MECH 2406

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering, HKU

1
 Section 4
Transformers

Reference: Hughes’s “Electrical and Electronic Technology” (10th ed.) Ch. 34

2
Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity Magnetism

3
Electricity and Magnetism

Constant current produces constant magnetism

Varying current produces varying magnetism

Electricity Magnetism

Constant magnetism produces no current

Varying magnetism produces constant or varying current

4
Electricity and Magnetism

Current directly produces magnetism

Electricity Magnetism

Change rate of magnetism produces current

1. change via magneto-motive force (e.g., transformer)
2. change via movements (e.g., power generator)

5
What are transformers?

• A transformer steps up voltage at power station for

efficient transmission
• It then steps down the voltage to lower values for
civilian use
• A transformer room usually presents in a multi-
story domestic dwelling building

6
Why Do We Need Transformers

• Electricity usually generated at voltages about 11kV –

22kV
• Efficient electricity transmission requires even higher
voltage, which implies less current, thus less heat loss
(𝐼 ! 𝑅)
• Electric devices (e.g., computer, lamp, air-conditioner,
motor) require much lower voltage (e.g., 220V in
Hong Kong, China Mainland, 110V in USA)
• Need to step up/down voltage from one value to
another

7
What Does Transformers Look Like?

𝑖! 𝑖"
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"

8
 Working principle of transformers
(When the secondary is open circuit)

9
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

Φ#
𝑖! 𝑖"
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"

• The big picture:

𝑣! 𝑖! Φ! Φ# 𝑒" 𝑣" 𝑖" Φ"

𝑒!

10
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

Φ!
𝑖! 𝑖"
𝑣! 𝑖! Φ! Φ# 𝑒" 𝑣" 𝑖" Φ"
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"
𝑒!

• Primary magnetomotive force (mmf): 𝐹% = 𝑁%𝑖%

• Assume a constant permeability 𝜇
&
à constant reluctance 𝑆 = '(
)! +! ,!
• Flux due to the primary windings: Φ% = *
= *

11
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖! 𝑖"
𝑣! 𝑖! Φ! Φ# 𝑒" 𝑣" 𝑖" Φ"
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"
𝑒!

• Secondary is open circuit: 𝑖- = 0

• Secondary magnetomotive force (mmf): 𝐹- = 0
&
• Constant reluctance: 𝑆 = '(
)"
• Flux due to the secondary windings: Φ- = =0
*

12
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

Φ#
𝑖! 𝑖"
𝑣! 𝑖! Φ! Φ# 𝑒" 𝑣" 𝑖" Φ"
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"
𝑒!

+! ,!
• Flux due to the primary windings: Φ% = *
• Flux due to the secondary windings: Φ- = 0
• Flux Φ% and Φ- (if any) are opposing directions
+! ,!
• Total magnetic flux D: Φ. = Φ% − Φ- = Φ% = *

13
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖! Φ# 𝑖"
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑣"
𝑒$

"! #!
• Primary flux = total magnetic flux = Φ! =
$
%&" "! %#!
• The change rate is = , direction is clock-wise
%' $ %'
• The change rate induces an electromotive force (emf) 𝑒(
• 𝑒( is such that it tends to produce a current (not really exists)
whose magnetic flux is opposing the flux Φ! , i.e., the flux is #
%& " %#
counter clock-wise. The magnitude of 𝑒( is 𝑒( = 𝑁( " = ! !
%' $ %'

14
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

+!" /,! /,!

• 𝑒% = * /0 = 𝐿% /0
+!" '(+!"
• 𝐿% = = is the
self-inductance, “self” implies that
* &
voltage is induced from the current of the same coil
• The primary windings is the same as a standard inductor
(with a steel core) as if the secondary coil does not exist

15
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

𝑖$

The primary windings is a load (i.e.,

𝑣$ 𝑒$ inductor) to the power supply
𝐿$
𝑣% and consumes power ( 𝑒% and
𝑖% are opposing directions)
𝑑𝑖%
𝑣% = 𝑒% = 𝐿%
𝑑𝑡

16
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

"! #!
• Secondary flux = total magnetic flux = Φ! =
$
%&" "! %#!
• The change rate is = , direction is clock-wise
%' $ %'
• The change rate induces an electromotive force (emf) on the
secondary windings 𝑒)
• 𝑒) is such that it tends to produce a current (not really exists)
whose flux is opposing the flux Φ! , i.e., the flux is counter clock-
%& " " %#
wise. The magnitude of 𝑒) is 𝑒) = 𝑁) " = # ! !
%' $ %'

17
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

+" +! /,! /,!

• 𝑒- = = 𝑀-%
* /0 /0
+ + '(+" +!
• 𝑀-% = "* ! = &
is themutual-inductance, “mutual”
implies that the voltage is induced from the current of
another coil.
• 𝑀%- = 𝑀-% = 𝐿%𝐿-

18
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

𝑖%
The secondary windings has a
𝑣%
𝑒% voltage 𝑒-, but no current (as open-
circuit), thus consuming no power. It
is a voltage source connecting no
load.
𝑣- = 𝑒-; 𝑖- = 0

19
When the Secondary is Open Circuit

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝑒$

#$
• 𝑒" = 𝑁" 𝑒! 𝑁! 𝑣! 𝑒! 𝑁!
#% = ⇒ = =
#$ 𝑒" 𝑁" 𝑣" 𝑒" 𝑁"
• 𝑒! = 𝑁!
#%
• 𝑁! > 𝑁" ⇒ 𝑒! > 𝑒" : Step-up transformer
• 𝑁! < 𝑁" ⇒ 𝑒! < 𝑒" : Step-down transformer

20
Example 4.1

A transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. If the
maximum value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T and the primary current is 1.5A
(r.m.s.) when a p.d. of 2200V (r.m.s.) at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
(c) the primary inductance and the core reluctance

21
Example 4.1
A transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. If the
maximum value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T and the primary current is 1.5A
(r.m.s.) when a p.d. of 2200V (r.m.s.) at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
(c) the primary inductance and the core reluctance

For (a), since the primary voltage 𝑉$ in r.m.s. is 2200V, the instantaneous voltage is
𝑣$ = 2𝑉$ sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
'(! %*"
Since 𝑣$ = 𝑁$ , the flux is Φ& = cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 180° )
') %+,-"

%*" $.0$0×%%22
The maximal flux is Φ& = = = 20.6mWb
%+,-" %+×32×042

( 678.9: ( 2.2%2<
Since the flux density 𝐵 = , the area 𝐴 = = = 0.0187m%
5 678.9: ; $.$

22
Example 4.1
A transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. If the
maximum value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T and the primary current is 1.5A
(r.m.s.) when a p.d. of 2200V (r.m.s.) at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
(c) the primary inductance and the core reluctance

*# -#
For (b), since = at no load, the secondary voltage in r.m.s is
*" -"
𝑁% 90
𝑉% = S 𝑉$ = ×2200 = 412.5V
𝑁$ 480

23
Example 4.1
A transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. If the
maximum value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T and the primary current is 1.5A
(r.m.s.) when a p.d. of 2200V (r.m.s.) at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
(c) the primary inductance and the core reluctance

For (c), the primary circuit is an inductor, 𝑉$ = 𝐼$ S 2𝜋𝑓𝐿$ , therefore,

𝑉! 2200
𝐿! = = = 4.67H
2𝜋𝑓𝐼! 2𝜋×50×1.5
-"# -"# 042×042
Since 𝐿$ = , then the reluctance 𝑆 = = = 4.9×100 A/Wb
= >" 0.<?

24
Example 4.1
A transformer has 480 turns on the primary and 90 turns on the secondary. If the
maximum value of the flux density is to be 1.1 T and the primary current is 1.5A
(r.m.s.) when a p.d. of 2200V (r.m.s.) at 50Hz is applied to the primary, calculate
(a) the cross-sectional area of the core;
(b) the secondary voltage on no load;
(c) the primary inductance and the core reluctance

Alternative for (c), the primary mmf (in r.m.s) 𝐹$ = 𝑁$ 𝐼$ = 480×1.5 = 720A
%*
The instantaneous flux is Φ = %+,-" cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 180° )
"
*" %%22
The flux r.m.s is Φ@&A = = = 14.6mWb
%+,-" %+×32×042
B" B" ?%2
Since Φ@&A = , the core reluctance is 𝑆 = = = 4.9×100 A/Wb
= ($!% 2.2$0<

-"# -"# 042×042

Since 𝐿$ = , the primary inductance is 𝐿$ = = = 4.67H
= = 0.C×$2&

25
Ideal Transformers

𝑖$ 𝑁! : 𝑁" 𝑖%
Dot convention: the black dots are
defined such that: if the two currents
𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑖! , 𝑖" are entering though the dotted
terminals, they produce magnetic
fluxes of the same directions

&$ '$
• Primary and secondary voltage satisfy: & = '
% %
• Instantaneous power is conserved: Power
generated on secondary is equal to the power
consumed on primary, at any instant:
($ &% '% ($ '%
𝑖! 𝑒! = 𝑖" 𝑒" ⇒ = = . Then, =
(% &$ '$ (% '$

26
Equivalent Circuit with No Load

𝑖$ 𝑖%

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖% 𝑒%
𝑣$ 𝑣%
𝑣$ 𝑒$
𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝐿$

Transformer with no load Primary circuit Secondary circuit

'(! 𝑑𝑖$ 𝑁%
Magnetic flux: 𝑒$ = 𝑁$ 𝑣$ = 𝑒$ = 𝐿$ 𝑒% = 𝑒
') 𝑑𝑡 𝑁$ $
𝑖% = 0
𝑣% = 𝑒%

27
Equivalent Circuit with No Load

𝑖$ 𝑖%D 𝑁! : 𝑁" 𝑖%
𝑖&
𝑣$ 𝑣%
𝑒> 𝐿$ 𝑒$ 𝑒%

E - F -
Ideal transformer: E# = -# ; F#' = -"
" " # #

-# 𝑁%
𝑒% = 𝑒$ ; 𝑖% = 0; 𝑣% = 𝑒% 𝑖%D = 𝑖 = 0; 𝑖$ = 𝑖&
-" 𝑁$ %
𝑑𝑖& 𝑑𝑖$ 𝑑𝑖$
𝑣$ = 𝑒$ = 𝑒> = 𝐿$ = 𝐿$ 𝑣$ = 𝑒$ = 𝐿$
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
-"F!
The current 𝑖& produces the required magnetic flux: Φ& =
=

28
Working principle of transformers
(When the secondary has a load)

29
When the Secondary Has a Load

Φ&
𝑖$ 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝑣%
𝒁

• The big picture:

𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑒$

30
When the Secondary Has a Load

Φ$
𝑖$ 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

• Primary magnetomotive force (mmf): 𝐹% = 𝑁%𝑖%

• Assume a constant permeability 𝜇
&
à constant reluctance 𝑆 = '(
)! +! ,!
• Flux due to the primary windings: Φ% = *
= *

31
When the Secondary Has a Load

Φ%
𝑖$ 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

• Secondary magnetomotive force (mmf): 𝐹- = 𝑁-𝑖-

&
• Constant reluctance: 𝑆 = '(
)" +" ,"
• Flux due to the secondary windings: Φ- = *
= *

32
When the Secondary Has a Load

Φ$
𝑖$ Φ% 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

+! ,!
• Flux due to the primary windings: Φ% = , magnetizing
*
+ ,
• Flux due to thesecondary windings: Φ- = " " ,
*
demagnetizing
• Flux Φ% and Φ% are opposing directions
+! ,! ^+" ,"
• Total magnetic flux: Φ. = Φ% − Φ- = *
33
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

+! ,! ^+" ,"
• Primary flux = Total flux = Φ. = Φ% − Φ- = *
• Breaking the primary current 𝑖% breaks into two parts:
𝑖! = 𝑖# + 𝑖"$
• 𝑖. is the magnetizing current that produces the Φ. :
𝑁%𝑖.
Φ. =
𝑆
• 𝑖-_ neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of 𝑖-: 𝑁%𝑖-_ = 𝑁-𝑖-
34
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

/`%
• The change rate of primary flux is , direction is clock-wise
/0
• The change rate induces an electromotive force (emf) 𝑒%
• 𝑒% is such that it tends to produce a current (not really exists)
whose magnetic flux is opposing the flux Φ. , i.e., the flux is
/`%
counter clock-wise. The magnitude of 𝑒% is 𝑒% = 𝑁% /0 =
/,%
𝐿% /0
35
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

/`%
• 𝑒% = 𝑁% /0
+! ,! ^+" ,"
• Φ. = Φ% − Φ- = Φ% = *
• The primary emf is affected by the secondary load
• The primary windings is a load to the power supply and
consumes power (𝑣% and 𝑖% are opposing directions)
36
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

• Secondary flux = Total flux = Φ.

/`%
• The change rate is /0
, direction is clock-wise
• The change rate induces an emf on the secondary coil 𝑒-
• 𝑒- is such that it tends to produce a current (physically
exists, the 𝑖-) whose magnetic flux is opposing the flux Φ,
i.e., the flux is counter clock-wise. The magnitude of 𝑒- is
/`%
𝑒- = 𝑁- /0
37
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

/`%
• 𝑒- = 𝑁- /0
• The secondary windings takes power from the primary coil
and consumes this power on its load 𝒁
• The secondary windings is a power source to the load 𝒁. It
generates power (𝑖- and 𝑒- are in the same direction)

38
When the Secondary Has a Load

𝑖$ Φ& 𝑖%
𝑣$ 𝑖$ Φ$ Φ& 𝑒% 𝑣% 𝑖% Φ%
𝑣$ 𝑒$ 𝑒 𝑣%
% 𝒁
𝑒$

#$ #$ &$ '$
• 𝑒" = 𝑁" ; 𝑒! = 𝑁! ⇒ =
#% #% &% '%
• 𝑁! > 𝑁" ⇒ 𝑒! > 𝑒" : Step-up transformer
• 𝑁! < 𝑁" ⇒ 𝑒! < 𝑒" : Step-down transformer

39
Equivalent Circuit with a Load

𝑖$ 𝑖%D 𝑁! : 𝑁" 𝑖%
𝑖&
𝑣$ 𝑣%
𝑒> 𝐿$ 𝑒$ 𝑒% 𝒁

E# -# F# -"
Ideal transformer: = ; =
E" -" F#' -#

𝑑𝑖&
𝑖$ = 𝑖& + 𝑖%D 𝑒$ = 𝑒> = 𝐿$
𝑑𝑡
-"F!
The current 𝑖& produces the required magnetic flux: Φ& =
=

40