2019/2020

MECH2414
Thermofluids

PART 2 - fluids
Fluid flow is life
Yuguo Li

CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM CONSERVATION

Key topics
Key concepts: surface force, pressure force
𝜕
Key formula: Mass conservation 0 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

For one fluid stream 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑉2𝑥 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1𝑥 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −

OF 56 2`
We start with the Reynolds transport theorem
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌𝑏 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
CV - a fixed region in space,
CS - surrounds the CV (boundary).
B represent any of the fluid parameters (velocity, mass, temperature
or concentration),
b represent the amount of a parameter per unit mass, i.e. 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑏.
B can be a vector, e.g. 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉, then 𝑏 = 𝑉, and 𝐵𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 .

𝑚
Conservation of mass (𝐵 = mass, hence 𝑏 = 𝑚 = 1)
dBsys
 0 where 𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝜌𝑑𝑉 .
dt
𝜕
Apply the Reynolds Transport Theorem 0 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
For incompressible fluid 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉∙𝐴=0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
𝜕𝑉
+ 𝑉∙𝐴=0
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆
For a non-deformable control volume of fixed size and shape, V =
constant 𝐶𝑆
𝑉∙𝐴=0
Example 2. Seawater flows steadily through a simple conical-
shaped nozzle at the end of a fire hose. If the nozzle exit
velocity must be at least 20 m/s, determine the minimum
pumping capacity required in m3/s.

Solution
𝜕
𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0;
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Or 𝐶𝑆 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1=0 ;
As 𝜌2 = 𝜌1 ,  𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑄1 = 𝑉2 𝐷22 = 20 × × 0.042 = 0.0251 m3/s
4 4
Mass flow rate in boundary layer

The fixed control volume is shown by the dashed lines

Assumption
• 2D steady-state incompressible flow; and
• Properties are independent of z
Example 3: The fluid in direct contact with
Governing equations a stationary solid boundary has zero
 
CS V dA  0 velocity, i.e. no slip at the boundary. Thus
the flow over a flat plate adheres to the
       
Aab V dA  Abc V dA  Acd V dA  Ada V dA  0 plate surface and forms a boundary layer,
      as depicted below. The flow ahead of the
mbc   V dA   V dA   V dA

Abc Aab Acd
plate is uniform with velocity, 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑖
and U=30 m sec-1. The velocity distribution
within the boundary layer (0 ≤ y ≤ δ) along
cd is approximated as u/U = 2(y/δ) - (y/δ)2.

The boundary-layer thickness at location d

is δ = 5 mm. the fluid is air with density ρ =
1.24 kg m-3. Assuming the plate width
perpendicular to the paper to be w = 0.6 m,
calculate the mass flow rate across surface
bc of control volume abcd.
Example 3: The fluid in direct contact with a stationary solid boundary has
zero velocity, i.e. no slip at the boundary. Thus the flow over a flat plate
adheres to the plate surface and forms a boundary layer, as depicted
below. The flow ahead of the plate is uniform with velocity, 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑖 and
U=30 m sec-1. The velocity distribution within the boundary layer (0 ≤ y ≤
δ) along cd is approximated as u/U = 2(y/δ) - (y/δ)2.
The boundary-layer thickness at location d is δ = 5 mm. the fluid is air with
density ρ = 1.24 kg m-3. Assuming the plate width perpendicular to the
paper to be w = 0.6 m, calculate the mass flow rate across surface bc of
control volume abcd.
Solution:
     
m bc   V dA   V dA   V dA
Abc Aab Acd
  yb  
Aab
V dA    u dA    uw dy    uw dy    Uw dy
Aab ya 0 0

 
 V dA  Uwy0  Uw
Aab

  yc     y   y 2 
Acd V dA  Acd u dA  yd uw dy  0 uw dy  0 wU 2       dy
 


 y2 y3   1  2 Uw
Acd V dA  wU    3 2   wU 1  3   3
0
2Uw Uw
m bc  Uw  
3 3
1 1
m bc  1.24  30  0.6  5   0.0372 kg/s, here +ve sign
3 1000
indicates flow out across surface boundaries.
Question: Why is there an outflow through the boundary
bc?
Impact force and linear momentum equation

The linear momentum equation can be applied to determine the

impact force acting on fluid on passing through a control volume
(CV), in situations such as
• Jet striking a flat or curved plate
• Jet issuing from a pipe nozzle
• Flow through a pipe bend

The left hand side of the momentum equation is a sum of forces 𝐹

acting on fluid in the control volume (CV), including
• Surface forces acting on the control surface (CS):
Internet image
1.Impact force, the unknown to be found, is the resultant force
acting on CS that is in contact with a solid boundary
2.Pressure force on CS which cuts a flow inlet or outlet.
Remember that the pressure force is always a compressive
force.
• Body weight of fluid in the CV.
 𝑚𝑉
Conservation of momentum (𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉 , hence 𝑏 = = 𝑉)
𝑚
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝜕
As = 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌𝑏 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
𝑑 𝑚𝑉 𝜕
= 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

𝑑
Using the Newton’s law 𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑚V , i.e. sum of external
𝑠𝑦𝑠
forces acting on the system = time change rate of the linear
momentum of system

𝜕
Hence 𝐹 = 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 + 𝐶𝑆
𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

For steady flow 𝐹= 𝐶𝑆

𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
x-direction: 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐶𝑆
𝜌𝑉𝑥 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴. Assume 𝑉𝑥 is constant for each
𝑁
opening and there are N openings, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑖=1 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑥𝑖 𝐶𝑆 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑁
𝑖=1 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑥𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑖 cos𝜃𝑖

𝑁 𝑁
Similarly, 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑖=1 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑦𝑖 𝐶𝑆 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑖=1 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑦𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑖 cos𝜃𝑖

where 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑖 cos𝜃𝑖 is the mass flow rate of the opening i. 𝑉𝑥 is the

velocity component in the x direction.

For 1D system, and the x-coordinate is in the same direction as the

outflow.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑉2𝑥 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1𝑥 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x direction
Example 4. Someone is squirting the side of a wall with a water hose.
The nozzle produces a 100 mm diameter jet having a velocity of 20
m/s. Determine the force exerted by the jet on the wall when the angle
between the jet and the wall is 90o.

Solution
The jet divided into radial streams. Ignore the water weight.
Continuity gives 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
Assume there is friction, we have 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , and 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 .
here 𝐴2 is the cross-sectional area of the ring.
−𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 0 − 𝑉1
= −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉12
3.14
−𝐹𝑥 = −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉12 = −1000 × × 0.12 × 202 = −3,140 N
4
𝐹𝑥 = 3,140 N
Example 5 A free water jet, with a diameter of 100 mm, strikes a vane at a
speed of 𝑉𝑗 = 10 m/s, and the vane is in the shape of a flat plate. The
vane moves at a velocity of 𝑉𝑣 = 10 m/s in the opposite direction of the
jet. Calculate the force exerted on the vane by the fluid.

Solution
The chosen control volume moves with the vane. This arrangement
renders the vane and the control volume motionless.
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑗 + 𝑉𝑣 , and 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 .
Ignore the water weight. The control volume has the external force by the
wall, which is −𝐹𝑥 , and 𝐹𝑥 is the force exerted by the jet on the wall.
−𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 0 − 𝑉1 = −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉12
2 3.14
−𝐹𝑥 = −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 + 𝑉𝑣 = −1000 × 4 × 0.12 × (10 + 10)2 = −3,140 N
𝐹𝑥 = 3,140 N, i.e. identical to the result in Example 3. Consider why this
is so.
Note if the vane moves in the same direction of the jet, we have
2
−𝐹𝑥 = −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣
The force is zero if the two speeds are the same.
Example 6. Figure 9 shows a horizontal water jet strikes a moving vane (a solid
curved surface). The vane turns the jet by an angle of 45o. The water jet speed is
5 m/s, while the vane moves at a speed of 2 m/s to the right. The water jet has a
constant cross-sectional area of 0.5 m2. We can assume that there is no friction
between the water jet and the surface. Determine the forces exerted by the
water jet on the vane.

Solution
The chosen control volume moves with the vane.
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 , and 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 .
The force on fluid in the x-direction
−𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x
= 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 cos 45𝑜 − 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣
2
= 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 cos 45𝑜 − 1
The force on fluid in the y-direction
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 y = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 y
2
= 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 sin 45𝑜 − 0 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 sin 45𝑜
2
−𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 cos 45𝑜 − 1 = 1000 0.5 × 32 × 0.707388 − 1 =
−1316.75N
So 𝐹𝑥 = 1.3 kN
2
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑣 sin 45𝑜 = 1000 0.5 × 32 × 0.707388 = 3183N = 3.2 kN

The resultant force on the fluid is 1.32 + 3.22 = 3.45 kN acting in a direction
arctan (3.2/1.3)= 67.9𝑜 as shown in the figure.
Example 7. A 45o reducing elbow can be found in domestic water piping
system. As illustrated in the figure, water flows into the elbow in the
positive x-direction and is deflected through an angle of 45o. The inlet
diameter is 2.5 cm, and the outlet diameter is 1.2 cm. Instead of a sudden
contraction, a gradual change is used and we assume that the friction can
be ignored. The volume flow rate of water is 0.0004 m3/s. The inlet gauge
pressure is 160 kPa. If the elbow is located in a horizontal plane, determine
the forces exerted on it by the moving water.

Solution
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑄
𝜋 3.14
𝐴1 = 4 𝐷12 = 4 × 0.0252 = 0.00049 m2
𝜋 3.14
𝐴2 = 4 𝐷22 = 4
× 0.0122 = 0.00011 m2
𝑄 0.0004
𝑉1 = 𝜋 = 3.14 = 0.82 m/s
𝐷2 ×0.025 2
4 1 4
𝑄 0.0004
𝑉2 = 𝜋 = 3.14 = 3.54 m/s
𝐷22 ×0.012 2
4 4
1 1
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 = 1000 × 0.822 − 3.542 = −5929.6N/m2
2 2
As 𝑝1 = 160,000Pa, 𝑝2 = 160,000 − 5929.6N = 154,070 Pa = 154.1 kPa
The force on fluid in the x-direction
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x

−𝐹𝑥 + 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1

𝐹𝑦 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃

We have
−𝐹𝑥 = −𝑝1 𝐴1 + 𝑝2 𝐴2 cos 𝜃 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1 = −160,000 0.00049 +
154,100 0.00011 cos 45𝑜 + 1000(0.00049)(3.6 cos 45𝑜 − 0.82) = −65.6N
𝐹𝑥 = 65.7N
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 sin 𝜃 + 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃 = 154,100(0.00011) sin 45𝑜 +
1000(0.00049)(3.6) sin 45𝑜 = 13.2N
Example 8. Example 7 Re-revisited – a problem neglecting the friction loss and also
pressure We consider a 45o elbow vane fixed in a horizontal plane. A water jets trikes
the elbow in the positive x-direction and is deflected through an angle of 45o. The jet
diameter is 2.5 cm. The volume flow rate of water is 0.0004 m3/s. Determine the forces
exerted on it by the moving water.

Solution
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝑄
𝑄 0.0004
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝜋 2 = 3.14 = 0.82 m/s
𝐷
4 1
×0.0252
4
The force on fluid in the x-direction (The fluid volume is considered to be small, hence
the weight is ignored.)

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 x

−𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃
We have
−𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑉1 = 1000 0.00049 0.82 cos 45𝑜 − 0.82 = −0.118N
𝐹𝑥 = 0.096N
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 sin 𝜃 = 1000 0.00049 0.82 sin 45𝑜 = 0.284N

Without the reducing elbow, the force is indeed very small.

Example 9 Jet engine static thrust stand. A static thrust stand is to be designed for
testing a jet engine. For a typical test:
Intake velocity 𝑢1 = 200 m/s; Exhaust gas velocity 𝑢2 = 500 m/s;
Intake area 𝐴1 = 1 m2;
Intake static temperature 𝑇1 = 268 K
Intake static pressure 𝑝1 = −22.5 kPa (or 78.5 kPa, abs)
Exhaust static pressure 𝑝2 = 0 kPa (or 101 kPa, abs)

Estimate the nominal thrust for which to design.

Solution:

𝐶𝑆
𝜌𝑢 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐹𝑡ℎ + 𝑝1 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ;
Where the pressures are absolute. For 1D flow (Ignore the water weight)
−𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝐹𝑡ℎ + 𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴1 − 𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴2 ;
𝑝 78.5×1000
As 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑢1 = 1.02 × 1 × 200 = 204 kg/s, where 𝜌1 = 𝑅𝑇1 = 286.9×268 =
1
1.02 kg/m3.
So 𝐹𝑡ℎ = 𝑚 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 − 𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴1 + 𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴2 = 204 × 500 − 200 − −22.5 ×
Example 10 A metal container of 0.60 m high with an inside cross-sectional area of 0.09
m2, weight of 4.4N, when empty. The container is placed on a scale, and water flows in
through a top opening at a velocity of 3 m/s and opening area of 0.01 m2, and out
through the two equal-area side openings, each of area of 0.01 m2. Under steady-state
conditions, the height of the water in the tank is h = 0.6m.

Will the scale read the weight of the water in the container plus the weight of the tank.

Solution
The chosen control volume contains all water and the inflow of water.
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 , 𝐴1 = 0.01m2; 𝐴2 = 2 × 0.01 = 0.02m2
1
hence 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 1.5 m/s.
2
The force on fluid in the y-direction
−𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 y =
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 y = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 0 − 𝑉1
−𝐹𝑦 = 1000 0.01 3 × 0 − 3 = −90N
So 𝐹𝑦 = 90 N

The force of the scale on the support (assuming weightless) must equal to the total force
including the weights of water and tank, and the force on tank bottom exerted by water.
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 + 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑔 + 𝐹𝑦 = 1000 0.09 0.6 9.81 + 4.4 + 90 = 624.1 N
Review
Key concepts: surface force, pressure force
𝜕
Key formula: Mass conservation 0 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

For one fluid stream 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑉2𝑥 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1𝑥 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −

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