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Mechanical Properties of Fluids H
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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Technical difference between solid and fluid

Fluid
Flows under its own gravity(Gases
and Liquids)

Mechanics
Behaviour analysis at Solid can bear shear stress
rest or in motion

Fluid can not resist shear

stress when it is at rest
 Ideal Fluid
Assumptions Density of Fluid
The density of a substance or fluid is
 An ideal liquid is incompressible, meaning the density of defined as its mass per unit volume.
liquid remains the same irrespective of the pressure.
Mass 𝑚
 An ideal liquid is non-viscous, meaning no tangential 𝜌= =
Volume 𝑉
forces between layers of liquid in relative motion.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 The ideal liquid cannot withstand any shearing stress.  S.I unit : 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID STATICS FLUID DYNAMICS

 Fluid at rest  Fluid in motion

 Fluid at rest w.r.t container

 Density of Mixture of fluids
 For a mixture of non-reacting fluids

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥

 When masses and densities  When volumes and densities 𝑚1 , 𝜌1 𝑚2 , 𝜌2 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 , 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥
of fluids are given: of fluids are given:
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉1 𝜌1 + 𝑉2 𝜌2
1 𝑚 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
+ 2 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝜌1 𝜌2
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥
2𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌1 + 𝜌2
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝜌1 + 𝜌2 2

(For 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 ) (For 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 )
 Two liquids with densities 𝜌 and 3𝜌 having volumes 3𝑉 and 𝑉
respectively, are mixed together. Find the density of the mixture.

Given: 𝜌1 = 𝜌, 𝜌2 = 3𝜌, 𝑉1 = 3𝑉, 𝑉2 = 𝑉

To Find: Density of mixture (𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 )

Solution: Density of mixture

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝜌1 𝑉1 + 𝜌2 𝑉2
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

𝜌 × 3𝑉 + 3𝜌 × 𝑉
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
3𝑉 + 𝑉

3
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝜌
2
 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity(𝑆𝐺) is the ratio of the density of a substance to that of a

standard substance ( water at 4° 𝐶 ).

Density of a substance
𝑆𝐺 =
Density of water at 4° 𝐶

 It is also called relative density.

 It is a dimensionless quantity. Ex: 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔

𝜌𝐻𝑔 13600 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3

𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 = =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3

𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 = 13.6
 Pressure
It is the force applied per unit area perpendicular to the surface over which that force is distributed.

𝑑𝐹⊥  Scalar quantity

Pressure (𝑃) =
𝑑𝐴  SI unit = 𝑁 𝑚−2 or Pascal (𝑃𝑎)

If a force 𝐹⊥ is uniformly distributed over a surface area 𝐴, then,

𝐹⊥
𝑃=
𝐴

Different Types of Pressure

 Atmospheric Pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ):
The pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere,
which at sea level has a mean value of 101,325 𝑃𝑎 is
termed as atmospheric Pressure.
 Gauge Pressure (𝑃𝑔 ):
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure; it is positive for pressures above atmospheric
pressure, and negative for pressures below
atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute Pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 ):

It is the sum of 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 and 𝑃𝑔 .
 Pressure at a Depth in static fluid

At equilibrium,

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑔
𝑃𝑜
⇒ 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃𝑜 𝐴
𝑚𝑔 ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔 → Absolute Pressure
𝑃𝐴

𝑃
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔 → Gauge Pressure
 Variation of pressure with depth in static fluid

 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 (inside

the liquid at a depth 𝑥).
 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ (at the
bottom of the container
of having fluid up to
height ℎ

 At a point in the fluid, pressure is the same in all directions.

𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = 𝑃4 = 𝑃5 = 𝑃6 = 𝑃7 = 𝑃8 = 𝑃
 Hydrostatic Paradox

 Absolute pressure acting

at the points is
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝑃0
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑂 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

ℎ ℎ ℎ Pressure at the bottom of the

container depends only on the
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 height of the water filled.

𝑊𝐵 > 𝑊𝐴 > 𝑊𝐶
 Barometer Manometer

It is an instrument used in measuring the

It is device used to measure the pressure of a fluid
atmospheric pressure.
inside a container.
The U-shaped tube often contains mercury.
76 𝑐𝑚 of height in 𝐻𝑔 column corresponds to
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 pressure.

𝐴
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝜌𝑔ℎ = 0.76 13600 9.8 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐵

= 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎

= 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
 A beaker is filled with two immiscible liquids of densities 𝜌 and 2𝜌 as shown.
Find the pressure at the base of the beaker.

Solution :

𝑃 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + Pressure due to

liquid of density 𝜌 + Pressure due
to liquid of density 2𝜌

ℎ ⇒ 𝑃 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑃𝑂 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 2𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝜌

ℎ 2𝜌
⇒ 𝑃 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑃𝑂 + 3𝜌𝑔ℎ
 A U-shaped tube is filled up to height 𝑙 by two different immiscible
T liquids of densities 𝜌 and 3𝜌 separated by a valve as shown. If the valve is
open, find out the new height of the liquids in both columns.

Solution :
At Equilibrium, 𝑃1 = 𝑃2

𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑙 + 𝑥 = 𝑃0 + 3𝜌𝑔(𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝜌

𝑙 + 𝑥 = 3𝑙 − 3𝑥
3𝜌
𝑥
4𝑥 = 2𝑙
𝑙+𝑥
𝑙
Height in right column is, 𝑙 − 𝑥 = 𝑙−𝑥
2
3𝑙
Height in left column is, 𝑙 + 𝑥 = 1 2
2

𝑙 3𝑙
ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 =
2 2
 Consider a container of sides 𝑎 filled with water up to height 𝑙.
s Determine the force and pressure exerted by water on the vertical wall
of the container.

Solution :
𝑙
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = න 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑎 × 𝑑ℎ
0

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑙 2
ℎ ⇒ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑑ℎ 𝑙 2
𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑎 𝑑ℎ Now, area of the wetted walls 𝐴𝑤 = 𝑎𝑙

𝑙 𝜌𝑔𝑙
Pressure is same =𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 . 𝐴𝑊 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑎 2

𝑎
 Torque about a point on the cylindrical wall

• Torque about point “𝑂” due to fluid is Zero.

(as at all points line of force passing through point “𝑂“.

𝑅
𝐹 𝑂
 Horizontal Force on a Cylindrical Wall

Horizontal force on the wall:

𝜋
𝐹𝐻 = න 𝑑𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅2 𝐿 න (1 − cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜌𝑔𝑅2 𝐿
0

𝐹𝐻 = 2𝜌𝑔𝑅2 𝐿
𝐿 = length of cylindrical wall

𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) Short Tick:

𝑑𝐹
𝑅
𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝐴 𝜃 𝐹𝐻 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝐴 = 𝐿𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑜
For this case,

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅 × 2𝑅𝐿 = 2𝜌𝑔𝑅2 𝐿

 Find the pressure at point 𝐴 in a tube opened from its ends as shown.

To Find: Pressure at point 𝐴

Solution :
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
𝑃0 𝑃0
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝐷

So,

𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝐴 ℎ1

ℎ2
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )

𝐵 𝐶
 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that any excess pressure applied to an enclosed

incompressible fluid, is transmitted undiminished to every portion of
the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

𝑀 𝑁
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹
𝑨
𝐴 𝑩
𝐴 𝐴

• 𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑁
(area of both pistons are the same)
 Hydraulic Lift

𝐹1

• Pressure change on an incompressible

liquid in a confined space is passed
𝐴1 equally throughout the liquid in all
𝐴2 directions.
𝑃
𝐹2 𝐹1 𝐹2
𝐹2 𝑃= =
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝑃 𝑃
 Two pistons of a hydraulic lift have diameters of 60 𝑐𝑚 and 5 𝑐𝑚. What is the
force exerted by the larger piston (𝐹2 ) when a force 𝐹1 = 50 𝑁 is placed on the
smaller piston?

Given : Diameters 𝑑1 = 5 𝑐𝑚,

𝑑2 = 60 𝑐𝑚,
5 2 2
𝐴1 = 𝜋 = 𝜋 2.5 × 10−4
Force 𝐹1 = 50 𝑁 2
60 2 2
𝐴2 = 𝜋 = 𝜋 30 × 10−4
To Find : Force (𝐹2 ) 2

𝐹2 =? 𝐹1
2
𝐴2 30
𝑑2 𝑑1 𝐹2 = × 𝐹1 = × 50 = 7200 𝑁
𝐴1 2.5

𝐹2 = 7200 𝑁
 Shape of Free Surface of Fluid

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 Net force on a particle along the surface

with respect to the container must be zero.

𝐹 𝐹

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
 Horizontally Accelerated Fluid: Shape of Free Surface

In trolley’s Frame of Reference: Ant observes 𝑚𝑎 cos 𝛼

the fluid surface

𝛼
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛼
𝑚𝑎 sin 𝛼 𝛼
𝑚𝑎 𝛼
𝛼
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛼
𝑎

−1
𝑎
𝛼 = tan
𝑔
Container Accelerating Upward Container Accelerating Downward Container Falling Freely

Effective acceleration (𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) Effective acceleration (𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) Effective acceleration (𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 )

𝑔 + 𝑎0 𝑔 − 𝑎0 0

Gauge Pressure at 𝐴 Gauge Pressure at 𝐴 Gauge Pressure at 𝐴

𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎0 ℎ 𝜌 𝑔 − 𝑎0 ℎ 0
 Horizontally Accelerated Fluid: Pressure at Any Depth

𝛼 𝐴
𝑎0
In trolley’s Frame of Reference:
𝛼
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝛼
𝐴
ℎ 𝛼ℎ′
𝛼
𝐵 𝑔
𝑙

𝑎0
𝐴
ℎ 𝛼
ℎ′
𝛼
𝐵
𝑙
 Pressure at any depth

𝛼 𝐴 𝐴
𝑎0 ℎ 𝛼
ℎ′
𝛼 𝛼
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝛼 𝐵
𝑙

ℎ′ = ℎ cos 𝛼
𝑔
𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ℎ′

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔2 + 𝑎02 = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 (ℎ cos 𝛼)

𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
cos 𝛼 = = = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ℎ
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑔2 + 𝑎02
𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
 Alternative Formula

𝛼 𝐴 𝐴
𝑎0 ℎ 𝛼
ℎ′
𝛼 𝛼
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝛼 𝐵
𝑙

ℎ′ = ℎ sin 𝛼
𝑔
𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ℎ′

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔2 + 𝑎02 = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 (ℎ sin 𝛼)

𝑔 𝑔 𝑎0
sin 𝛼 = = = 𝜌 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑙
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑔2 + 𝑎02
𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔𝑎0
 Equipressure Lines: Horizontally Accelerated Fluid

𝛼
𝑃𝐴 ≠ 𝑃𝐵 ≠ 𝑃𝐶
Equipressure lines:
Lines parallel to the
free surface of fluid 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑎0 𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑌 = 𝑃𝑍
𝑋
𝑌
𝑍
 Fluid in Rotating Drum: Equation of Curve

On the fluid surface along the

𝜔 tangent 𝐴𝐵: 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
𝜔

𝜔2 𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝑔

Now, tan 𝜃 is slope of the curve along

𝑦 tangent 𝐴𝐵:
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜔2 𝑥
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔
𝑦 𝑥
𝜔2 𝑥
න 𝑑𝑦 = න 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑔

𝜔2 𝑥 2
𝑦= (Equation of a Parabola)
2𝑔
 Rotating Tube: Pressure at Any Point Inside the Liquid

𝜌𝜔2 𝑥 2
∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 =
2

.
𝐴 .
𝐵 𝜌 Pressure increases upon moving away from the
rotational axis; decreases upon moving closer to
𝑥 the rotational axis:
 A closed tube filled with water (𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) is rotated with an
angular speed of 𝜔 = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, about an axis as shown in the figure. Find
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐶 . Given 𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑚 , 𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑚

Solution :
𝜔
∴ 𝑃𝐶 > 𝑃𝐵 , 𝑃𝐴 > 𝑃𝐵

.
𝐴 .
𝐵 .𝐶
Pressure difference at a distance 𝑥 from the rotational axis:
𝜌𝜔2 𝑥 2
∆𝑃 =
2
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐶 = (𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 ) − (𝑃𝐶 − 𝑃𝐵 )

𝜌𝜔2 (𝐴𝐵)2 𝜌𝜔2 (𝐵𝐶)2

= −
2 2

1000(2)2 (2)2 1000(2)2 (4)2

= −
2 2
= −24000 𝑁/𝑚2
 Buoyant Force Archimedes’ Principle

• The reduction in weight is due to an upward thrust • The buoyant force exerted by the fluid on a partially/fully
or ‘buoyant force’ exerted by the fluid on the immersed body is equal to the weight of the fluid
immersed body. displaced by the immersed part of the body.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑔

𝑚, 𝜌𝑚 𝜌𝑓

𝐹𝑔

Displaced Volume of fluid = Volume of the body immersed

=𝑉

Weight of fluid displaced, 𝑊𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐹𝐵

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑔
 Centre of Buoyancy

It is the point where the buoyant force acts and it is located at the
COM of the displaced liquid.

𝑉𝜌𝑓 𝑔

COM of body

Wood Silver
𝜌𝑓

COM of displaced
𝑉𝜌𝑔
liquid
(Centre of buoyancy)
 A rod of length 𝑙, cross-sectional area 𝐴, and density 𝜌𝑅 is hinged at the
bottom corner of the beaker and its top end is not leaning against the
beaker. The rod is immersed up to length 𝑙 ′ in the liquid of density 𝜌𝑙
and making an angle 𝜃 with vertical. Find the relation between 𝜌𝑙 and 𝜌𝑅 .
Solution :
Note: 𝐹𝑔 acts at 𝑙/2 (centre of the body) and 𝐹𝐵 acts at 𝑙 ′ /2
(centre of immersed part of the body).

Net torque about the hinge 𝐻 must be zero:

𝜏 = 𝜏𝐻 + 𝜏𝐹𝐵 + 𝜏𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝜏𝐻 = 0

𝑙′ 𝑙′ ⟹ 𝜏𝐹𝐵 = −𝜏𝑚𝑔
sin 𝜃
2 𝑙′ 𝑙′ 𝑙
𝜃 𝜌𝑙 𝐹𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑙 𝐴𝑙′𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑅 𝐴𝑙𝑔 sin 𝜃
2 2 2
𝜌𝑅 𝐴𝑙𝑔
𝜌𝑙 𝑙2
𝑙 =
sin 𝜃 𝜌𝑅 𝑙′2
2
 Law of Floatation

For floatation: Upthrust = weight 𝜌𝑚 = Density of body

𝜌𝑙 𝑉 ′ 𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑚 𝑔 𝜌𝑙 = Density of liquid

′
𝑉′ = Volume of displaced liquid
𝑉 𝜌𝑚
= 𝑉 = Volume of body
𝑉 𝜌𝑙

𝜌𝑚 > 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑚 < 𝜌𝑙

𝑚 𝑚

Body sinks to Body floats, Body floats,

the bottom entirely submerged partially submerged
 Apparent Weight
• Effective/apparent weight of a body immersed in a liquid
decreases due to the upward buoyant force.
• The decrease in its weight is equal to the buoyant force on the
body.
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝐹𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑉𝑔 − 𝜌𝐿 𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑉

Displaced Volume of fluid = Volume of the body immersed

Weight of fluid displaced, 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑉 𝜌𝑓 𝑔

= Buoyant force, 𝐹𝐵
= Apparent loss in weight of
the immersed body.
Apparent weight of body, 𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑉 𝜌𝐵 𝑔 − 𝑉 𝜌𝑓 𝑔

= 𝑉𝑔( 𝜌𝐵 − 𝜌𝑓 )
A log of wood of mass 120 𝑘𝑔 floats in water (𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ). The
weight that can be put on the raft to cause it to just sink, should be
(Given, 𝜌𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )

Solution :

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔
𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔 120
𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑔 = = = 0.2 𝑚3
𝜌𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 600
𝑚

For equilibrium: 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔

𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = (𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝑚)𝑔

0.2 × 1000 × 10 = 120 + 𝑚 × 10 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝑚 𝑔

𝑚 = 80 𝑘𝑔
 The combined weight of container and water measured by a weighing
machine is 𝑤1 . A block of density 𝜌𝑚 and weight 𝑤2 hanging from a spring is
immersed into the water. The combined weight of water, container, and the
box, measured by the weighing machine is: (Take 𝜌𝑚 > 𝜌𝑙 )

Solution :
Given : 𝜌𝑚 > 𝜌𝑙
∴ The block tends to sink but is supported by spring force 𝐹𝑠

𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑠 For equilibrium: 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑔
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑤2
𝜌𝑙
𝑤2 , 𝜌𝑚
∴ 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑤2 − 𝐹𝑠
𝑤1 𝐹𝑔 𝐹𝑏
The block also applies force 𝐹𝑏 on water.
∴ Reading of weighing machine = 𝑤1 + 𝐹𝑏
?
= 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 − 𝐹𝑠

< (𝑤1 + 𝑤2 )
 Ideal Fluid & Ideal Flow

Non-viscous

Ideal fluid

Incompressible 𝑑𝜌 = 0

Steady

Ideal flow

Streamlined
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow

𝑃 𝑃

(Velocity of each particle at (Velocities of particles at point

point P remains same) P are not same)

If the velocity of all the fluid particles If the velocity of the fluid particles
at any given point remains constant at any given point is variable with
with time, then the flow is said to be time, then the flow is said to be
‘steady’. ‘unsteady’.
 Streamlined Flow
Particles move parallel to each
other without crossing each
other’s path.
• These parallel lines of the flow are
known as streamlines.
• An instantaneous tangent at any
point of a streamline represents
the direction of the velocity of the
particle.
Turbulent Flow Irrotational Flow
Irregular, lateral, random, and chaotic Each particle of the flowing fluid
movements of fluid particles i.e., a doesn’t rotate about its axis.
flow that is unsteady and non-
streamlined.
• Turbulent flow occurs when the
speed of the particles increases. • If we release a ball in a
flowing fluid and the ball
• There’s a critical speed at which
does not rotate, then the
steady flow changes to
turbulent flow.
flow is irrotational.
• A parameter called Reynold’s
Number can be used to
characterize the change of flow
type from steady to turbulent.
 Steady Flow Unsteady Flow
If the velocity of all the fluid particles at If the velocity of the fluid particles at any
any given point remains constant with given point is variable with time, then the
time, then the flow is said to be ‘steady’. flow is said to be ‘unsteady’.

Velocity at point 𝐴 will be 𝑣 for all particles Velocity at point 𝐴 is different for the
passing through it. particles passing through it.
 Reynold’s Number

• Ratio of inertia to viscous force

• Dimensionless number indicating type of flow

Becomes unsteady
flow
Laminar flow Turbulent flow

1000 2000 𝑅𝑒

𝜌𝑣𝐷 • 𝐷 is the internal diameter of the pipe

𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number =
𝜂
• 𝜂 dynamic viscosity of the fluid
 Water flows at a speed of 6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 through a tube of radius 1 𝑐𝑚. The
coefficient of viscosity of water at room temperature is 0.01 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒. Find
out the Reynolds number.

Given: Solution:
Reynolds number is given as,
𝑣 = 6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 0.06 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑅 = 1 𝑐𝑚 ⇒ 𝐷 = 2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.02 𝑚 𝜂

1000 × 0.06 × 0.02

𝜂 = 0.01 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.001 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 =
0.001

𝜌 = 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (Water) 𝑅𝑒 = 1200

Equation of Continuity

 Based on mass conversation of a

flowing incompressible liquid
 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
If 𝐴1 > 𝐴2
⟹ 𝑣1 < 𝑣2

 Based on mass conversation of a

flowing incompressible liquid
 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 + 𝐴3 𝑣3
Water is falling smoothly from the tap opening of area 𝐴1 with velocity
𝑢𝑜 . Find the area 𝐴2 of water stream at depth ℎ from opening of tap.

Solution :

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
(𝑢𝑓 )2 − (𝑢0 )2 = 2𝑔ℎ

𝑢𝑓 = (𝑢0 2 + 2𝑔ℎ)
𝐴1

𝑢0 From the equation of continuity

ℎ
𝐴1 𝑢0 = 𝐴2 𝑢𝑓

𝐴2 𝐴1 𝑢0
𝐴2 =
(𝑢0 )2 + 2𝑔ℎ
𝑢𝑓
 Bernoulli’s Principle

By applying WET, we get,

1 1
⇒ 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝑣1 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑑𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑣2 − 𝑑𝑚 𝑣12
2
2 2
𝑑𝑚
Since 𝐴1 𝑣1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡 =
𝜌
1 2 1 2
⇒ 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2
2 2
Thus, for any cross section
between 𝑀 and 𝑁, Assumptions

1
• Incompressible fluid
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣 2 = Constant
2 • Non viscous fluid
• It states that in a streamlined flow, • Steady flow
the sum of energies corresponding  𝑡 → 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡
to pressure, velocity (kinetic), and
height (potential) remains constant  𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑣1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡
for all the particles.  𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡
 Consider a steady flow of an ideal fluid in a horizontal tube as
T shown in the figure. Determine the pressure variation in the tube
using Bernoulli’s principle.

Solution:
From the equation of continuity (𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑣𝐵 ),
𝐴𝐴 > 𝐴𝐵 ⇒ 𝑣𝐵 > 𝑣𝐴

𝐴𝐴
By applying Bernoulli’s principle between
points 𝐴 and 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵
1 2 1 2 𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝐵
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣𝐵
2 2 𝑣𝐵
1 2 1 2
⇒ 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣𝐵 ℎ ℎ
2 2

1
⇒ 𝑃𝐴 −𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌(𝑣𝐵2 − 𝑣𝐴2 )
2
Since 𝑣𝐵 > 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑃𝐴 > 𝑃𝐵
 Water flows through a horizontal tube of variable cross-section. The
area of cross section at 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 4 𝑐𝑚2 and 2 𝑐𝑚2 respectively. If
100 𝑐𝑐 of water enters per second through 𝐴 , find the pressure
difference between points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Solution:
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝐴2 𝑣2
From equation of continuity,

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝑄 = 100 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠 4 𝑐𝑚2 2 𝑐𝑚2

4𝑣1 = 2𝑣2 = 100 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
12 𝑐𝑚
⇒ 𝑣1 = 25 𝑐𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣2 = 50 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

From Bernoulli’s equation, 1

∆𝑃 = × 1 × 502 − 252
2
1 2 1 2
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣2 ∆𝑃 ≈ 940 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚2
2 2
1
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ∆𝑃 ≈ 94 𝑁/𝑚2
2
 Velocity of Efflux

From the equation of continuity,

𝑎𝑣1
𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑣2 = 𝑎𝑣1 ⇒ 𝑣2 =
𝐴
2
𝐴
By applying Bernoulli’s principle at cross
ℎ 𝑣2 sections 2 and 1,
1 𝑣1 1 1
𝑎 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣22 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑣12
2 2
1 2 1 2 2𝑔ℎ
⇒ 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑣1 =
2 2 𝑎 2
1−
𝐴

If 𝑎 ≪ 𝐴, ⇒ 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ = velocity of efflux

 Torricelli’s Theorem

Torricelli’s theorem states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is
equal to the speed that it would attain if falling freely for a distance equal
to the height of the free surface of the fluid above the orifice.

𝑃𝑜
2 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ ( Free fall Velocity )
𝐴
ℎ 𝑣2  This relation is valid only if 𝐴 ≫ 𝑎 (𝑎 is the
1 𝑣1 area of the orifice, 𝐴 is the area of the free
𝑎
surface of fluid in container).

 Velocity of the efflux is also a function of

time (∵ ℎ is a function of time)
 Water is filled in a cylindrical container to a height of 3 𝑚. The ratio of
T cross-sectional area of the orifice and the beaker is 0.1. The square of
the speed of the liquid coming out from the orifice is ( 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given: 𝐴2 /𝐴1 = 0.1, 𝐻 = 3 𝑚

Solution:
From equation of continuity,
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

⇒ 𝑣1 = 0.1𝑣2
Also, 3𝑚 𝑣2
1 2 1 2
𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑣2 + 0 52.5 𝑐𝑚
2 2

⇒ 2𝑔ℎ = 𝑣22 − 𝑣12

⇒ 2𝑔ℎ = 𝑣22 (1 − 0.1 2 )

2 × 10 × 2.475
𝑣22 =
1 − 0.1 2 𝑣22 = 50 𝑚2 /𝑠 2
 Range of Efflux

𝑅 = Speed of efflux × Time taken

2 𝐻−ℎ
= 2𝑔ℎ ×
𝑔
ℎ
𝐻 𝑣
= 4ℎ 𝐻 − ℎ
𝐻−ℎ
𝑅
𝑅 =2 ℎ 𝐻−ℎ
 Horizontal range of projectile
When orifice is at the bottom:

𝑅 = Speed of efflux × Time taken

2 𝐻−ℎ
∵ Time taken, 𝑇 = =0
𝑔

∵𝑅=0

When orifice is at the highest point:

𝑅 = Speed of efflux × Time taken

𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ = 0 (∵ ℎ = 0)

∵𝑅=0
Two immiscible liquids of densities 𝜌 and 2𝜌 are filled in a vessel up to
height 2ℎ and ℎ as shown in the figure. Calculate the velocity of efflux
(𝑣) of the liquid when a small hole is made in the vessel.

𝑃𝑜
Applying Bernoulli’s principle at
points 1 and 2,
2ℎ 𝜌
1 2
𝑣 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔 ∙ 2ℎ + 2𝜌 ∙ 𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑜 + 0 + 𝜌𝑣
ℎ 2𝜌 2 2
1

4𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣 2

𝑣 = 2 𝑔ℎ
 Flying of Airplanes

Fast moving air

Low Pressure

Slow moving air

Lift
High Pressure

The air pressure at the upper part of the wing is less than that of the
lower part of the wing. Since air always flows from high pressure to low
pressure, the air below the wing pushes the wing upwards, i.e., towards
the low-pressure region. Hence, the wing is lifted, and an airplane
takes off.
 Magnus Effect

𝑣 + 𝜔𝑅
• The difference in the velocities of air
results in pressure difference in the
lower and upper faces generating
net upward force on the ball.
𝑅 𝜔
𝑣 • This dynamic lift due to spinning is
called Magnus effect.
𝑣

• Larger the radius of the ball, larger

will be the pressure difference &
larger will be the dynamic lift.
𝑣 − 𝜔𝑅
𝐹
 Venturimeter

A lab device that is used to measure the flow speed of incompressible fluid.

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (Continuity equation)
1 2 1 2
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌𝑣2 (Bernoulli’s equation)
2 2
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜

2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑣1 = ℎ1
2
𝐴1 ℎ2
−1
𝐴2 𝐴 𝐵 𝑣2
𝑣1
𝐴2
ℎ ℎ
𝐴1
Rate of flow = 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1
 Water flows through a horizontal tube as shown. If the steady
T difference in heights of water column in the vertical tubes is 2 𝑐𝑚, and
the areas of cross-section at 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 4 𝑐𝑚2 and 2 𝑐𝑚2 , respectively,
find the rate of flow of water across any section. (Take 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

Given: 𝐴1 = 4 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐴2 = 2 𝑐𝑚2 , ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 2 𝑐𝑚

𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 1000 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2

Solution:

Rate of flow in the tube:

4000
2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) =4
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴1 3
2
𝐴1
−1
𝐴2
= 4 × 36.5

2 × 1000 × 2
=4 2 𝑄 = 146 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠
4
−1
2
 Viscosity

• Internal friction between the fluid layers in motion

Viscous Force:
• Due to molecular cohesion in fluids 𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝑣 = −𝜂𝐴
• Plays a key role in operations that require the 𝑑𝑦
transport of fluid from one source to another
Where,

-ve sign implies that the direction of 𝜂 = Coefficient of viscosity

viscous force is opposite to the (depends on fluid)
direction of relative velocity of larger. 𝐴 = Area of contact
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝜈 = Velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦

𝑣=0
 Unit of Viscosity

𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝑣 = −𝜂𝐴 (Viscous force)
𝑑𝑦

𝐹𝑣ൗ 𝑁ൗ
𝐴 𝑚2 𝑁𝑠
𝜂=−
𝑚Τ or 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 (Also called Poiseuille
𝑑𝑣ൗ 𝑚2
𝑑𝑦
𝑠 or 1 decapoise)
𝑚
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 ∙ 𝑠
poise = CGS unit =
𝑐𝑚2
Shear stress
𝜂=− 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
Velocity gradient
 The speed of water in a river is 36 𝑘𝑚/ℎ near the surface. If the river is
5 𝑚 deep, then find the shearing stress between the horizontal layers of
water. The coefficient of viscosity of water is 10−2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒.

Given:
𝑣 = 36 𝑘𝑚/ℎ = 10 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑑𝑜 = 5 𝑚

𝜂 = 10−2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 10−3 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2 10 𝑚/𝑠

Solution:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑜 = 5 𝑚 𝜂 = 10−2 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝐹𝑣 = −𝜂𝐴 (Viscous force)
𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= −𝜂 (Shear stress)
𝐴 𝑑𝑦
𝜂𝑣 −3
10
𝜎𝑣 = − = 10 ×
𝑑𝑜 5

𝜎𝑣 = 2 × 10−3 𝑁/𝑚2
 Stokes’ Law

Viscous force 𝐹𝑣 exerted by a fluid on a

spherical body moving inside the fluid is:

𝐹𝑣 𝐹𝑣 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
𝐹𝐵
𝑟 𝑟
𝑣 𝑣 • 𝜂 : Coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
• 𝑟 : Cross-sectional radius of the spherical body
• 𝑣 : Speed of the spherical body
𝑚𝑔

𝐹𝐵 : Buoyant force
 Stokes’ Law
At 𝒕 = 𝟎, the ball is at rest. Therefore, velocity of the
ball is zero

⇒ Viscous force= 0

𝐹𝑣
𝐹𝐵 After time 𝒕 when ball starts moving with
constant velocity inside liquid
𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝑣 = 𝑚𝑔

4 4
𝜌𝑙 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑇 = 𝜌𝑚 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔
3 3
𝑚𝑔 2 2
𝑣𝑇 𝑣𝑇 = 𝑟 𝑔(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑙 )
9𝜂

𝑣𝑇 : Terminal velocity
 Two balls of equal density and radii 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 are moving in the same
T 𝑣
medium. Find the ratio of their terminal velocities 𝐵 (given 𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑟𝐴 ).
𝑣𝐴

Given: 𝑟𝐵 = 2𝑟𝐴
𝑣𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
To Find: Ratio of terminal velocities, =?
𝑣𝐴
Solution: Let density of balls, 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌𝐵 = 𝜌
Density of medium = 𝜎
Density of balls, 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵
Density of medium = 𝜎
2
The terminal velocity of ball 𝐴, 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑟 2 … … … (𝑖)
9𝜂
2
The terminal velocity of ball 𝐵, 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜎)(2𝑟)2
9𝜂 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑣𝐵 2𝑟 2
From (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖): = 2
𝑣𝐴 𝑟

𝑣𝐵
=4
𝑣𝐴
 Reynold’s Number

A dimensionless parameter whose value gives an idea of whether the flow

would be turbulent or streamlined/laminar.

Inertial force 𝜌𝑣𝐷

Laminar/Streamlined 𝑅𝑒 = =
Viscous force 𝜂

𝐷
𝜌 • 𝐷 : Internal diameter of pipe

• 𝜌 : Density of fluid

Turbulent
• 𝑣 : Speed of fluid

• 𝜂 : Coefficient of viscosity of fluid

𝜌 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 < 1000, flow is Laminar/Streamlined

1000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 2000, flow is Unsteady

𝑅𝑒 > 2000, flow is Turbulent

 Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Consider a liquid of viscosity 𝜂 flowing in a horizontal pipe of radius 𝑟 and length 𝐿.

• The pressure difference between the ends

𝐿
8𝜂𝐿𝑄
Δ𝑝 = 𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑟
𝐴 𝐵
• The volumetric flow rate of the liquid:

Δ𝑝𝜋𝑟 4 𝑚3 𝑠 −1
𝑄=
8𝜂𝐿

Where, 𝐿 = Length of pipe Δ𝑝 = Pressure difference between

𝑄 = Volumetric flow rate two ends
𝑟 = Pipe radius 𝜂 = Coefficient of viscosity
Cohesive Forces Adhesive Forces

Wooden Plate 1 Wooden Plate 1

Force of
attraction
Adhesive Layers between the
Adhesive Layers Force of
molecules of attraction
same substance between the
molecules of
different
substance
Wooden Plate 2 Wooden Plate 2
 Surface Tension

• Molecules near the free surface, experience

effective attractive forces in downward
direction

• Surface tension:

o Tendency of a liquid at rest

o Free surface behaves like a stretched

membrane under tension and tries to
occupy an area as small as possible.
 Surface Tension
• Consider an imaginary line of length 𝑙 on the surface of a liquid that it splits
the liquid in two parts.

• At equilibrium, both the parts of the liquid exert the same force 𝐹 on the
imaginary line in order to minimize the surface area.
The force acting on the imaginary line per unit length
is defined as the surface tension of the liquid .

𝐹
𝑇=
𝑙
𝑙

𝐹
𝐹 • It is a scalar quantity.

• SI unit : 𝑁𝑚−1 .
• Calculation of forces on boundary of liquid
surface can be done if surface tension of liquid is
known

• Direction of force is along the surface of the

liquid and perpendicular to the line or boundary
Consider a small needle of length 𝑙 placed on the surface of a liquid.
Explain why the needle floats over the water surface even though the
density of the needle is more than that of the liquid.

Needle Balanced on Liquid Surface

The net force acting on the needle

𝑇𝑙 𝑇𝑙 vertically upward is,
𝜃 𝜃
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑙 cos 𝜃

By balancing the force on the needle

according to the FBD, we get,
𝑚𝑔
2𝑇𝑙 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
 Surface Tension & Surface Energy

The slider in the frame is pulled with a force 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 very

slowly to increase the area of the film and it is moved to a
small distance 𝑥.
The increase in surface area of the soap film ,
𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑥
Due to the increase in the area of the soap film, the energy
of the film also increases. This energy of the film is known
as surface energy.

Now, the work done by external agent is , • This external work done goes in increasing the
surface energy, ∆𝑆.
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝑥 Thus, ∆𝑆 = 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡

⇒ 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑙 × 𝑥 (∵ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑙) ∆𝑆 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴

⇒ 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑇 × ∆𝐴 (∵ ∆𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑥) ∆𝑆
𝑇=
∆𝐴

• The surface tension of a liquid is the change in

surface energy per unit surface area.
 Factors affecting Surface Tension

Temperature
• As temperature increases, intermolecular
cohesive force decreases thus surface
tension decreases

• At boiling point, surface tension

approaches to zero

Impurities
• Less soluble impurities decreases surface
tension e.g., kerosene and detergent in
water

• Completely soluble impurities increases

surface tension e.g., NaCl in water
 Find out the work done by external agent to break a single drop of
radius 𝑅 having surface tension 𝑇 into 𝑛 smaller drops of radii 𝑟. (All the
quantities are in SI units)
Solution :
The surface energy of the drop is ,
𝑟
S.E. = 𝑇(4𝜋𝑅2 )

The net surface energy due to all small 𝑅

drops is ,

S.E. 𝑠 = 𝑛𝑇(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

Now, By substituting the value of 𝑟 , we get ,

1
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 ⇒ S.E. 𝑠 = 𝑇𝑛3 4𝜋𝑅2
𝑅
⇒𝑟= 1 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = S.E. 𝑠 − (S.E.)
𝑛3
1
2
⇒ 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 4𝜋𝑅 𝑇 𝑛3 −1
Excess Pressure Inside a Drop

• Net horizontal force on the cross section due to the inner

and outward pressure forces is zero.

• Vertical forces acting on the upper hemisphere are 𝐹𝑆 ,

𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐴 and 𝑃𝑜 𝐴, where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅 2 (Cross-section area)

Force balance in the vertical direction:

𝑇 ∙ 2𝜋𝑅 + 𝑃𝑜 𝜋𝑅 2 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑅 2

𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜 𝑅 = 2𝑇

2𝑇
∆𝑃 =
𝑅

= Excess pressure inside a waterdrop in air

= Excess pressure inside an air bubble in water

 Excess Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble

Unlike waterdrop, a soap bubble

has two different surfaces in 𝑃𝑜
contact with the air.
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2𝑇
𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃 = (Inner) 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃 𝑃𝑜
𝑅
𝑅
2𝑇
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 = (Outer)
𝑅

4𝑇
𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑅
 Which of the following surfaces 1, 2, or 3, represents the correct shape
of the interface formed between two bubbles of radii 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 (𝑅2 > 𝑅1 )
when they coalesce with each other. Also, find the radius of curvature
of the interface.
Solution :
4𝑇
𝑃 = 𝑃0 +
𝑅
𝑅2 ∴ 𝑃1 > 𝑃2
𝑅1
Side with higher pressure is concave.
𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃0
4𝑇
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 =
𝑟

1 4𝑇 4𝑇 4𝑇
𝑃0 + − 𝑃0 − =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑟
2
3
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑟=
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
 Surface with Two Radii of Curvature

Excess pressure inside a surface

having two different radii of curvature, 𝑅1

𝑇 𝑇
∆𝑃 = + 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2

(Planes from which 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are

measured are mutually orthogonal) 𝑇

Example: Cylinder 𝑅1 = ∞
𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑅2 = 𝑅
∆𝑃 = + = + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 ∞ 𝑅 𝑅
 Contact Angle

𝜃 𝜃

• It is the angle between the tangent planes of the solid surface and
the liquid surface in contact.
• The tangent plane to the solid surface is to be drawn towards the
liquid and the tangent plane to the liquid is to be drawn away from
the solid.
 Shape of Meniscus

𝐹𝑎
𝜃 𝐹𝑐 𝜃
𝐹𝑐 𝐹 𝐹𝑎
𝐹

• Contact angle/shape of meniscus is directly related to the relative

strength of the cohesive and adhesive forces.
• When adhesive forces dominate, meniscus is concave: 𝜃 < 90°
• When cohesive forces dominate, the meniscus is convex: 𝜃 > 90°
 Contact Angle and Wettability

Wettability is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface.

𝜃 < 90°
𝜃 = 0°

Perfect wetting Good wetting

𝜃 > 90°
𝜃 = 180°

Perfectly
Bad wetting
non-wetting
 Capillarity Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

Pressure at point 𝐵,
• It is the tendency of a liquid in a capillary 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
tube or absorbent material to rise or fall as a
result of surface tension. 2𝑇 2𝑇
𝑃0 = 𝑃0 − + 𝜌𝑔ℎ ∵ 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃0 & 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃0 −
𝑅 𝑅
2𝑇
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑅
2𝑇
ℎ=
𝑅𝜌𝑔
where 𝑅 = Radius of curvature
 Alternative Form: Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

Rise of liquid in capillary tube,

2𝑇
ℎ=
𝑅 𝑅𝜌𝑔
𝜃
𝑟 2𝑇 cos 𝜃
= ∵ 𝑅 cos 𝜃 = 𝑟
𝜃 𝑟𝜌𝑔

𝑃0 where 𝑟 = Radius of capillary tube

ℎ

𝜃 = Contact angle
 A capillary tube of diameter 2 𝑚𝑚 is kept vertical with the lower end
in water. What will be the height of water raised in the capillary?
(𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.07 𝑁/𝑚, 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Take contact angle as 0°.

Given : 2𝑟 = 2 𝑚𝑚 , 𝜃 = 0°, 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.07 𝑁/𝑚 , 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

To find : ℎ
2𝑇 cos 𝜃 𝑅
Solution : ℎ = 𝜃
𝜌𝑔𝑟 𝑟

2 × 0.07 × cos 0°
𝜃
=
2
1000 × 10 × 2 × 10−3 𝑃0
ℎ

ℎ = 14 𝑚𝑚
 The pressure inside two soap bubbles is 1.01 and 1.02 atmosphere. The
ratio of their respective volume is

Given:

Pressure inside a Soap bubble Excess Pressure ∆𝑃1 = 1.01 − 1 = 0.01 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃1 = 1.01 𝑎𝑡𝑚 Excess Pressure ∆𝑃2 = 1.02 − 1 = 0.02 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃2 = 1.02 𝑎𝑡𝑚 1 1
𝑉1
∆𝑃 ∝ ⇒ 𝑟 ∝
To Find: Ratio of Volume 𝑟 ∆𝑃
𝑉2

Diagram: 𝑟1 ∆𝑃2 0.02 2

= = =
𝑟2 ∆𝑃1 0.01 1
4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟
3
3
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑉1 𝑟1 3 2
= 3=
𝑉2 𝑟2 1

𝑉1 𝑉1 8
𝑉2 =
𝑉2 1