FORCES, DENSITY &

PRESSURE
Upthrust
 Pressure in a fluid (liquid or gas) increases with depth according to the formula: 𝑃=𝜌𝑔ℎ.
 Suppose you place an object under water: the water pressure acting upwards on the bottom
surface of the object is greater than the downwards pressure on the top. Since the upward
pressure is greater, the upward force will be greater than the downward force.
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡=𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚−𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑼 = 𝑭𝒃 − 𝑭𝒕
 For an object that floats on water like a boat, upthrust is simply the upward force due to the
water. A boat floats on water because the upthrust balances the weight.
 The magnitude of upthrust is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. This means, as an
object sinks displacing the liquid, the upthrust increases as more of the object gets below
the liquid surface. This means: when a boat is pushed into water, the more it sinks, the
greater the upthrust. The boat will keep sinking until the upthrust is equal to the weight.
 If you put a piece of wood under water and hold it there, the upthrust will be greater than
the weight. When you leave the piece of wood, it springs back up. As part of the wood gets
out of the water, the upthrust begins to decrease. More of the wood will go out of the water
until the upthrust is equal to the weight of the wood then the wood floats.
Proof that upthrust is equal to weight of displaced liquid
 The more the liquid that is displaced, the greater the upthrust.

𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝

𝑈 = 𝐹𝑏 − 𝐹𝑡

Area A 𝑈 = 𝑃𝑏 𝐴 − 𝑃𝑡 𝐴

ℎ1 𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔ℎ2 𝐴 − 𝜌𝐿 𝑔ℎ1 𝐴
Cylider of
density 𝜌𝑐 𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔(ℎ2 𝐴 − ℎ1 𝐴)
ℎ2
𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔[ ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴]
h
Liquid
density 𝜌𝐿 𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔[hA]

𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑉

𝑈 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑉 𝑔

𝑈 = 𝑀𝐿 𝑔 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Normal contact force
 Any two objects that press on each other exert an equal and opposite force on each other.
This force is called the normal contact force. The normal force is always perpendicular to the
plane/surface of contact.
 A book can rest on a table because the upward normal contact force from the table is equal to
the downward weight. According to Newton’s third law, since the table exerts an upward
force on the book, the book will exert a downward force on the table (please note: the name
of this downward force is normal contact force, not weight).
 The harder two surfaces press against each other, the greater the normal contact force.
 When a lift begins to go up, you can feel the normal contact force increasing as your feet
press harder on the floor of the lift. The normal contact should increase to be more than your
weight so that you can accelerate upwards.
 When the lift is at the top and starts to move down, the normal reaction decreases so that it is
less than your weight; this will allow you to accelerate downwards. If the lift were to
accelerate downwards at 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2, you will also accelerate at the same rate. The normal
contact force acting on you will be zero. If it were not zero, it would oppose your weight so
your acceleration downwards would not be 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2.
 If the lift accelerates downwards at more than 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2, your feet will go off the floor and
your head can end up touching the roof of the lift.
Friction
 This is a force which resists motion or the tendency to move. It always acts in the
opposite direction to the velocity.
 Friction acts parallel to the surface of contact.
 Friction depends on:
 The nature of the surfaces in contact. Rough surfaces tend to have more friction compared to
smoother ones.
 The normal contact force: The greater the normal force, the higher the friction and vice versa.
 Friction between moving parts of an engine causes the engine parts to wear away faster.
This friction is reduced by using lubricating oil.
 Friction is necessary in some situations. Without friction our feet would slip on the floor
and we would not be able to move forward. Friction between the brake discs and the
brake pads causes a car to slow down when the driver presses on the brake pedal.
Viscous forces (drag)
 This is friction in fluids, that is liquids and gases. Friction in air is called air resistance.

 The magnitude of the viscous force acting on a body depends on:

1. Viscosity: The higher the viscosity of the fluid, the greater the drag force. As an example,
honey has a higher viscosity than water.

2. Density of the fluid: The higher the density, the greater the drag.

3. Speed of the object: The higher the speed, the greater the drag.

4. Shape of object: streamlined objects have less drag acting on them.

5. Surface area of object: the greater the surface area, the larger the drag.
Terminal velocity
Consider an object being dropped in the air.
 Initially its speed is 0 m/s hence the air resistance acting on it will be 0 N. The only 2
forces acting on it will be upthrust and weight. Its acceleration at this time is g
(9.81 𝑚 𝑠 −2 ).
 As it accelerates, its speed increases. The air resistance will increase. The resultant
downward force will decrease. The acceleration will decrease.
 At a particular speed, the weight will be equal to the sum of upthrust and air resistance.
Resultant force will be zero. Acceleration will then be zero and the object will move
with a constant speed called the terminal velocity.
 Objects with a high volume to mass ratio tend to have lower terminal velocities. This is
because when volume is large, the surface area will be greater hence the air resistance
will be large. Since the mass is comparatively smaller, the air resistance will match the
weight at a low speed, there will be no need for a hig speed.
Centre of gravity (COG)
 This is the point where the whole weight of a body may be considered to act. If an object is
supported by a pin at its centre of mass, it will balance.
 The COG of a regular object such as a sphere, rectangle and cylinder is located where the
lines of symmetry meet.
 The COG of a hollow object like a ring is located in the middle of the ring where there is
nothing.
 The COM of an irregular object such as a roughly cut out cardboard is obtained by following
the steps below:
 Put 2 holes in the edge of the cardboard
 Support the cardboard from one of the holes using a pin and a stand
 Place a plumbline in front of the card and mark the position of the plumbline on the card using two
marks.
 Repeat the preceeding two steps using the other hole.
 Join each set of marks with a straight line.
 The COM is located where the two lines meet.
 To verify, you can repeat the steps using a 3rd hole. The 3rd line should pass through the COM found
earlier.
Moment
 The moment of a force is defined as: the product of force and the perpendicular distance
of the force from the point.

 If the line of action of the force passes through the point, the moment of that force
about that point is zero.

 The moment of a force is not constant but depends on the point around which the
moments are being taken.
Example on calculation of moments
 Taking moments about point B:

▪ Moment of 8.5 N = 8.5 N x 0.6 m = 5.1 Nm anticlockwise

▪ Moment of tension T = T x 0 = 0 Nm

▪ Moment of weight of M = Mg x 0 = 0 Nm

 Taking moments about A:

▪ Moment of 8.5 N = 8.5 N x 0.6 m = 5.1 Nm clockwise

▪ Moment of tension T = T x (1.2 sin 50o) = 0.919T Nm

 Moment of weight of M = Mg x 1.2 = 1.2Mg Nm

Couple
 It is a pair of forces that tends to produce rotation only. Think of how you apply
opposing forces on the 2 handles of a bicycle when you want to turn.
 For a pair of forces to be a couple, it must satisfy the following conditions:

1. The forces must be equal in magnitude but in opposite directions.

2. The lines of action of the forces must not meet.

 The two forces in the diagram below constitute a couple.

F
Torque of a couple
 The torque of a couple is defined as:
𝐎𝐧𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 × 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐰𝐨 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬
 The torque of a couple is equal to the sum of the moments of the two forces about any
point. This sum is constant regardless of the point where the moments are taken about.

100 N

0.6 m 0.5 m
A
B

100 N

 The torque of the couple above = 100 × 0.5 = 50 𝑁𝑚 (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)

 Resultant moment of the two forces about point B = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓 =
𝟓𝟎 𝑵𝒎 (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)
Q. Determine the resultant moment about A. Is it equal to the torque calculated above?
Equilibrium
 A body is in equilibrium when it satisfies both the conditions below:

• Resultant force in any direction is zero.

• Resultant torque or resultant moment about any point is zero.

 When 3 forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, the three forces form a closed
triangle when they are arranged head-to-tail as shown in the diagram below:

 For a body in equilibrium, the principle of moments holds. The principle of moments
states: At equilibrium, sum of clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
Density
 Density is defined as:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
 It is the measure of how close together particles in a body are. The closer they are, the
higher the density and vice versa.
 The basic formula for calculating density is:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉
Pressure
 Pressure is defined as:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

 Pressure can be calculated using the equation below:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Alternative formula for pressure:
 Consider a rectangular prism made of metal of density 𝜌, height h, cross-sectional area A and volume V.

 The formula for the pressure exerted by the metal prism on the table is derived as shown below:
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑚𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

 NB: The formula above also applies in liquids and gases.