Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Chapter-10 (a) Hydrostatics

Hydrostatic : It is the branch of physics that deals with the study of fluid at rest.
Fluid : Anything which car flow is called fluid. Example : Liquid, Gas.
Thrust : The force exerted by the fluid is called thrust.

 The liquid at rest always exert a normal force on the wall of contains.
Proof : Let the liquid exert ′𝐹′ force on the wall of container at the 𝑭
angle ′𝜃′ with the wall
∴ The component of forces are
(1) 𝐹 sin θ (Normal to wall) 𝐹 sin 𝜃
(2) 𝐹 cos 𝜃 (Provide motion in liquid) 𝐹
But liquid is at rest 𝜃
𝐹 cos 𝜃
⇒ 𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 0; cos 𝜃 = 0; 𝜃 = 90°
Hence the force exerted by liquid on the wall is always normal to wall of container.

Pressure : The pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area of the body.
𝐹
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃 = 𝐴; S.I. unit 𝑃𝑎 = |𝑁|𝑚2
𝐹 1𝑁 𝑁
Define one pascal : 𝑃 = if 𝐹 = 1 𝑁 and 𝐴 = 1 𝑚2 then 𝑃 = = = 1 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 1𝑚2 𝑚2
1 Pascal
So, it is defined as, when a force of 1 𝑁 is acting a unit area.

Notes : Although pressure depends on force, thrust it is a scalar quantity, because the pressure
exerted by the force is uniformly distributed over the area of the body. So it does not have a
particular direction that’s why it is a scalar quantity.
𝐹 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
Dimensional formula : 𝑃 = 𝐴 = 𝐼2
= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
Application of pressure
1. The iron nail has sharp and painted edge because its small or pointed
area provide very large pressure to penetrate into wall or wood etc. each
𝐹
by a small force (𝑎𝑠 𝑃 = 𝐴)
iron nail

2. We prefer the knife with sharp edge, because its sharp edge
𝐹
has very small area. So provide very large pressure (𝑎𝑠 𝑃 = 𝐴).
∴ it is use a for cutting the object easily. Knife

3. The suit case or the carrier bag are provided with broad strap
which has a large area which exerts a less pressure on the
𝐹
hand while carrying it. [𝑃 = 𝐴] ∴ if 𝐴 is large 𝑃 is small.
Bag
4. The wooden or central sleepes are provided over which
the railway track are kept/swept by doing. So, we
increase the area. So that the weight of train do not
𝐹
penetrate into the earth as it reduces pressure. [𝑎𝑠, 𝑃 = 𝐴]
Railway
Track

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Pressure exerted by liquid column

Let a liquid of density ′𝜌′ in a container to height ′ℎ′.
∴ Supporting 𝑎𝑉 liquid column of height ′ℎ′ and base area ′𝐴′.
Bag ∴ The force exerted by this liquid column on its base
⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌. 𝑉. 𝑔 (as 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑉)
⇒ 𝐹 = 𝜌. 𝐴. ℎ. 𝑔(𝑎𝑠 𝑉 = 𝐴ℎ) h
𝑨
∴ Pressure exerted by this liquid column
𝐹 𝐴ℎ
𝑃= =𝜌 𝑔; 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝐴 𝐴
∴ The pressure exerted by liquid column is independent of 𝑉𝑠 Area of liquid column
but depends on cross-section
1. its vertical height 2. Density of liquid 3. Acceleration de to gravity

Question In the figure which one has more

pressure at bottom.
Solution. Pressure exerted is only dependent on
height of liquid not on its shape
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3

Pascal’s Law : “It states that the pressure exerted by the liquid with be same at same horizontal
level of liquid.”
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶
Let an elemental object with surfaces 𝐴𝐵𝐶 − 𝐷𝐸𝐹, is immersed in the
liquid and the size of object is taken to be very small in such it is observed
to be at same level.
∴ The liquid exerted the pressure on its all faces if 𝑃𝑎 , 𝑃𝑏 , 𝑃𝑐 be pressure on surface
𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵, 𝐵𝐸𝐹𝐶, 𝐴𝐷𝐹𝐶 respectively and 𝐹𝑎 , 𝐹𝑏 , 𝐹𝑐 are corresponding forces and 𝐴𝑎 , 𝐴𝑏 , 𝐴𝑐 are
respective area. 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃
From figure 𝐴𝑐
𝜃
𝐹𝐶 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝐵 ; 𝐹𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝐴
Also, 𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 ; 𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝜃
Dividing
𝐹𝐶 𝐹 𝐹𝐶 𝐹
= 𝐵 ; = 𝐴
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐴
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝐴
𝐴𝐵
𝐴
= 𝐴
= 𝐴
i.e., at every point at same level, the pressure will be same.
𝐶 𝐵 𝐴
Pressure difference between two point inside the liquid. Let two point inside the liquid are at
depth ′ℎ1 ′ and ′ℎ2 ′ respectively from free surface of liquid.
∴ Pressure at 𝐴 𝒉𝟏
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ1 𝜌𝑔 . . . (1) 𝑨
where 𝜌 → density of liquid, 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 → atmospheric pressure, 𝒉𝟐 h
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ2 𝜌𝑔 . . . (2) 𝑩
Pressure difference 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = ℎ2 𝜌𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌𝑔
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 where ℎ is vertical separation between two points

Special cases
1. In figure 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = ℎ𝜌𝑔; 𝑨
If ℎ ≥ 0; 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐴 and 𝐵 points are at same horizontal level 𝒓 h
𝑩 𝒂 𝑪

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

2. 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 0; 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 (Pascal’s law)
At same level all points have equal pressure. 𝑨 𝑩

3. In the open tank in atmosphere the pressure at a point at ℎ depth

below free surface of liquid the pressure will be 𝒉
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + ℎ𝜌𝑔 𝑨
𝑃0 = atmospheric pressure
The excess pressure (𝑃 − 𝑃0 ) is called Gauge pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by the weight of air column per unit area.
The atmospheric pressure is measured by mercury barometry
with 76 𝑐𝑚 of 𝐻𝑔 column.
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 pressure = 76 𝑐𝑚 of 𝐻𝑔
= 76 × 10−2 × 𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 × 𝑔 = 76 × 10−2 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8
𝑁 mg
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 pressure = 1.01 × 105 𝑚2 = 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎.
A
Pressure is also measured inn Torr
1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 is defined as pressure of 1 𝑚𝑚 of mercury column.
1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑚𝑚 of 𝐻𝑔 column
= 10−3 × 𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 × 𝑔 = 10−3 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8
1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 133 𝑃𝑎
In metrology, the atmospheric is bar
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎
Also, 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 760 𝑚𝑚 of 𝐻𝑔 = 760 × 1 𝑚𝑚 of 𝐻𝑔
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 760 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟

Question. If density of air is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 and its found to be uniformly distributed with
height. Then what is the height of atmospheric.
Solution. 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ℎ𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔
1.01 × 105 = ℎ × 1.29 × 10
101×104 1010×103
= ℎ; =ℎ
129 129
ℎ ≈ 8 𝑘𝑚
That’s why with high altitude like mountaing with high altitude we need oxygen
cylinder.

Application of Pascal’s Law

1. Hydrolic lift : It is a device used in lifting a
body or heavy object vehicle etc. with less Piston (P2 )
effort. It is based on Pascal’s law. Piston (P1 )
Theory : It consists of two vertical cylinder 𝐶1
and 𝐶2 with cross-section area 𝑎 and 𝐴(𝑎 <<
𝐴). The two vertical cylinder are fitted with
horizontal cylinder ′𝐻′.
It is filled with incompressible liquid and the
two vertical cylinders are fitted with air tight
friction less piston, (𝑃1 & 𝑃2 ). Incompressible
Liquid

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

The object to be lift is kept on broader piston

(𝑃2 ).
𝑓
If 𝑓 is the downward force applied on piston ′𝑃1 ′ then pressure exerted 𝑃 = 𝑎.
Since both piston are at same horizontal level. So, by Pascal’s law same pressure will be
developed at ′𝑃2 ′.
∴ upward force at 𝑃2 𝐹 = 𝑃. 𝐴
𝐹 𝐴 𝑓
⇒ = >> 1 𝐹 = .𝐴 ⇒ 𝐹 >> 𝑓.
𝑓 𝑎 𝑎
Hence even small applied force generate the large force that is used to lift the vehicle.

2. Hydraulic Brake : The Hydraulic break is shown in

figure in which when break is applied the break oil
moves forward and in the wheel is exert outward force
on the piston 𝑃1 & 𝑃2 due to which the break shoes move
outward and get attached with internal rim of wheel and
due to friction it stopes.
When break is removed then the elastic force of spring
returns the break shoes in their original position due to
which the vehicle again comes in motion.

Question In the U-tube two types non mixable liquids are these. Given 𝝆𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
and 𝝆𝑰𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 . Find difference in level of two liquid.
Solution. In the figure using Pascal’s law [𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝐵 ]
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝐵
10 × 𝜌𝐼 𝑔 = 𝑥𝜌𝐼𝐼 𝑔
60
10 × 0.6 = 𝑥 × 0.9; 𝑥= = 6.67 𝑐𝑚
9 10 cm 10 − x
Difference in level of two liquid = 10 − 6.67 = 3.33
10 cm − x

Buoyant Force
Buoyant : It is the upward force exerted by the liquid on the body when the body is partially
or fully immersed in the liquid.
Numerically : The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐹𝐵 = weight of liquid displaced
= 𝑚𝑔 (where 𝑚 = mass of liquid displaced)
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔; where 𝜌 → density of liquid,
𝑉 → volume of liquid displaced, volume of
immersed part of body
Proof : Let upward force > Buoyant force = 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
= (ℎ2 𝜌𝑔). 𝐴 − (ℎ1 𝜌𝑔) × 𝐴 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝐴. 𝜌𝑔 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔

Archimedis Principle : It states that when a body is partially

or fully immersed in the liquid then it losses some of its weight
and the loss in weight is equal to the weight of liquid displaced
𝑖. 𝑒., inside liquid V
𝑉 𝜌
Apparent weight = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜎𝑉𝑔 − 𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜎𝑉𝑔 (1 − 𝜎
) = 𝑚𝑔 (1 − 𝜎
)
mg

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Law of Floatation
According to it 𝐴 body floats on the liquid if and only of the buoyant force become more than
or equal to the weight of body. 𝑖. 𝑒., for floatation 𝐹𝐵 > 𝑚𝑔
𝜌𝑉𝑔 ≥ 𝜎𝑉𝑔 ⇒ 𝜌≥𝜎
∴ for floating the density of body should be less than or equal to density of liquid. That’s
why air balloon always floats on liquid surface.

Question If a body floats by 𝟐/𝟑 of 𝑽 outside the liquid then find the density of body
in terms of density of liquid (𝝆)
Solution. As per question the 1/3rd part of the body is immersed inside the liquid.
∴ For floating
𝑉 1
𝐹𝐵 ≥ 𝑚𝑔; 𝜎𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑔; 𝜎= 𝜌
3 3

Surface Tension
. Molecular Force : It is the force of attraction between the
two molecules. Also, the variation of molecular force with 𝑓
the separation between two molecule is shown in figure.
From the graph it is observed that :
(i) If the separation between two molecule is more than 𝑟 10 𝐴̇
0.5 𝐴̇ 1.5 𝐴̇
10 𝐴̇ the molecular force between them is negligible.
(ii) If the separation between two molecule is between 0.5 𝐴̇ to
10 𝐴̇ then the molecular force between them is attractive.
(iii) If the separation between two molecule is less than 0.5 𝐴̇. The molecular force between
them is strongly repulsive.

2. Molecular Range : The molecular range of a molecular is the maximum separation

between the molecules upto which an another molecule can experience some significant
force of attraction or repulsion due to another molecule.

3. Sphere of Influence : The sphere of influence of a molecule can be drawn by taking the
molecule as centre and the molecular range as its radius.
∴ within this sphere of influence all the molecules gets attracted by the molecule.
surface tension
4. Surface Film : It is the top most layer of free surface of
liquid at rest, and its thickness is equal to its molecular
range.
surface film
5. Surface Tension : It is the property of liquid at rest by virtue of which the free surface of
liquid always try to attain the minimum are and it behaves like a stretched membrane.

Molecular Theory of Surface Tension

Consider a liquid inside container and taking three molecules (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) in such 𝐴 is
dipped inside liquid and 𝐵 is just below the surface film and molecule 𝐶 is on the surface film.
 The molecule 𝐴 has its complete sphere of influence
∴ net force on the molecule 𝐴 is zero.
 For molecule 𝐵, it does not have complete sphere of influence
∴ on it the force act in such that other molecule put it downward
 Similar molecule 𝐶, has hemisphere of influence.

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

So, it experience a net downward force.

∴ the molecule of the surface film experience a force in such they always try to attain the
minimum surface area, and this property is called surface tension.
∴ the force of surface tension always act on the molecules of surface film.

Numerically : The surface tension is defined as the force acting

per unit length of imaginary line drawn on the surface film, 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑪
𝐵
𝐹
surface tension 𝑆= 𝑙
𝑁 𝑨
𝑆. 𝐼. unit 𝑚
& Dimensional formula [𝑀𝐿0 𝑇 −2 ]

Notes : The force of surface tension always acts on the molecules of surface film. liquid
 For liquid drop : These is only one surface film
𝐹
𝑆= liquid
𝐿
 For soap bubble : These are two surface films. air
𝐹
𝑆 = 2𝑙
air

Application of Surface Tension

1. The rain drop of liquid drop always attains a spherical shape because of their surface
tension, as the inner molecule exert a inward force on the molecule of surface film, so they
are spherical in shape.
2. Why the smaller drop of mercury forms a very fine sphere but
the bigger drop get floated in shapes. The smaller drop are
spherical due to surface tension. 𝑚𝑔 > 𝑆
But the bigger drop is floated as in this case its weight become more as compared to force
of surface tension.
3. When a iron nail is kept gently on the surface of liquid in such the 2𝐹 cos 𝜃
surface film do not break then in this case due to compression of 𝐹 𝐹
surface film the force of surface tension acts upward which may 𝜃 𝜃
balance the weight of the iron nail
iron
∴ the iron nail floats on liquid surface
nail
2𝐹 cos 𝜃 ≥ 𝑚𝑔 ∴ for floatation 𝑚𝑔
4. Why oil forms a thin layer on cold water but forms the spherical drops on hot water.
The surface tension of cold water is more.
∴ the surface tension of oil being smaller than that of water
it forms a thin that of water it forms a thin layer but on heating
the surface tension of water decreases
∴ the surface tension of oil become more than the surface
tension of hot water. So, in the hot water it forms the spherical hot water cold water
drop.

Surface Energy
The surface energy is the energy with which the liquid surface form minimum surface
area. It define the surface energy of the liquid is defined as the amount of work done in
increasing the surface area of the surface film of liquid at rest. The surface energy is given by
𝐸 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙
Expression : Let a metallic frame 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 with ∆ sliding wire 𝑃𝑄 is immersed in the soap solution
of surface tension ′𝑆′.

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Then when it is drawn outward then surface and is formed on 𝐴𝐵𝑄𝑃. If 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝑄 = 𝑙 and 𝐴𝐵 =
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑙.
∴ force on 𝑃𝑄 wire due to surface tension
𝐹 = 𝑆(2𝑙) {2𝑙 is because these is 2surface file that
𝐹
is up and down} and 𝑆 = 𝑙 A 𝑃
If the wire 𝑃𝑄 is drawn outward slightly. Against the
surface tension the force required
𝐹𝑎𝑝 = 𝑆(2𝑙) 𝐹
∴ Work in displacing the wire 𝑃𝑄 by ∆𝑥
𝑊 = 𝐹. ∆𝑥
𝐵 𝑄
𝑊 = 𝑆(2𝑙). ∆𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑆∆𝐴 (where ∆𝐴 = 2𝑙. ∆𝑥) (∆𝐴 ⇒ Total increase in surface area of film)
This work gives surface energy.
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑆∆𝐴
𝑆 → surface tension
∆𝐴 → increase in area of surface film.

Relative Density
The relative density of body is defined as the ratio of density to the body of water.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝜎
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟; 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌𝜔
𝜌𝜔 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 1 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

Question. If relative density of mercury is 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔, density of mercury (𝝈) =?

Solution. 𝜎 = 𝑅. 𝐷 × 𝜌𝜔 ; 𝜎 = 13.6 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
or 13.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

Angle of Contact : It is the angle between the tangents drawn

𝜽
to the solid surface inside the liquid and the tangent drawn to
the liquid surface from the point of solid liquid contact see 𝜽
figure. It is denoted by ′𝜃′. (upper meniscus) 𝜃 > 90°
𝜃 < 90°
(lower meniscus) (upper meniscus)
Shape of Liquid
The free surface of liquid forms three type of shape of liquid surface
(1) Concave shape or Lower meniscus
(2) Convex shape of upper meniscus
(3) Plane surface
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐱 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐔𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬 𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

 Angle of contact  Angle of contact  Angle of

is acute is obtuse contact 𝜃=
 It is formed by  It is formed by 90°
𝜽 > 𝟗𝟎° °
liquid having : 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎° liquid having  It is formed by 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎
Adhesive force > Cohesive force > Cohesive =
Cohesive force Adhesive force Adhesive
 It is formed by liquid which  It is formed by liquid which  It is formed by liquid
wets the solid surface. do not wets solid surface which are volatile
 Eg. Water in glass.  Eg. 𝐻𝑔 in glass  Petrol or Alcohol
 Here excess pressure will act  Here excess pressure will act  No excess pressure
from outside. from inside

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Excess Pressure : It is the pressure that maintains the shape of the free
surface of liquid.
 The excess pressure work against the force of surface tension. 𝑷𝒆𝒙

 For concave shape of liquid : The excess pressure acts from outside the
liquid (in downward direction)

 For convex shape of liquid : The excess pressure acts from inside
the liquid (in upward direction)
𝑷𝒆𝒙

 The excess because will act outward along its radius. 𝑃𝑒𝑥

liquid drops
Expression for excess pressure of liquid drop
Suppose a spherical liquid drop of radius ′𝑅′ and having surface 𝑃𝑒𝑥
tension ′𝑆′. For liquid drop the excess pressure acts outward. It 𝑃𝑒𝑥 the 𝑅
excess pressure than outward force due to excess pressure is :
𝐹 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 × 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2
Due to it if ′𝜌𝑅′ be increase in its radius work done 𝑅 + 𝜌𝑅
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑅 cos 0° = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2 . 𝜌𝑅 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2 . 𝜌𝑅 . . . (1)
This work done must be equal to surface energy
𝑅
Surface energy = Surface tension ∆𝜋
𝑆[4𝜋(𝑅 + 𝜌𝑅)2 − 4𝜋𝑅 2 = 𝑆. 4𝜋[𝑅 2 (𝜌𝑅)2 + 2𝑅𝜌𝑅 − 𝑅 2 ] = 𝑆. 4𝜋. 2𝑅𝜌𝑅[(𝑆𝑅)2 → 0] . . . (2)
Equating (1) & (2)
2𝑆 2𝑆
𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2 . 𝜌𝑅 = 𝑆 × 8𝜋𝑅. 𝜌𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝑅
⇒ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅

Expression for excess pressure of soap bubble

Let a soap bubble of radius ′𝑅′ and ′𝑆′ is surface tension of soap situation of 𝑃𝑒𝑥 be excess
pressure. Then the outward force on the surface film due to excess pressure is :
𝐹 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 4𝜋𝑅 2
Due to this let 𝜌𝑅 be increase in radius
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝜌𝑅 ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2 . 𝜌𝑅 . . . (1)
This work done should be equal to surface energy.
∴ Surface energy = Surface tension × increase in area of surface film
= 𝑆 × 2(𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋(𝑅 + 𝜌𝑅)2 − 4𝜋𝑅 2 ) = 𝑆 × 2 × 4𝜋(𝑅 2 )(𝜌𝑅)2 + 2𝑅. 𝜌𝑅 − 𝑅 2 = 𝑆. 8𝜋. 2𝑅𝜌𝑅 . . . (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
4𝑆
𝑃𝑒𝑥 . 4𝜋𝑅 2 . 𝜌𝑅 = 𝑆. 8𝜋. 𝑅𝜌𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅
∴ Pressure in the bubble
4𝑆
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 + 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

Capillary Action or Capillarity

Capillary tube : It is very fine uniformly bored tube through out
line uniformly
its length in such its diameter is very small as compared to its
bored tube
length.

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Capillarity : It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid level

inside the capillary tube when the capillary tube is partially
immersed inside the liquid.
 If the capillary tube is kept in the liquid which form concave
shape, then liquid level in the raised.
concave convex
 When the capillary tube is kept in the liquid which form convex
shape, then liquid in it falls.

Expression for rise in level of liquid inside capillary tube.

Let a capillary tube of radius ′𝑅′. It is partially immersed inside the
liquid that makes the concave shape in capillary tube and if ′𝑟′ is
radius curved surface of liquid.
∴ Initially the pressure difference between two point 𝐴
and 𝐵 (see figure (a)) is given by
2𝑆
𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ; where 𝑆 = surface tension
𝑅
2𝑆
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝐵 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴 ⇒ 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑟
Due to this pressure the liquid in capillary tube increases. If ′ℎ′ be height of liquid then at
equilibrium (see figure (b)).
2𝑆
𝑟
= ℎ𝜌𝑔; where 𝜌 is density of liquid & 𝑔 is acceleration of gravity
2𝑆
ℎ = 𝑟𝜌𝑔 . . . (A)
From figure (c)
𝑅
𝑟
= cos 𝜃; where ′𝜃′ angle of contact
𝑅
cos 𝜃
=𝑟
Equation (A)
2𝑆 cos 𝜃
ℎ= 𝑅𝜌𝑔𝑠
If length of capillary tube is insufficient.
2𝑆 2𝑆
ℎ = 𝑟𝜌𝑔 ⇒ ℎ𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡’ where 𝑆 → Surface tension, 𝜌 → Density of liquid
1
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. quantity is constant for a liquid ℎ𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ ℎ ∝ 1 ⇒ 𝑟 ∝ ℎ
∴ If the length of capillary is insufficient then the water will not over flow but the radius of
curve surface of liquid increases and it become flattes.

Notes : Factors affecting the surface tension

1. Contamination : The non soluble contaminated particle decreases the surface tension of
liquid. Like : oil, grease etc…, decrease the surface tension of water.
2. Highly soluble solute like sugar, common salt etc…, increase the surface tension of water.
3. The partial/sprigly soluble particle like detergent decreases the surface tension of liquid.
4. Effect of temperature : With the increase in temperature the surface tension of the water
decreases as it decrease the strength of cohesive bond.
The change of surface tension with temperature is given by ∆𝑆 = 𝑆0 [1−∝ ∆𝑇] , where ∝
→temperature coefficient.

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Chapter-10 (b) Hydrodynamics

Hydrodynamic → It is the branch of liquid mechanics that deals with study of property of fluid
in motion.
Viscosity → The liquid always flow in form of layers and
during motion each layer oppose the relative motion of its
adjoining layer. This property of opposing the relative
motion of layer is called viscosity.
∴ “the viscosity is the property of fluid in motion by virtue
of which the liquid opposes the relative motion of the
layers.”
 The opposing force acting between two layer of liquid that opposes these relative motion
is called viscous force.
∴ viscosity is the internal friction, acting between two layers of liquid that opposes these
relative motion.
 The viscosity is property of both liquid and gases.
When the liquid moves in form of layer then it is observed that the velocity of upper layer is
more as compared to the velocity of lower layer.

This is because the upper layer has comparatively less weight of water above it as compared
to lower layer.
Since, friction ∝ weight
∴ upper layer has less friction so more speed.
 The variation of velocity of liquid flow with depth of liquid is called velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑉
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 → 𝑆 −1
𝑑𝑥

Coefficient of Viscosity (𝜼)

It is observed that the viscous force acting between two layers of liquid is directly proportional
𝑑𝑉
to : (1) Area of contact between two layers of liquid (𝐹 ∝ 𝐴) (2) The velocity gradient (𝐹 ∝ 𝑑𝑥 )
From (1) and (2)
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝐹 ∝ 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝜂. 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 ; where 𝜂 is coefficient of viscosity
𝑑𝑉
Definition : 𝐹 = 𝜂. 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉
If 𝐴=1𝑚 ; 2
= 1 𝑠 −1 s
𝑑𝑥
Then 𝐹 = 𝜂 × 1 × 1 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝜂
∴ The coefficient of viscosity of liquid is defined as the viscous force acting between two layers
of liquid having unit area in contact and having unit velocity gradient.
For unit of coefficient of viscosity.
𝐹 𝑑𝑉
𝜂= 𝑑𝑉 [∴ 𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 ] ⇒ 1 𝑁. 𝑠. 𝑚−2 = 1 𝑃𝐴. 𝑠
𝐴.( )
𝑑𝑥
𝑆. 𝐼. unit of coefficient of viscosity is poise
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑝𝑎. 𝑠 ⇒ 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Question Define 𝟏 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆

𝑭 𝒅𝑽
𝜼= 𝒅𝑽 of 𝑭 = 𝟏 𝑵 ; 𝑨 = 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 , 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 𝒔𝟐
𝑨.
𝒅𝒙
1𝑁
Solution. 𝜂 = 𝑚2 𝑠−1 = 𝑁𝑠𝑚−2 = 1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 ⇒ 𝜂 = 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Hence, the coefficient of viscosity is said to be one poise if a viscous force of

1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 is acting between two layer of liquid having area in contact of 1 𝑚2 and
velocity gradient 1 𝑠 −1 .
 𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑠. unit of coefficient of viscosity is deca poise
1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
Proof
In 𝑆. 𝐼. 1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑝𝑎 𝑆 = 1 𝑁𝑠𝑚−2
In 𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑠. 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑠(𝑐𝑚)−2 = 10−5 𝑁𝑠(10−2 𝑚)−2 = 10−5 𝑁𝑠 × 104 𝑚−2
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 10−1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 → By proving
1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

Cause of Viscosity
1. This viscosity is due to cohesive force acting between molecules of the layers of liquid.
∴ the coefficient of viscosity is also defined as the ratio of stress to the strain rate. This is
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
given by 𝜂=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑆. 𝐼. unit : poiselli
1 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑐. 𝑔. 𝑠. unit : 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
Question A metal block of area 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝟐 is connected
to a 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈 mass via a spring that passes 𝑇
over an ideal pulley (considered massless
and frictionless) as shown in figure. 𝑇
A liquid with film thickness 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎 is placed between
𝑇
the block and the table when released the block moves to
the right with a constant speed 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔. Find the coefficient 0.01 𝑘𝑔
of viscosity of liquid. Since it is moving with constant
speed.
Solution. ∴ 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
Force on block = 𝐹 = 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹 𝑚𝑔 0.01×9.8
Stress = 𝐴 = = = 0.98
𝐴 0.1
𝑑𝑉 0.085 850
Also strain rate = 𝑑𝑥 = 0.30×10−3 = 3 = 28.3 ×= 283.3
𝐹 0.98 98 10 98
𝜂 = 𝑑𝑉𝐴 = 28233.3 = 100 × 2833 = 28330 = 3.46 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝜂 = 3.46 × 10−3 𝑃𝑎

Stoke’s Law
It states that the viscous force acting on a spherical body of radius ′𝑟′ falling freely in a viscous
medium with velocity ′𝑣′ is given by 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣, where 𝜂 is coefficient of viscosity of the medium.
Proof : (Dimensionally) Since the viscous force depend on radius of body (′𝑟 ′ ) coefficient of
viscosity (′𝜂 ′ ) and speed of falling (′𝑣 ′ )
𝐹 ∝ 𝜂 𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ∝ 𝑛𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑀𝐿𝑇 2 = 𝑘 𝑛𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐 , where 𝑘 is dimensional constant
Using dimension
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]𝑎 [𝐿]𝑏 [𝑀𝑇 −1 ]𝑐 ⇒ [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝑎 𝐿−𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑇 −𝑎−𝑐 ] 𝑅
𝑎 = 1, −𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1, −𝑎 − 𝑐 = −2
−1 + 𝑏 + 1 = 1 −1 − 𝑐 = −2
𝑏=1 −𝑐 = −1
𝑐=1 𝒗

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

𝐹 = 𝑘 𝜂1 𝑟 1 𝑣 1 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝜂1 𝑟1 𝑣 1 , where 𝑘 = 6𝜋; 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣

Terminal Velocity
It is that maximum constant speed attained by the particle while falling freely under gravity
when no force is acting on it, in the viscous medium.
Expression : Suppose a spherical body of radius ′𝑟′ and density ′𝜎′ is falling freely under
gravity in the viscous medium having coefficient of viscosity ′𝜂′ and density ′𝜌′.
If ′𝑣′ is terminal velocity that is net force on the body is zero.
Then, from figure 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝑣 = 𝑚𝑔 . . . (1)
𝑖. 𝑒., at terminal velocity the buoyant force ′𝐹𝐵 ′ along with viscous force ′𝐹𝜐′ balance the weight
of the body.
4
Since 𝐹𝐵 = (𝜌 × 3 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . 𝑔 ⇒ 𝐹𝑣 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 𝐹𝐵
𝐹𝑣
4
and also 3
𝑚𝑔 = (𝜎. 3 𝜋𝑟 ) . 𝑔
Putting in (1) 𝑟
4 4 4
𝜌. 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = (𝜎. 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . 𝑔 ⇒ 4𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 3 . 𝑔(𝜎 − 𝜌)
3 3 3
2𝑟 2
𝑣= 9𝜂
. 𝑔(𝜎 − 𝜌); 𝑣 = terminal velocity 𝑚𝑔
2 1
𝑣∝𝑟 ⇒ 𝑣∝𝜂
𝑖. 𝑒., if radius of body is doubled then terminal velocity become four times.
∴ Smaller the coefficient of viscosity more is the terminal velocity.
Also, 𝑣 ∝ (𝜎 − 𝜌)
If 𝜎 < 𝜌, then terminal velocity is – 𝑣𝑒. It means the body moves upward. That’s why the air
bubble formed in liquid moves upward.

The terminal velocity of a copper ball of radius 2.0 𝑚𝑚 falling through a tank of oil at 20℃ is
65 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. Complete the viscosity of oil at 20℃. Given 𝑓𝑜𝑖𝑙 is 1.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 is 8.9 ×
103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
2×2×10−3 ×2×10−3
65 × 10−2 = × 10(8.9 × 10−3 − 1.5 × 103 )
9×𝜂
8×10−6 80×10−4
𝜂= −2
(7.4 × 103 )10 = (7.4 × 103 ) = 1.23 × 10−4 × (7.4 × 103 )
65×10 65
𝜂 = 9002 × 10 −1 −1 −1
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠 (take 𝑔 = 9.8, for 𝜂 = 9.9 × 10−1).

Factors on which the viscosity of liquid depends

1. Nature of liquid : The thin liquid like water, alcohol etc., has less value of coefficient of
viscosity. So, cause less viscous force.
Whereas the thick liquid like honey, glycerine, coal tar etc. exert more viscous force. So,
have large value of coefficient of viscosity.
2. effect of Contamination : The soluble solute/impurity increases the viscosity of liquid
like sugar in water.
3. Effect of temperature : The coefficient of viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in
temperature vice versa but for gas the coefficient of viscosity increases with increase in
temperature.

Types of flow of liquid

These are two types of flow of liquid.
1. Streamline flow 2. Turbulent flow

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

1. Streamline Flow : It is an ideal flow of liquid in which a liquid

particle exactly follows the same path (as well as speed) as
followed by its preceding particle. The path followed by the
liquid particle in streamline line flow is called streamline.
 In streamline flow, there is no less of energy 𝑖. 𝑒., the energy is conserved.
 For streamline flow, the speed of liquid is less than critical speed.

Stream line : It is the path straight or curved followed by the liquid particle, tangent to
which at a point gives the direction of velocity of liquid flow at that point.

Properties of Streamline
1. The tangent at a point on stream line, gives the direction of velocity of liquid flow at that
time.
2. No two streamline can intersect with each other as from point of intersection, we can
draw two tangent, means two direction of velocity of a liquid particle which cannot be
possible.
3. Denser the streamline more is the velocity of the liquid flow, and vice versa.

Two type of Streamline Flow

1. Tube of flow : It is a kind of streamline flow in which bundle of streamline flows.
2. Laminas flow : It is a streamline flow in forms of layer. Example flow in river.

2. Turbulent flow : It is a non ideal flow of liquid in which a liquid particle do not exactly
follows the path of its preceding particle.
 It is the type of liquid flow mainly observed when an obstacle comes in the path of high
speed of flow of liquid.
 There is loss of energy in form of heat, friction etc.
 In turbulent flow the speed of liquid is more than critical speed.

Critical Speed : It is the speed of liquid flow up to which the flow is stream line and above
which the flow become turbulent. The critical speed of liquid flow from a tube of radius ′𝑟′, it
depends on its radius, density of liquid ′𝜌′ and coefficient of viscosity ′𝜂′ of liquid .
𝑉 ∝ 𝑟 𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝜂 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝜂 𝑐
Using dimension
𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝑘[𝐿]𝑎 [𝑀𝐿−3 ]𝑏 [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇1 ]𝑐 ⇒ 𝐿𝑇 −1 = 𝑘[𝐿]𝑎−3𝑏−𝑐 [𝑀]𝑏+𝑐 [𝑇]−𝑐
𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 𝑐 = +1 𝑏+𝑐 =0 −𝑐 = −1
𝑎 = −1 𝑏 = −1 𝑐=1
𝜂
−1 1 1
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑟 𝜌 𝜂 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝜌𝑟 (where 𝑘 is constant)
𝑘 = 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
∴ critical speed
𝑁𝑅𝜂 𝑁𝑟𝜂
𝑉= or 𝑉= , where 𝐷 is diameter of pipe.
𝑟𝜌 𝐷𝜌

Reynold’s Number : It is pure number that tells about the nature of liquid flow.
The Reynold’s number is given by
𝑉𝐷𝜌 𝑉𝑟𝜌
𝑁𝑟 = 𝜂 or 𝑁𝑟 = 𝜂 ,
where 𝑉 is critical speed, 𝜂 is coefficient of viscosity, 𝑟 radius of pipe.
 If the value of Reynold’s number is less than 2000, then flow is streamline flow.
 If the value of Reynold’s number is more than 3000, then flow is turbulent flow.]

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

 200 < 𝑁𝑟 < 3000, then flow changes from streamline in turbulent flow.

Significance of Reynold’s Number

𝑉𝑟𝜌 𝐴𝑉 2 𝜌
𝑁𝑟 = = [𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝐴 & 𝑉]
𝜂 𝜂𝐴𝑉/𝑟
𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
= 𝑑𝑉 ⇒ 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜂𝐴( )
𝑑𝑥
 The Reynold number gives the ratio of force exerted by the liquid flow to the viscous force
exerted between layer of liquid.

Energy in Liquid
The liquid possesses three types of energy :
1. Pressure Energy : The liquid always flows from higher pressure to lower pressure. The
energy by virtue of its pressure is called pressure energy.
The pressure energy is given by : 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝑉
[Proof 𝐸 = 𝜔 = 𝐹. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝑉]
∴ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
𝑃.𝑉
 Pressure energy per unit volume = 𝑉
= 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃.𝑉 𝑃 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
 Pressure energy per unit mass = = =
𝑚 𝜌 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

2. Kinetic Energy : The kinetic energy of the liquid is the energy by virtual of its motion. The
1
kinetic energy of the liquid is given by : 𝑚𝑣 2.
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 1
 Kinetic energy per unit mass = 2
𝑚
= 2 𝑣2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 1
 Kinetic energy per unit volume = 2
𝑣
= 2 𝜌𝑣 2

3. Potential Energy : It is the energy of liquid by virtue of its height above the earth’s surface.
It is given by : 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑚𝑔ℎ
 Potential energy unit mass = = 𝑔ℎ
𝑚
𝑚𝑔ℎ
 Potential energy unit volume = 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Equation of Continuity
“It state that “the rate of flow of liquid”, it every cross-sectional point of liquid flow is constant”
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑙
𝑖. 𝑒., Rate of flow = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑡
= 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where 𝑎 is cross-section area and 𝑣 is velocity of liquid flow
Proof : Suppose a liquid is flowing from 𝐴 to 𝐵 in a pipe, if 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are cross-section area of
pipe at 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively.
⇒ 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are speed of liquid flow at 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively.
∴ By continuity of flow : The mass per unit time enter at 𝐴 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑙1 𝑙2
(𝜌 × )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
= (𝜌. )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
⇒ 𝑎1 𝑡
= 𝑎2 𝑡
⇒ 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑙1 𝑙2
𝐴
velocity of liquid flow at 𝐴, 𝑡
velocity of liquid flow at 𝐵.
∴ 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (Hence proved)
1 1
𝑎∝𝑣 or 𝑣 ∝ 𝑎 ∴ smaller the area more is the speed of liquid flow.

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Bernoulli’s Theorem : It follows the construction of energy in liquid.

Statement : It states that fro streamline flow of an ideal liquid or incompressible liquid, the
total energy. (𝑖. 𝑒., sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy). Per unit
volume or mass of liquid at every cross-sectional point is conserved or constant.
1
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Proof : Let an incompressible liquid is flowing from 𝐴

to 𝐵 through a pipe or tube of cross-sectional area ′𝑎1 ′
and ′𝑎2 ′ at 𝐴 & 𝐵 respectively (𝑎1 > 𝑎2 ) . If 𝑣1 & 𝑣2 are
velocity of continuity.
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑣2 𝑎
𝑣1
= 𝑎2 > 1} ∴ in moving 𝐴 to 𝐵, the kinetic energy of liquid increases.
1
𝑣2 > 𝑣1
Let ℎ1 & ℎ2 be height of 𝐴 & 𝐵 from earth surface and ℎ2 > ℎ1 . ∴, in moving 𝐴 to 𝐵 the potential
energy also increases.
If 𝑃1 & 𝑃2 be pressure at 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively. Since the liquid moves from higher to lower
pressure so in moving 𝐴 to 𝐵, the pressure energy decreases.
∴ decrease in pressure energy = increase in 𝐾. 𝐸. + increase in 𝑃. 𝐸.
1 1
𝑃1 𝑣 − 𝑃2 𝑣 = ( 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 ) + (𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 )
2 2
1 1
𝑃1 𝑣 + 2 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 𝑣 + 2 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 . . . (A)
If energy per unit mass is
Dividing by 𝑣 both side conserved to be proved then
𝑃1 𝑣 1 𝑚𝑣12 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 𝑃2 𝑣 1 𝑚𝑣22 𝑚𝑔ℎ2
𝑣
+
2 𝑣
+
𝑣
=
𝑣
+
2 𝑣2
+
𝑣
divide equation (A) by 𝑚
1 1
⇒ 𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 2
𝜌𝑣2
2
+ 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝑃 1
+ 2 𝑣12 + 𝑔ℎ =
1 𝜌
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
2

Velocity of Efflux of Liquid

It is the velocity with which the liquid flows through an orifice (a find hole in container) of
container.
The velocity of efflux can be found by using Bernoulli’s theorem.
Let a close container having cross sectional area ′𝐴′ has an 𝑃1
orifice of cross section area ′𝐴0 ′ at ′ℎ′ depth from the free 𝑃2 = 𝑃0
surface of liquid of density ′𝜌′. 𝑉1
∴ Using equation of continuity
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑉1 = 𝐴0 𝑉 ⇒
𝑉1 𝐴0
= ≈0 since [𝐴0 << 𝐴] as orifice is very fine hole
𝑉 𝐴
⇒ 𝑉0 = 0 (velocity of liquid at 𝐴) and (𝑉 is velocity of efflux)
From figure using Bernoulli’s theorem
(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = (𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)𝑎𝑡 𝐵
1 1
𝑃𝐴 + 2 𝜌𝑉𝐴2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 + 2 𝜌𝑉𝐵2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐵
Since; 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃1 , 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 = 0, ℎ𝐴 = ℎ; 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃0 , 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, ℎ𝐵 = 0
1 1 1 1
2
𝜌(0)2 + 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃0 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔(0) ⇒ 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃0 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 ⇒ 𝑃1 − 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 2 𝜌𝑉 2
Multiply and dividing by 𝜌
2(𝑃1 −𝑃0 )
𝑉=√ 𝜌
+ 2𝑔ℎ

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

This is the velocity of efflux through orifice of close container.

 If in close container the air is filled at high pressure 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃 >> 𝑃0 then the value 2𝑔ℎ is
ignored.
2(𝑃−𝑃0 )
𝑉=√
𝜌
 If in open container [𝑃 = 𝑃0 ] 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
1 1 𝐴
𝑃𝐴2 + 2 𝜌𝑃𝐴2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑃𝐵2 + 2 𝜌𝑉𝐵2 + 𝜌𝑔 × 0 𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝐴 ℎ
⇒ √2𝑔ℎ = 𝑉𝐵 . → Torricelli’s principle 𝐵 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Torricelli’s principle : It states that the velocity of liquid efflux from an orifice at ℎ depth from
free surface of liquid is same as the velocity attained by the particle falling from same height
′ℎ′ freely under gravity.

1 2(𝐻−ℎ)
Notes : 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝐻 − ℎ = 0 + 1/2𝑔𝑡 2 ⇒ √ 𝑔
=𝑡
h
 In figure time of flight of liquid efflux ↑ 𝐻 (𝑯 − 𝒉) 𝑉
 Range of efflux ↓
1
𝑅 = 𝑉. 𝑇. 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥𝑇 + 2 𝑔𝑥𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑅 = 2√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)

Venturimeter : It is a device used to measure the speed of liquid flow and also used to measure
rate of flow of liquid through a tube.
A venturimeter consists of a tube which is constructed at middle 𝑖. 𝑒., wider at ends and
narrow at middle, a 𝑈 -shaped barometer is also connected in such that, its one end is
connected at wider portion. If 𝜌𝑚 is density of liquid in barometer and 𝜌 is density of liquid.
A pipe in which speed of flow is calculated is connected to wider end (see figure).
If 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 be cross section area of wider and narrower portion of venturimeter and 𝑣1 and 𝑣2
be speed of liquid flow at point 𝐴 and 𝐵.
∴ By equation of continuity
𝑎1
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑎 1
𝑣 = 𝑣2 . . . (1)
2
Using Bernoulli’s theorem
𝜀 𝜀
(𝑣) 𝐴 = (𝑣) 𝐵
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔 × 0 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔 × 0
2 2
1 1 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 2 𝜌𝑣22 − 2 𝜌𝑣12 (𝑎𝑠 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 ) ⇒ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 2 𝜌(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
1 𝑎 2
ℎ𝜌𝑚 𝑔 = 2 𝜌 ((𝑎1 ) 𝑣12 − 𝑣12 ) using (1) & 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ℎ𝜌𝑔 ⇒ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ℎ𝜌𝑚 𝑔
2

2ℎ𝜌𝑚 𝑔 𝑎 2 2ℎ𝜌 𝑔
𝜌
= 𝑣12 ((𝑎1 ) − 1) ⇒ 𝑣1 = √ 𝑎 𝑚2
2 𝜌(( 1 ) −1)
𝑎2

2ℎ𝜌 𝑔
This is speed of flow of liquid 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 √𝜌(𝑎2 −𝑎
𝑚
2)
1 2

2ℎ𝜌 𝑔
Also rate of flow = 𝑎1 𝑣1 ⇒ Rate of flow = 𝑎1 𝑎2 √𝜌(𝑎2 −𝑎
𝑚
2)
1 2

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

Application of Bernoulli’s theorem

According to Bernoulli
1
𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For horizontal level
1
𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
→ It implies that if 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 of fluid increases, then pressure energy decreases.
∴ its applications are

Ist : The two stream boat moving with larger speed in same P1 (Outside Air)
direction parallel to each other have the chances to clash this Stream Boat
is because the air between the two boat also flowing with
P (↓) → ir K. E. (↑)
more speed along with boat. So, these 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 increase
which reduce the air pressure between the boat but outside Stream Boat
pressure is larger. P2 (Outside Air)
∴ This pressure difference causes the clashing of boats.

IInd : During heavy stream the roof of hut get blown this is P (↓)
due to the fact that above the roof the air velocity is
very large. So, has less pressure as compared to
below the roof that’s why do to pressure difference
the roof blows away.
P (↑)

IIIrd : Magnus effect in spinning of ball. A moving ball (without spinning) travels a parabolic
path because it do not disturb the streamline of air.
∴ the above and below the ball has same speed. So, have same
pressure.
∴ there is no pressure difference that deviate the ball from its
parabolic path.
The ball spinning right then it deviates the streamline of
air in such that the right air has more velocity. So, less
pressure as compared to that of left air streamline and
this pressure difference deviate the path of the ball from
its parabolic path, and this effect of deviation in path of
the objects spinning to pressure difference is called
Magnus effect.

IVth : Air lifting of an aeroplane : The wing of aeroplane is

always designed in streamline shape in such
during motion it cuts the streamline of air in such 𝑃 (↓)
the air above it has larger speed. So, less pressure
as compared to that of below the wing and due to 𝑃 (↑)
this pressure difference the aeroplane lifts up and
this is called air lifting.

Question The area of cross-section of water pipe entering the basement of house is 𝟒 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 . The pressure of water at this point is 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 and speed of
water is 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔. The pipe topers to an cross-section are of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 , when it

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Chapter 10- Mechanical Properties of Fluid Prepared By Shiv Kumar Gupta (Lecturer Physics)

reach the second floor of height 𝟖 𝒎. Find the pressure of water flow of second
flow.
Solution. 𝑎1 = 4 × 10−4 𝑚2 , 𝑣1 = 2 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑃1 = 3 × 105 𝑁/𝑚
𝑎2 = 2 × 10−4 , 𝑣2 =?, 𝑃2 =? ?
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
4×10−4 ×2
= 𝑣2 ⇒ 4 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑣 2
2×10−4
Using Bernoulli theorem
1 1
𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔 × 0 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔 × 8
1 1
𝑃2 = 3 × 105 + 2 × 𝜌 × (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) − 𝜌𝑔8 = 3 × 105 + 2 × 103 × (4 − 16) − 103 × 10 × 8
= 30 × 104 = −0.6 × 104 − 8 × 104 = 21.4 × 104
𝑃2 = 2.14 × 105 𝑁/𝑚

18