia meaning “write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light’. (Herschel 1839). There are two versions on the “root words” or origin of the word photography. Photography is derived from the greek word “phos” or “photo” meaning light and the word “grapho” which means to draw. Literally therefore, photography is the drawing with light. The other version, the second word is “graphia” which means to write or literally too, photography is the writing with light. The word “grapho” is found in two books “The Encyclopedia of Practical Photography” Edited and published by Eastman Kodak, Rochester New York USA 1979 and the other book “Photographic evidence - its theory and practice” by Charles C. Scott West Publishing Co. St. Paul Minnesota, USA 1976. The word “graphia” appear in the book, “The practical methodology of forensic photography” by David Red sicker, CRC Press Washington D.C. USA 2001. Personally the word “grapho" meaning to draw is more appropriate than the word “graphia” which means to write because photographic subject range from places, persons and things so it is more wide ranging in subject matter while in graphia-webster dictionary describe to write is the combining of letters to form a word. In application this will be limited to handwriting in Questioned Document Examination and other writings like label, title etc. 2. Modern definition: Photography is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved therein. (Aquino 1972) 3. Technical/Legal definition: Modem photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images on sensitized materials, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays. This definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process that may be developed. (Scott 1975) Scanned with CamScannerB. Police Photography Police photography is an art or science which deals with study of the principles of photography, the preparation of photographic evidence, and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972) C. Forensic Photography -is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial. (Redsicker 2001) HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY A. The Basic Components of Photography 4. Light - the days of creation “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the spirit of God was hovering over the waters. ‘And God said, “Lét there be light” and there was light. God saw the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light “day”, and the darkness he called “night”, And there was evening and there was a morning-The first day. (Genesis, chapter 1, verses 1-3) 2. Equipment (1700) : The portable camera obscura (Latin for dark chamber) was used by artist or painters to get accurate perspective of natural scene and scale of their subjects. FIGURE 1 Camera Obscura (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) Is (1726-1777) Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver'chloride solution was discovered and investigated. In 1800 Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photogram. Scanned with CamScannerB. True Photography 1839 - is generally known as the birth year of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had invented (calotype) at the Royal Society of London. The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in Paris “Daguerreotype” in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce. The “Daguerreotype” formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal plate. With Talbots “calotype”, the fixation was only partial while Daguerre's Daguerreotypes, images were made permanent with the use of hypo. 1848 - Abel Niepce de Saint - Victor introduce a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium. 1850 - Louis Deserie Blanquart-Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface. 1851- Frederick Scott Archer - published a “wet plate” process when collodion-a viscous liquid that dries to a tough flexible and transparent film-replaced albumen. 1885 - Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films in 1889. During this time; the cameras were crude; the lenses could not form a true image; and the sensitive materials required long exposures and could not reproduce colors in shades of gray. Itwas in 1856 when John F.W. Herschel coined the word “photography”. 1861 - James Clark Maxwell researched on colors. 1890 - full corrected lenses were introduced. 1906 - a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce alll colors in equivalent shades of gray. 1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green and red filter. 1914 - U.S. Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive process called Kodachrome. 1935 - color process came out together with electronic flash. Scanned with CamScanner1947 - Edwin H. Land introduced “Polaroid” the one-step-photography. 1960 - LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three dimensional pictures). 1988 - The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed in the USA. The first commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced at $13,000. The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV-10 in 1995 and the first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996, In 1999 the Nikon D1 a 2.74 megapixel camera was the first digital SLR with the price of under $6,000. This camera also used Nikon introduced the 300D camera also known as digital rebel, a 6 pixel and the first DSLR priced under $1,000 to consumers. C. Criminal Applications “The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich and exiting. The discoveries and observations of our predecessors are likewise surprising and comforting. The great men and women who paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue to teach us long after their deaths. These are the aspirations that we should aspire to endow. We are fortunate to work in a profession with a strong foundation and a bright and seemingly endless future.” (Thomas W. Adir, Editor ‘The scene’). FIGURE 2 “The Bashful Model” 1873 (Courtesy of Charles E. O'Hara) 1854 - An Englishman, Maddox, developed a dry plate photography eclipsing Daguerre’s wet plate on tin method. This made practical the photography of inmates for prison records. 1859 - In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in photography. It was used to demonstrate evidence in a California case. Enlarged photographs of signature were presented in a court case involving forgery. 1864 - Odelberch first advocates the use of photography for the identification of criminals and the documentation of evidence and the crime scenes. Scanned with CamScannerEarly photographs of accused and arrested persons were beautifully posed as example of the Victorian photographers at 20 to 30 years. Later, every major police force in England and the United States has “Rogues' galleries’-full face, profile and full body shot. In Europe and the United States had “Rogues Galleries’ (Photograph of criminals) became an integral part almost all police departments. 1982 - Alphonse Bertilion who initiated anthropometric measurements for personal identification was also involved in various means of documentation by photography which developed into a fine science for criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of contact photography to demonstrate erasures on documents. 1902 - Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and Physics at Lausanne University in Switzerland. He contributed heavily to the used of photography in forensic science and established the world's earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and the Swiss police. His interest included photography of crime scenes, corpses, and blood stains. He made a trip to Brazil in 1913 where his experience in criminalistics was presented to the Western Hemisphere for the first time. 4910 - Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics. Victor Baltazard, Professor of forensic medicine at Sorbone, used photographic enlargements of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics. D. Legal Foundation of Forensic Evidence 4. For Black and White Photographs 4859 - Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs. United States, 23 Howard 515 to decide ‘on the authenticity of photographs in comparing signature. 1874 - In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence, Underzook vs. Commonwealth, 76 Pa. 340. 2. For Color Photographs 1943 - Civil litigations Green vs. City and country of Denver, 3 Colo. 390 142 P.2 D.227 involving color photography of spoiled meat in violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public. 4960 - In criminal case, State vs. Conte 157 Comm. 251 A. 2. d81 showing the ghaphic wound of the victim. 1975 '- The first actual digital still camera was developed by Eastman Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He built a prototype (US patent 4, 131, 919) from a movie camera lens, a handful of Motorola parts, 16 batteries and some newly invented Fairchild CCD electronic sensors. 5 Scanned with CamScannerE. Criminology Education 1902 - Dr. R.A. Reis professor at the University of Lausanne Switzerland set up one of the first academic curricular in forensic science. His Forensic Photography Department grew into Lausanne Institute of Police Science. 1950 - August Vollmer, Chief of Police of Bekerly, California established the School of Criminology at the University of California, Bekerly. Paul Kirk presided over the major of criminalistics within the school. 1954 - In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology education is the Plaridel Educational Institution now the Philippine College of Criminology at 641 Sales St., Sta. Cruz, Manila. THE PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Different authors of photography books have different approach in explaining the principles of photography but to our mind, the one expounded by Atty. Avelino Aquino in his book “Police Photography-its principles and practice” is the best articulated. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials. Lights reflected or radiated by subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a camera. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes. To make the formed images visible, it must undergo the development process. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and quality of the exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development, too little will produce a transparent or white shade. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image. Question Is the principles discussed herein still valid since Digital Photography no longer needs a darkroom, films, photographic paper and chemicals? In my lectures or other speaking engagements, also from other criminology practitioners, even students of Criminology, this is the most often asked question. Answer In my honest opinion, the answer is absolutely yes! The elements remain the same although there are changes in the media of the elements to produce a photograph. In the principle Scanned with CamScannerto produce a photograph, there are four medium or elements; light, camera, sensitized materials and chemical process. ‘These are the following changes: In the transition of the conventional or film-based photography to digital imaging all the above-mentioned elements still exist. 1. Light in photography is needed because it is actually the one that forms the images. As a matter of fact, in the discovery of photography, the light that was used is limited to what is known as visible light only. As the science progressed it expanded to include the other invisible radiation like ultraviolet and infrared radiation. Presently it now includes the other energies of the electromagnetic spectrum like gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays, hertzian or radio waves and the long electrical oscillation. This is now true in digital photography. 2. Camera - since the beginning of photography, the camera has undergone changes in size, design and built-in accessories to make the taking of photographs easier, faster, more accurate and convenient for everyone and even to general public. Despite these improvements, the basic parts and function of the camera remained the same and that is to exclude all unwanted and unnecessary light which will affect the intended image. 3. Sensitized materials - this medium is still very much applicable. Try to understand that these words are general term which is used to describe materials that were made sensitive to light. Many people think that these words refer only to film or photographic papers. In digital photography, these materials are no longer needed but instead the (LCD) Liquid Crystal Display or (CCD) Charged Coupled Device. Since the purpose and characteristics of these materials is the one that are sensitive to light and is used tp record the image then itis logical that they are included in this term. 4. Chemical Process - truly in digital photography there is no need for darkroom and the different chemicals for the processing of photographs because afier the picture taking the image recorded can be immediately viewed in it's positive image 0.1 we screen at the back of the camera. However, in the field of crime investigation and also for court trials, there is the need for the traditional photographs on papers or other medium referred to in digital photography as “hard copy”. As required by law all are attachments or exhibits on investigation reports or trial records. To do this, the original image on the image recorder has to be printed in a computer printer. This printer depend on the use of different chemical to reproduce the image in black and white or in color accurately and faithfully. Therefore, chemical process is not completely or totally out of the principles. Scanned with CamScannerf ‘udesBoroud 10 ‘Ado PueH as9 s 91 awl, Z = 3@E TINS AydesBoyoug eubia ‘z? Ss0001g S1YdeiGo}oyg oy) Jo WesBEIG “| Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 2 PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS- ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS A. LIGHT Light is one of a number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion. Actually, there are other theories that explains the behavior of light (ex. Quantum theory) but for our purpose, the wave theory is the only one considered. This form of energy travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency. Wavelength is the distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second. The product of the two is the speed of travel. The speed of the various radiant energy is constant at a given medium, but varies with other media. For example, the speed of light in ordinary glass is only about two-third of its speed in air. Actually, i is only the wavelength that changes, frequency remains constant. However frequency is much more difficult to measure, wavelength could be determined with accuracy. Hence, we identify a particular radiation by its wavelength. Wavelength is measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of milli-microns (English system of measure) or nanometer (metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a millimeter. The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are the following: Cosmic rays, Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, heat rays, Hertzian waves, and the alternating current oscillations. The energies that are capable of being recorded on sensitized materials are the X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, and infrared rays. They are sometimes referred to as the four photographic rays of modern photography. The wavelength of X-rays is from 01 to 30 nanometers, Ultraviolet rays from 30 to 400nn, visible light from 400 to 700nn, and infrared rays from 700 to 1,000+nn. Actually, the wavelength of infrared rays extends beyond 2,000nn but the longest wavelength that the present sensitized materials (films) could record is only up to this limit. The Webster Dictionary defines light as a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by the naked eye. The scientific definition of light is the aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer is aware through the visual sensations which arise from the stimulation of the retina of the eye. 1 Scanned with CamScannerLight rays with a wavelength of 400 to 700 nn is referred to as visible light because it is only within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of perceiving. Those with shorter or longer wavelength are commonly referred as visible radiations. By definition all lights are visible. For this reason the word “visible” is superfluous in that common expression “visible light". What the eye cannot see are referred to as radiations, Light energy has several effects on an object. It is either reflected,absorbed, transmitted or converted. The varying combinations of this reflectance and absorption ara what give us the wide variety of colors which we are able to perceive, at times, other light are neither reflected nor absorbed but it is transmitted through the object. This transmitted light passing through the object and allows a viewer on the other side of the object to perceive these light waves. The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be converted to another wavelength. This conversion is known as luminescence. There are two types of luminescence: the fluorescence and phosphoresce. Fluorescence is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to another as long as the active energy source is irradiating the object. In phosphorescence the object not only converts the wavelength while being irradiated but continuous to reflect the new wavelength for a period of time after the energy source is removed. White Light When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light. If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass through a prism it will bend the light of shorter wavelength more than those with longer wavelength thus spreading them out into visible spectrum. These are colors of the rainbow-the red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. FIGURE 3 The prism breaks its white light in its different wavelength producing the colors of the rainbow. (Courtesy of Eastern Kodak) Scanned with CamScannerIf we divide the wavelength of visible light (400-700 nano.) equally into three (from 400 to 500 nano., from 500 to 600 nano., and from 600 to 700 nano.) we will produce blue, green, and red colors. These are known as the three primary colors of lights, paints, dyes, pegment and other coloring matters which are the blue, yellow, and red. Additive Color Mixture If we get three projectors with beams of lights projecting individually blue, green and red and have the three beams overlap over the other, we will note that the portion where the blue and green lights merged over the other, it will produce a cyan color, the green and red lights a yellow color, and the red and blue lights a magenta color. At the center where the blue, green and red lights were combined in proper ratio, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow, and magenta are known as the three secondary colors. Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of light. FIGURE 4 Additive Color Mixture: (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) Subtractive Color Mixture This time, the light beams of the three projectors will be covereu 2ach with cyan filter, yellow filter, and magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one over the other. The cyan filter will transmit blue and green light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit red and blue light but absorbs green from white light. At the center where the three beams of light are merged together will produce black. In simple terms, cyan is the complementary of red, yellow is the complementary of blue, and magenta is the complementary of green. FIGURE 5 ‘Subtractive Color Mixture (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) 13 Scanned with CamScannerThe range of colors which can be produced by subtractive mixture of three dye is quite large and makes it possible the modern processes of color photography which depends on the subtractive principle. Production of Colors There are a number of different ways in which color is produced, One needs to know the variable quantities of colors so it will be possible to evaluate color as quality. a Absorption The colors of most ordinary objects are due to the fact they do not absorb the same amount of light at each wavelength. Scattering The color of the blue sky is due to the scattering of light by the atmosphere. Variation in the density of the atmospheric gases act in such a way that they scatter light of the shorter wavelength at the blue end of the spectrum much more they scatter light of the longer wavelength of the red end of the spectrum. Thus the sky is bluest when itis clearest and white when itis less clear. Interference Color can also be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like a in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in water. The light reflected from the top surface of such a film undergoes a reversal or phase but the reflected from the bottom surface does not undergo this type of change. This phenomenon is also responsible for the color pattern known as “Newton's ring” which sometimes causes trouble in color printing work. Fluorescence This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength. Dispersion Color may arise from the differences in the refractive or bending power of a transparent medium of light of different wavelength. The rainbow is a good example of this phenomenon. Attributes of Color According to the modern scientific definition of color, it is not legitimate to ascribe color to an object but only to the light reflected from it. Thus any color perception has three characteristic, any one of which can be varied independently of the other two. These are hue, saturation, and brightness. Bending of Light “When travelling in open space, light travels in straight line. However, when light comes in contact with an open object, it may be bended in the following manner. 14 Scanned with CamScannerFIGURE 6 REFLECTION OF LIGHT TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT | How tight Works Transmission — Reflection — iss 0506) tomatoes Objects absorbs green and Filter absorbs green and Blue, looks red blue, looks red REFRACTION The diferrent bending of light as it passes through glass blocks. (Courtesy of Easman Kodak) Reflection - is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface. a. Regular or Specular Reflection - happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny ‘surface. b. Irregular or Diffused Reflection - occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object. 41. Refraction - the bending of light when passing from one medium t o another. 2. Diffraction - the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object. Kinds of object as to how they behave to light. 1. Transparent objects - allow sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen. 2. Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be recognizable but sharp detail and outline is obscured. 15 Scanned with CamScanner3. Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible. Sources of Light 4, Natural light source - those coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, fire etc. while all of these sources could now be used for photographic use, for practical reasons, the discussion will be limited to sunlight only. With sunlight there are actually several sources. Primarily, those coming directly from the sun, secondarily, those being reflected by clouds or the sky. The intensity of sunlight falling on an object in open space varies depending on the weather condition, time of the day, or even time of the year. For a more accurate exposure setting at daylight, only one characteristic is considered- the kind of shadow casted by an object in open space. 4) Bright sunlight - a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow. 2) Hazy sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow. 3) Dull sunlight - objects in open space cast no shadow. a, Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly visible. b. Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already limited. 2. Artificial Light Source Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation and the short duration. a. Continuous radiations are those that can give illumination continuously. The common light sources of this kind are the fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamps, carbon arc lamp, photoflood lamp, gas lamp, etc. b. Short duration (Flash unit) A flash unit gives a brief flash light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash). At this time, the flash bulb is no longer available in the market but the electronic flash remains very popular. The electronic flash offers a great light output in a compact, lightweigh t and economical form. It does not have the effect of heat and glare during setup that is common with continuous light sources. Because t is battery powered, it is most convenient for field work where AC current id not available. Like any other artificial source, flash unit allows the photographer to control the direction, quality and intensity of light to achieve the desired result. 16 Scanned with CamScannerporte wit. 155A__166A_188A__199A_277T_ Ss 299T_—533G_—577G FIGURE 7 A. Different kinds of flash units B. Different studios/laboratory light Including an umbrella reflector Forensic Light Sources 1. Ultraviolet lamp Ultraviolet lamps used in forensic work come in variety of shape, sizes, and power. Some units are portable battery operated and easily carried and can meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field work. The ultraviolet radiation is broken down into the long wave U.V., the medium wave U.V. and the short wave U.V. The long wave UV is used in wide variety of applications in medical and forensics. The medium wave UV is often used in chemical analysis and in curing and hardening of different items for industrial applications. The short wave UV is used for variety purpose such as to sterilize air and place of work. It is an effective germicide, destroying many biological contaminants. 2. LASER - Light Amplification and Stimulation in the Emission of Radiation Although developed years earlier it was in 1970's that it was discovered that by illuminating certain items with LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast from their background. This was especially significant in locating 7 Scanned with CamScannerdried biological stains such as semen, urine and saliva, as well as stains that had been washed. The LASER stimulation of these items provided a way for criminalist to finally see, locate, and visually record evidence that they know that they had been missing, The only drawback of LASER is their cost, they are quite expensive. LAZER is also known as coherent light. FIGURE 8 Crimescope machine including its accessories: Goggles and Photographic filters. 3. Alternative Light Source (ALS) The Alternative Light Sources was developed in mind 1980's as a far more inexpensive alternative to forensic LASER. The ALS uses a variety of band pass filters to provide high intensity beam of non-coherent light. These multiple band pass filters allows the operator to match the LASER frequency available at crime scene. Additional wavelength ware included to allow the ALS to operate in the UV, near UV, and IR spectrum. ALS technology had advanced to a point whereby using the combination to filter and an adjustable iris control the width of the transmission band, various wavelength from the UV to IR may be digitally selected. This allows the operator to scan an almost endless variety of wavelength instead of being restricted to the specific band pass filter capabilities. 4, Forensic Light Sources (FLS) The FLS is a term being applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use filtered white light. A band of pass filters allows a fairly narrow band of light to pass through. The object is then radiated with what is normally about 400-500 nanometer light source. The strobe shift of a specially developed luminescent fingerprint powder which also falls within the strobe shift of most biological powder. This will enable a criminalist to search latent fingerprints of rough surfaces. The white light source used with the FLS is a simple as a maglight type handled flashlight or a spot with the filter in place. Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 3 CAMERA A. Camera - is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is. B, Camera Classifications: Camera classified as according to: 1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce. a. Large format cameras These cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4°xS", 5°x7” and 8°x10" b. Medium format cameras Some of these cameras are folding type with bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 120,220, 70 mm, The double lens reflex camera falls under this category. c. Small format cameras Those film size 126, 110, 35 mm., 16 mm, and 8 mm. 2. The viewing/focusing system a. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera. b. Those with optical viewfinder. 3, Overall design and functions a. View camera b. System cameras Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film backs, and accessories (hundreds of them) can be attached or integrated to adapt to scientific, technical, architectural, astronomical, underwater, and many other kind of photography. Example of this type is the single-lens reflex camera. ¢. Digital cameras This type of camera digitalizes the image which can then be put into a computer and enhanced through a software package such as Adobe Photoshop. 21 Scanned with CamScannerFIGURE 8-A Camera Evolution (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) cf of FIGURE 8-B Photographs of cameras with different film format Scanned with CamScannerFIGURE 9 The parts of a single-lens reflex camera SLR There are two types of digital cameras: 1. Those with fixed memory This camera has a limited number of images it can capture. The user will then be forced or download it into a computer. 2. Those with removable memory This camera allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as film is exposed and replaced with a new film. Removable media varies in size, in price, and compatibility with computers and other cameras. Other features of a digital camera: 4. Image produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a computer monitor or TX. set. For hard copies of such image a computer printer is used. 2. ALiquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor Digital “point and shoot” cameras sometimes do not have an optical viewfinder. These cameras feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that can be swing on the side which serves multiple duties as a viewfinder, control panel, and instant playback monitor. Flash unit- although generally not necessary but is required for back lighted subjects or ir a really low light level. 4. Zoom lens capability- wide-angle, normal, telephoto, even macro. 23 Scanned with CamScanner5, Sound recording- where you can record audio chips such as short description of the image taken or noise in the surrounding area. 6. Removable lens that can see around corners. This simplest type of camera is the box type, also commonly referred to as the Instamatic, or then newer generation “point and shoot” cameras. With this type of camera, all you need to do is to open its back, load the film, close the back, wind the film then take the picture. There are no exposures and focusing control to adjust because itis fixed focused, with fixed shutter speed, and a fixed lens or diaphragm opening. In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera. It is light in weight, compact, and versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of lenses and a wide range of accessories can be attached to its body, like extension rings or tubes, flash units, filters, cable release, motor drive, remote control, etc., for better photographic efficiency and affectivity. C. Methods of Image Formation 4. Pinhole - is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but its image is so dim that itis impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is also not practical to enlarge the hole for more light because the larger the hole, the more blurred is the image. 2. Shadow method Image formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of application of this method is in X-ray photography and in making photogram. 3. Lens method This is the best method of image formation because it is capable of forming a sharp image even with a large opening so it is suited for a camera. FIGURE 10 ‘A. Convergent or positive lens B. Divergent or negative lens be Converging (positive) lens, 24 Scanned with CamScannerC. Diagram of a Kodak Ektar Lens with several lens components D. Lens Alens is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. Generally, there are two types of lenses: 1. The convergent of positive or convex lens This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at appoint. It produce areal image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from. 2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens. This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produce a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from. E. Inherent Lens Defects of Aberrations The ideal lens for forensic photography would be capable of producing critically sharp and distortion-free image. Some other lenses are unfit for the preparation of photographic evidence because they have optical defects known as aberrations. They are the following: 1. Spherical aberration When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens are bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part. 2. Coma This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The defect is not noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at the corners of the negative are: comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of lenses of different curvatures. 25 Scanned with CamScanner3. Curvature of field This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in acurved surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma FIGURE 11 Illustration of the different lens aberrations 4. Distortion A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines of an object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines near the edges of the object tend to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion. If the diaphragm is placed behind or the lens, straight lines near the edges tend to bend inward. This is known as pincushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component and the two opposite distortions will neutralize. 5. Chromatic aberrations This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays bent the most while infrared rays are bent the least when they pass through the lens. Visible light come to a focus at varying distances. This defect is reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass of different curvatures. an Scanned with CamScanner6. Astigmatism With this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the negative will be imaged not as a point but as two perpendicular short lines, one of which is always be out of focus while the other is sharp. This defect is lessened by combining lenses of special, kind of glass having the correct combinations of spherical surfaces. 7. Chromatic difference of magnification This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is different from the size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases. In color photography it produces a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography it appears as a slight blue. Most of these aberrations cannot be eliminated but each one of them can be reduced toa level that its truth bearing quality for evidence use is legally acceptable. F. Types of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to these Lens Aberrations Achromatic lens- is corrected for chromatic aberration. Rapid-rectilinear lens- is corrected for distortion. Anastigmat lens- is corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens defects. Apochromat lens- is also corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction to color. BENS G. Focal Length A fundamental characteristic of a lens is its focal length. This will determine the size of an image of an object at a given distance, and the area of coverage of the lens. Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity position or far distance. Focal distance - is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane. H. Types of Lenses as According to Focal Length 1. Wide angle lens - a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material. This lens will have a wide area of coverage but produces a small image size. This is usually used in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. Itis also used outdoor to get a panoramic view of a scene. 2. Normal lens - is a lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal of its negative material. itis referred to as normal because its coverage corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human eye. 3. Telephoto lens -is a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative material. This lens produces a bigger image of objects at far distance but its area of coverage is smaller. 27 Scanned with CamScanner4, Zoom lens - is a lens with variable focal length. The focal length f a lens is normally indicated in the lens mount or barrel of a camera, usually in millimeter (mm) or in centimeter (cm). OBSWsBOeOe Lenses come in ee ee ee ae na watt a variety of focal DbewoaR me, Nome ot 0 Grease Oe a Loe nee moma mer ene Wide angle Sensis aswoas te rf TmMmPwiw 40-70 mm = fees Seat Normal perspective ce acs y 70 - 1200 mm (E> Gaap (Po ep iz rie Macro lenses DG designed for Sune eK _ = close-up photography Se FIGURE 12-A Camera lenses of different focal length sizes Scanned with CamScannerFIGURE 12.8 ‘Camera lenses of different focal length 1. Lens Diaphragm In between the lens component of a camera is a metal diaphragm which can be expanded or constricted by moving a tuming ring on the lens mount or barrel. The size of the opening is indicated by markings of f-numbers. Each f-number represents the ratio of the focal length of the lens and the diameter of the opening. The common series of f-number are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, and 22. There are some cameras whose f-numbers starts at 1.4 or 1.2, or :.1 and the lowest numerical f-number was the .09 fitted on a Canon 7 camera. These f-numbers indicate in succession decrease by one-half in light intensity as the number increases. This means that an aperture of f1.8 will admit twice more light than 2 and so on Conversely, light intensity will decrease by one-half as the numerical value increases. This also means that {8 will admit twice less light than 15.6. The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions. 1. Diaphragm as controller of speed. By expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to regulate the amount of light passing through the lens, The diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f-numbers, the lowest number is the widest opening of the one that give the most amount of light and conversely, the highest number is the smallest opening or the one that give the least amount of light. 29 Scanned with CamScannerlg bes et Cl nue foun Rw ied FIGURE 13-A The f. number indicator on the lens mount ‘An f-2 diaphragm opening An f-2.8 diaphragm opening An f-8 diaphragm opening An £22 diaphragm opening FIGURE 13-B Illustrations of the different diaphragm openings. Scanned with CamScanner2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field. In theory, it is not possible to focus a lens in more than one distance at the same time. In actual practice however, in any given lens objects that ere nearer or farther than the object focused upon will be reasonably sharp. Depth of field is defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused on a given distance. There are influencing factors of depth of field. a. The size of the diaphragm opening. The general rule governing this factor is. The smaller the opening, the longer is the depth of field. Conversely, the wider is the opening, the shorter is the depth of field, The exception to this rule is the presence or the effect of diffraction when a small opening is used. PETS a is FIGURE 14-A ‘photograph with a wide or long depth of field b. The focal length of the lens. The general rule is: the shorter the focal length the wider or longer is the depth of field and vice versa, the longer is the focal length the shorter is the depth of field. 3 Scanned with CamScannerFIGURE 14-8 Aphotograph with a short depth of field c. Circle of confusion Another factor that affects depth of field is the size of the circle of confusion which is considered acceptable. Circle of confusion refers to a small circle which is seen by the eye, not as a circle but a dot or point. d. Hyperfocal distance This is the nearest distance at which a lensis focused with a given particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field. 3. Diaphragm as controller of definition. The term definition is the ability of the lens to form clear images of fine details. Not even a theoretically perfect lens would be capable of imaging a point source of light as a geometrical point. All practical lenses image such a point as a small blur which changes in character with the change of lens aperture. Decreasing the lens aperture improves definition as it removes the small amount of haze caused by residual aberrations. J. Photographic Perspective and Correct Viewing Distance. The human eyes sees in three dimensions but a lens reproduces a view in two dimensions, The missing dimension, depth- is suggested mainly by the relative size and position of various objects in the photograph. The relations of these objects or perspective and therefore the naturalness of the photograph are determined by the position of the camera. A camera position too close to the 32 Scanned with CamScanner