2019/2020

MECH2414
Thermofluids

PART 2 - fluids
Fluid flow is life
Yuguo Li

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 FLUID STATICS

Key topics
Key concepts: Hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy, surface tension, droplet
pressure, capillary effect
𝑑𝑝
Key formulas: Basic equation of hydrostatics: 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 or = −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾
𝑑𝑧

Mechanics includes statics (objects in equilibrium) and dynamics (objects in

motion). Fluid statics study the forces in fluids or more accurately the
pressure, that present in fluids at rest.

Mechanics/behaviors of fluid at rest, NO shear stress and Only normal stress

i.e. hydrostatic pressure. The total surface force applied by a fluid at rest is
due to the pressure distribution on the surface.

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If there is pressure, why is your hand not falling when you put
out your arm?

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Pascal’s law – the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of direction as long as there are no shearing stress present.

The term pressure is an important concept in fluid mechanics. It refers to the

normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a given plane within the
fluid mass of interest.

The Pascal’s law states that the pressure at a point DOES not vary with the
orientation of the plane passing through the point.

Consider a wedge with only external forces due to pressure and weight, and
the latter acts in the negative z direction. We first allow the fluid element to
accelerate.

Apply the Newton’s second law, 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑠sinθ = 𝜌𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑦 ; where 𝑑𝑉 = 2
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑠cosθ −𝜌𝑑𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉𝑎𝑧 .

Note 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑠 cos𝜃; 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑠 sin𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑝𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎𝑦 ; and 𝑝𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎𝑧 + 𝜌𝑔
2 2
As we are interested in a point, i.e. 𝑑𝑦0,𝑑𝑧0, hence 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 , i.e.
Pascal’s law is proven.
Let’s consider a cubic fluid element, and see how forces act on it
We consider stationary rectangular coordinate, with differential fluid element and
pressure forces in the y direction only first. There are two types of forces, i.e. surface
force and surface force.

 Body force 𝑑𝐹𝑏 = 𝑑𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑉

 Surface force: the pressure force 𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , let the pressure at the center O is p,
then at the two faces.

𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
Thus, 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑦 = 𝑝 − 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 − 𝑝 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑉
2 2
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
Similarly, 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑉; 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑉, thus 𝑑𝐹𝑆 = − 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Combining the two

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝐹𝑆 + 𝑑𝐹𝐵 = −∇𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = −∇𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑉;

𝑑𝐹
Thus for a unit volume, = −∇𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔;
𝑑𝑉
We apply Newton’s Law

Newton’s Law applies to a fluid particle, 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑑𝑚 = 𝑎𝜌𝑑𝑉, but for


hydrostatic flows, a =0.

Applies to a static fluid, we have

p
  g x  0
x
𝑑𝐹 p
= 𝜌𝑎 = 0, or -𝛻𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 = 0, or   g y  0
𝑑𝑉 y
p
  g z  0
z

If gravity is the only body force and the z axis is vertical and
upward
p p p dp
0 0   g or   g  
x y z dz

The pressure increases in downward direction.

This why we call it hydrostatic pressure

• Pressure increases with depth
• Newton’s 2nd law to a differential fluid element of mass (=
𝜌𝑑𝑉) , where V is the fluid volume.
Basic equation of hydrostatics

When 𝜌 is a constant, we have 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝0 − 𝜌𝑔𝑧; here at 𝑧 = 0, 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝0 . Or

𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where h is the depth below the liquid surface (𝑧 = −ℎ), which is exposed to atmosphere.

The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of

the fluid to some reference plane. Not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or
container in which the fluid is held.

The required equality of pressures at equal elevations throughout a system is important

for the operation of hydraulic jacks, lifts and presses and hydraulic controls on aircrafts
and other heavy machinery.

Figure 8. (a) Absolute versus

gage pressure; (b) manometer;
(c) manometer with comparable
densities
 Daniel Bernoulli discovers how to measure blood pressure, while Euler was
a research assistant of his in Russia

Soon physicians all over Europe were

measuring patients blood pressure by sticking
point-ended glass tubes directly into their
arteries. It was not until about 170 years later, in
1896 that an Italian doctor discovered a less
painful method which is still in use today.
However, Bernoulli's method is still used today
in modern aircraft to measure the air speed.
 400m

Can you have a water pipe of this tall?

100m
Atm head in water

10m
Can she suck the coca cola? Assume that she uses a
soft plastic tube.

3F

2F

1F
GF
 Easy to show that for horizontal cylinder, if 𝑝1 ≠ 𝑝2 , the cylinder would
move.

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧;

𝐹1 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 ; 𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 ; hence ∆𝐹 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 = 𝐴𝜌𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

Hence 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 , as 𝑧1 → 𝑧2 , 𝑝1 → 𝑝2 .

Equivalent: 101.3kPa, 760 mm Hg and 10 m of water a

Another view – 105 N/m2, 10 N/cm2, or 1 kg/cm2.

Why do people use mercury for measuring

atmospheric pressure?
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ , for water, h=10m, and for
mercury, h = 760 mm.
The multi-tube problem – rank the pressures along each of the two lines.
The multi-tube problem – rank the pressures along each of the two lines.
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 = 𝑝4 ≠ 𝑝5 ≠ 𝑝6 ;
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐷 ≠ 𝑝𝐶 ≠ 𝑝𝐸 ≠ 𝑝𝐹 ;

Follow the rules – same fluid, continuous (no separation)

 Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surfaces

Consider a vertical wall in contact with liquid on one side, the hydrostatic equation
will give pressure at each point of the wall. The pressure distribution is linear,
increasing with depth, forming a pressure prism, i.e., triangular in cross section.

In practice, it is useful to replace the distribution with a single force 𝐹𝑅 acting at a

distance 𝑧𝑟 below the surface.

Figure 3. Equivalent force on a submerged wall to the linear pressure distribution. x is

normal to the page.
Consider a submerged inclined plane surface

Pressure at dA is 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 sin 𝜃 (note: 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ, and ℎ =

𝑧sin𝜃)
The element of force acting on area element dA is 𝑑𝐹𝑅 =
𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

Integration gives the total force exerted on the plane 𝐹𝑅 =

𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑧𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑐 A sin 𝜃
where the centroid of a plane area, 𝑧𝑐 , is defined as 𝑧𝑐 =
𝑧𝑑𝐴
.
𝐴
𝑧𝑑𝐴 is the first moment of area with respect to z axis.

(Note: what happens for a horizontal “wall” (a

plate)? 𝑑𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴; 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑝𝐴)

Figure 4. Equivalent force on a submerged

inclined plane surface
The location of the resultant force 𝐹𝑅 is determined by 𝑧𝑟 and 𝑥𝑟 can be determined by
analyzing the moment exerted about Point O.

𝑧𝑟 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑧𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝑧 𝜌𝑔𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑧 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴𝑧𝑐2

where the (planar) second moment of area of the submerged plane about the x-axis

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑧 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑐 + 𝐴𝑧𝑐2

𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑐 +𝐴𝑧𝑐2 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑐 +𝐴𝑧𝑐2 𝐼

Hence 𝑧𝑟 = = = 𝑧𝑐 + 𝑧𝑥𝑥𝑐
𝐹𝑅 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑧𝑐 𝐴 𝐴 𝑐

The moment about the z-axis is 𝑥𝑟 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑥𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥 𝜌𝑔𝑧 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝐴 =
𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑥𝑧𝑐 + 𝐴𝑥𝑐 𝑧𝑐

𝐼𝑥𝑧 = 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥𝑧𝑐 + 𝐴𝑥𝑐 𝑧𝑐

𝐼
Hence 𝑥𝑟 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑧𝑥𝑧𝑐
𝐴 𝑐

Figure 4. Equivalent force on a

submerged inclined plane surface
Forces on submerged bodies – Archimedes’ principle

The buoyancy force 𝐹𝐵 due to different hydrostatic pressures at

different height equals the weight of the volume of fluid
displaced, V.

The buoyancy force only exists in the vertical z-direction, as

pressure does not vary with horizontal distance.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑉

The moment of the buoyancy force about the origin

𝑥𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝐵 𝑥𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑥𝑑𝑉, hence 𝑥𝑟 = 𝑉

Thus, the buoyancy force acts through the centroid of the

submerged volume – the center of buoyancy.

When the buoyancy force exceeds the weight of the object, the
object will float in the free surface.

The issue of stability of submerged and floating bodies can be

analyzed using this knowledge, but not done here.
Example 1 A plywood sheet of 1.1 m × 2 m is used as a form for poured
concrete. The sheet is hinged at the top, and a stop is nailed down at the
floor. The concrete is poured to a depth of 1 m. The density of concrete is
2400 kg/m3.

(a) Sketch the pressure prism;

(b) Calculate the magnitude and location of the resultant force;
(c) Find the force exerted on the stop while the concrete is still in liquid
form.
Example 1 A plywood sheet of 1.1 m × 2 m is used as a form for
poured concrete. The sheet is hinged at the top, and a stop is
nailed down at the floor. The concrete is poured to a depth of 1
m. The density of concrete is 2400 kg/m3.
(a) Sketch the pressure prism;
(b) Calculate the magnitude and location of the resultant force;
(c) Find the force exerted on the stop while the concrete is still
in liquid form.

Solution
(a) For the pressure prism, at bottom
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 2400 × 9.8 × 1 = 23,520 N/m2

(a) The resultant force 𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑐 𝐴 sin 𝜃

𝑧 1 𝜋
𝑧𝑐 = 2 = 2 = 0.5 m, 𝐴 = 𝑧𝑏 = 1 × 2=2 m2 and the angle 𝜃 is 2 rad.
𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧𝑐 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 2400 × 9.8 × 0.5 × 2 = 23,520 N

The force is located laterally 1 m (half of 2 m) from either end. For a rectangle
𝑏𝑧 3 2×13
𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑐 = = = 0.167 m4
12 12
𝐼 0.167
𝑧𝑟 = 𝑧𝑐 + 𝑧𝑥𝑥𝑐 = 0.5 + 0.5×2 = 0.667 m (measured from the concrete surface)
𝐴 𝑐

(c)The force at the stop is found by summing moments about the top hinge.
1.1 × 𝐹 = (0.1 + 0.667) × 23,520, hence F= 16,400N
Equilibrium of accelerating fluids

A liquid transported at a uniform rate of acceleration is also motionless with respect to

its container. When a liquid is rotating at a constant angular velocity, it is acted upon by
centripetal acceleration forces. Because the liquid is at rest with respect to its container,
forces due to pressure variations are also simple to calculate.

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Equilibrium of accelerating fluids A uniformly accelerating
fluid in a container. The
dotted line is the free surface
when the car is motionless or
has zero acceleration. The
Example 2. Consider a rectangular top of the container is open
container with liquid is moving at to air.

acceleration speed of a. Determine the

equation of the free surface of the liquid.

Method 2
Applying the hydrostatic equations in two directions:
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎, 𝜕𝑧 = −𝜌𝑔
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
This means that 𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑧 and we have 𝑑𝑝 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧, or 𝑑𝑝 =
− 𝜌𝑎𝑑𝑥 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧
To find a constant pressure surface 𝑑𝑝 = 0, we have 𝜌𝑎𝑑𝑥 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0,
𝑑𝑧 𝑎 𝑎
i.e. 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑔 ; hence 𝑧 = − 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎
At free surface x=0, 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑖 , we obtain𝑧 = − 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑧𝑖

Where do we have the highest pressure? The bottom left

corner! Note that the combined gravity is perpendicular to
the free surface. The pressure at depth h from the inclined
surface is 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌 𝑔2 + 𝑎2 ℎ.
Surface tension
At liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of water
molecules to each other (cohesive force) than to the molecules in the air (adhesive
force). The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater
than) its surface tension with the container walls.

Surface tension 𝝈 (N/m) is the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length
along any line in the surface.

Example 3 Derive an expression to calculate the

pressure inside a droplet of liquid, and
calculate the pressure inside a 100 mm diameter
water droplet which is exposed to atmospheric
pressure (101,300 N/m2).

An illustration of the surface tension

balancing the net pressure of droplet
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Surface tension

Example 3 Derive an expression to calculate the pressure inside

a droplet of liquid, and calculate the pressure inside a 100 mm
diameter water droplet which is exposed to atmospheric
pressure (101,300 N/m2).

Solution: The forces acting on a droplet is shown in Figure

7. The pressure difference, i.e. the bursting force is balance
by the surface tension.
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝜎 2𝜋𝑅

2𝜎
Hence 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑅
For water
𝜎 = 71.97 × 10−3 N/m, and radius 𝑅 = 50 × 10−6m
2𝜎 2×71.97×10−3
𝑝𝑖 = + 𝑝𝑜 = + 101,300=104,200 Pa.
𝑅 50×10−6

The droplet pressure is 2900 Pa greater than the

atmospheric pressure.
Example 4 The capillary effect refers to the rise or fall of a liquid in a
small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid. The strength of the
capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or wetting) angle 𝜃,
defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact. The surface tension force acts
along this tangent line toward the solid surface.

Determine the capillary rise h as a function of the surface tension.

Solution

Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the Figure 8. The capillary
weight gives:
tube submerged in
𝜌 𝜋𝑅 2 ℎ 𝑔 = 𝜎 2𝜋𝑅 cos 𝜃
liquid, and the resultant
2𝜎 forces on the rising
We have ℎ = cos 𝜃
𝜌𝑔𝑅 liquid column.

This relation is also valid for non-wetting liquids (such as mercury in

glass) and gives the capillary drop.
 2𝜎
We have ℎ = cos 𝜃
𝜌𝑔𝑅

This relation is also valid for non-wetting liquids (such as mercury in

glass) and gives the capillary drop.

In this case 𝜃 > 90°and thus cos 𝜃 < 0°, and h is negative.

A liquid is said to wet the surface when 𝜃 < 90° and not to wet the
surface when 𝜃 > 90°.

• Note that thinner the tube is, the greater the rise (or fall) of the
liquid in the tube.
• In practice, the capillary effect is usually negligible in tubes
whose diameter is greater than 1 cm.
• When pressure measurements are made using manometers and
barometers, a sufficiently large tube is used to minimize the
capillary effect. The equation is only valid for constant-diameter
tubes, not for tubes of variable cross-section.

The pressures are sometime measured by the water column

in a vertical tube. The question is would the rise of fall of
water column in the tube affect the measurement? What the
minimum diameter is needed so that ℎ < 1mm?
The pressures are sometime measured by the water column
in a vertical tube. The question is would the rise of fall of
water column in the tube affect the measurement? What the
minimum diameter is needed so that ℎ < 1mm?

Let us consider water at 20oC, when the surface tension 𝜎 =

0.0728 N/m, and 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 9.789 kN/m3
2𝜎 2𝜎 2×0.0728
As 𝜃 ≈ 0°, hence ℎ = 𝛾𝑅 cosθ, so that 𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ cosθ= 9789×0.001 =
0.0149m

Hence the minimum diameter 𝐷 = 2𝑅 = 29.8 mm.

Question: What will be the water column height if the radius

is 1 m or 1 mm?

(Answer: 14.87mm and 14.87m, discuss its implication)

Review
Key concepts: Hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy, surface tension, droplet
pressure, capillary effect

Key formulas:
𝑑𝑝
Basic equation of hydrostatics: 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 or = −𝜌𝑔 = −𝛾
𝑑𝑧

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