The Stereo microscope, which is by definition, an optical microscope that provides a three

dimensional view of a specimen consists of two objectives pointed down at the sample and each of
those is connected to its corresponding eyepiece. What this means, is that each eye is getting a
different stereo image from different angles, resulting in a 3D image. These microscopes usually do
not have hyper magnification, as magnification range Is typically between 10-50x, have long working
distance between the stage and eyepiece for manual manipulations and the depth of field is
relatively large. Furthermore, reflected light illumination is from external light sources pointed at
the sample. All of these things are related in order to maximize the efficiency of this microscope in
accordance to its function, as the low magnification is due to the long working distance, as
magnification and working distance are directly proportional and that causes the object to become
opaque hence the need for reflected light. Typically, stereo microscopes are used in any field where
you need to be doing any sort of manual manipulation of the specimen under the microscope for
example dissections, forensics, jewelry making etc. Unlike a compound microscope, the stereo image
is upright not upside down and backward. And when dissecting, the microscope can only be used on
specimens in real time while they are still being observed.

Metallurgical microscopes on the other hand, are a specialized microscope typically used in
industrial settings to view samples with a very high magnification. They are very useful for samples
like metal that will not allow light to pass through because of how dense the metal can be. Usually,
this microscope is too powerful for biological specimen, but is on occasion used in the medical field
where metal implants are used. Typically, they are inverted and employ high resolution objective
lenses with short working distances. They also contain a relay system which reflects and then
enlarges the image and the illumination system is designed to prevent glare from light bouncing off
the surface of the sample. These metallurgical microscopes are used in mineralogy, metallurgy and
gemology because glossy metal surfaces are observed and they cannot allow light to naturally pass
through. They are also used to inspect high caution materials for signs of defects and dangers in
aircraft and other essential metal entwined objects. However great of an advancement these may
be, there are of course limitations. Some of which are that objects can only be viewed top down,
there is shallow depth of field, a short working distance so samples must be processed before being
imaged and that they are complicated to operate and expensive to obtain.

Compound light microscope.

A compound microscope is an upright optical microscope that is used for obtaining a high resolution
image. The name originate from the use of the compound lens system and the light source. The
lenses involved are the objectives and the eyepiece. Scholars use compound light microscopes and
they are used to view microorganisms such as bacteria. The following are some of the main
characteristics of this microscope;

-produces 2D images.

-one objective lens is used at a time.

-light source is needed.

-available in monocular, binocular, trinocular and multihead configurations.

-two or more convex lenses.

-magnification range between 40X and 1000X.

The following are parts of the compound light microscope and the functions.

i) Head: top portion holding eyepiece.

ii) Arm: supports the tube and connects it with the base.

iii) Base: the bottom of the microscope that supports it as it is placed on the table of bench for use.

iv) Eyepiece: also known as ocular. Viewing during magnification takes place from here the eyepiece
has a 10X lense.

v) Nose piece: rotating part at the base of the tube containing the objective lenses.

vi) Objective lenses : contain lenses of different magnification powers ranging from 4X, 10X, 40X to
100X in some advanced microscopes.

vii) Tube : connects eye piece to objectives.

viii) Stage : where the specimen is placed during observation. The specimen is held in place by the
stage clips.

ix) Diaphragm: controls the amount of light passing to this slide during observation, also called the
condenser diaphragm.

x) Illuminator : containing a tiny bulb which is the light supply, some microscopes contain mirrors
which reflect light from the surrounding onto the diaphragm.

xi) Adjustment knobs : is improve the magnification. There are two types of adjustment knobs, the
fine adjustment knob and the course adjustment knob.

- course adjustment knob: responsible for the initial forecasting during observation and
magnification by moving the stage up and down.

- fine adjustment knobs : responsible for the fine tuning magnification to achieve optical clarity and
details when viewing the image.

….

The inverted microscopes.

Inverting microscopes are of great importance and were invented by a faculty member of the Tulane
universities named J. Lawrence.

Similar to the compound light microscopes as both use the compound length system and the light
source except that the components are placed in an inverted order. The light source and the
condenser are positioned above the specimen and the specimen is viewed from below. In such a
structural setup the light is directed down onto the stage specimen and it is possible to view the
spacing meaning larger containers as opposed the compound light microscopes. And patch this is
can be used unlike the light microscopes which only use slides. Good for lifestyle imaging. Takes
advantage of the fact that most sales naturally sink the bottom of the vessel and if no suspension
cells are used; they use they will adhere to the surface meaning that they are spread across one
focal plane. They also have a high magnification range from 20X-1500X.

The following are functions of parts of the inverted microscope. The eyepiece is where viewing takes
place. The stage is where the specimen in containers is placed during observation. Adjustment knobs
are responsible for making the magnification better. Objective lenses further magnification. A light
source is available as well as a condenser. A feature known as the field aperture is a whole in the
microscope in which light is transmitted. A beam splitter splits light to allow the camera or an
assistant scope to be attached to the microscope. A diopter is responsible for raising or lowering the
eyepiece in order to adjust the focus.

…….

Electron microscope:

An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of

illumination. Built in 1931 by Ernst Ruska, it is a special type of microscope having a high resolution
of images, able to magnify objects in nanometres, which are formed by controlled use of electrons in
a vacuum captured on a phosphorescent screen.

Electron microscopes use signals arising from the interactions of an electron beams with the sample
to obtain information about structure, morphology and composition. There are two types of
electron microscopes with different operating styles. These are the Transmission Electron
Microscope and the Scanning Electron Microscope.

The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens through which electrons can
pass generating a projection image. This microscope is analogous in many ways compared to the
conventional compound light microscope.

The transmission electron microscope ( TEM) is used, among other things, to image the interior of
cells (in thin sections) the structure of protein molecules (contrasted by metal shadowing), the
organization of molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal filaments (prepared by the negative staining
technique), and the arrangement of protein molecules in cell membranes (by freeze-fracture).

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) depends on the emission of secondary electrons from the
surface of a specimen.

Because of its great depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope is the EM analog of a stereo light
microscope. It provides detailed images of the surfaces of cells and whole organisms that are not
possible by Transmission Electron microscopes. It can also be used for particle counting and size
determination, and for process control. It is termed a scanning electron microscope because the
image is formed by scanning a focused electron beam onto the surface of the specimen in a raster
pattern.
Electron Microscopes are in the form of a tall vacuum column that is vertically mounted. They have
the following parts:

● Electron gun

The electron gun is a heated tungsten filament, which generates electrons.

● Electromagnetic lenses

The condenser lens focuses the electron beam on the specimen. A second condenser lens forms the
electrons into a thin tight beam.

The electron beam coming out of the specimen passes down the second of magnetic coils called the
objective lens, which has high power and forms the intermediate magnified image.

● projector (ocular) lenses

Produce the final further magnified image.

Each of these lenses acts as an image magnifier all the while maintaining an incredible level of detail
and resolution.

● Specimen Holder

The specimen holder is an extremely thin film of carbon or collodion held by a metal grid.

● Image viewing and Recording System

The final image is projected on a fluorescent screen.

Below the fluorescent screen is a camera for recording the image.

Electron microscopes use signals arising from the interaction of an electron beam with the sample to
obtain information about structure, morphology, and composition. The electron gun generates
electrons then two sets of condenser lenses focus the electron beam on the specimen and then into
a thin tight beam. To move electrons down the column, an accelerating voltage (mostly between 100
kV-1000 kV) is applied between the tungsten filament and anode. The specimen to be examined is
made extremely thin, at least 200 times thinner than those used in the optical microscope. Ultra-thin
sections of 20-100 nm are cut which is already placed on the specimen holder. The electronic beam
then passes through the specimen and electrons are scattered depending upon the thickness or
refractive index of different parts of the specimen. The denser regions in the specimen scatter more
electrons and therefore appear darker in the image since fewer electrons strike that area of the
screen. In contrast, transparent regions are brighter. The electron beam coming out of the specimen
then passes to the objective lens, which has high power and forms the intermediate magnified
image.The ocular lenses then produce the final further magnified image.

Electron microscopes are powerful tools used for various applications in scientific research and
industry. Some key applications include:
● Material Science:

Examining the microstructure of materials at a nanoscale level to understand properties like

composition, crystal structure, and defects.

● Biology and Medicine:

Studying cellular structures, viruses, and biomolecules, providing detailed insights into cellular
organelles and helping in medical research.

● Nanotechnology:

Characterizing nanomaterials and investigating their properties for applications in electronics,

catalysis, and other fields.

● Pharmaceuticals:

Analyzing drug formulations, studying drug delivery systems, and investigating the interactions
between drugs and cells.

● Geology:

Studying minerals, rocks, and geological formations at a microscopic level to understand their
composition and formation processes.

● Forensics:

Analyzing trace evidence, such as fibers, hair, and particles, to aid in criminal investigations.

● Material Failure Analysis:

Investigating the causes of material failures, identifying flaws, cracks, or defects that may lead to
structural issues.

● Electronics:

Examining semiconductor devices and integrated circuits to assess their structure and functionality.

● Environmental Science:

Analyzing pollutants and particles in environmental samples to understand their impact on

ecosystems.

● Archaeology:

Studying ancient artifacts and materials to uncover details about past civilizations.

These applications showcase the versatility and significance of electron microscopes across various
scientific and industrial domains.

Electron microscopes have a number of advantages and limitations which include the following:

Advantages:
● High Resolution: Electron microscopes offer much higher resolution than light microscopes,
allowing researchers to observe structures at the nanoscale.

● Magnification:They can achieve extremely high magnifications, enabling the detailed

examination of small structures.

● Electron Beams:The use of electrons as opposed to light allows electron microscopes to

surpass the diffraction limit of light, providing sharper images.

● Depth of Field: Electron microscopes often have a greater depth of field compared to optical
microscopes, allowing for clearer images of three-dimensional structures.

● Versatility: Electron microscopes can be used for a wide range of materials, from biological
specimens to inorganic materials.

Limitations:

● Sample Preparation:Samples must undergo complex and time-consuming preparation

processes, including dehydration and coating, which may alter their natural state.

● Cost and Maintenance: Electron microscopes are expensive to purchase, operate, and
maintain, making them less accessible for smaller research facilities.

● Size of Instrument: Electron microscopes are large and require specialized facilities, limiting
their portability compared to light microscopes.

● Vacuum Requirement:Electron microscopes operate in a vacuum, restricting the

examination of live specimens or samples containing water.

● Beam Damage: The high-energy electron beam can damage biological samples, leading to
artifacts and limiting the study of delicate structures.

● Operating and interpreting results from electron microscopes require specialized training,
making them less user-friendly than optical microscopes.

● Unlike light microscopes, electron microscopes do not provide color information, limiting
the visual information available.

Understanding these advantages and limitations helps researchers choose the most appropriate
microscope for their specific needs and applications.

Polarizing Microscope

A polarizing microscope is a specialized type of light microscope that employs polarized light to study
samples with optical anisotropy. This microscope is designed to observe and photograph specimens
that are visible primarily due to their optically anisotropic character. In order to accomplish this task,
the microscope must be equipped with both a polarizer, positioned in the light path somewhere
before the specimen, and an analyzer (a second polarizer), placed in the optical pathway between
the objective rear aperture and the observation tubes or camera port.

Parts of a polarizing microscope:

● Polarizers and Analyzers:It uses polarizers and analyzers to control the orientation of light,
allowing researchers to manipulate and analyze polarized light passing through the specimen.

● Compensators: Compensators like quarter-wave plates and full-wave plates are often used
to modify the characteristics of polarized light, providing additional information about the sample.

● Rotating Stage: The microscope stage can rotate, allowing for the examination of samples
from different angles, particularly useful in mineralogy and crystallography.

● Bertrand Lens: Some polarizing microscopes have a Bertrand lens, which aids in visualizing
interference patterns in crystalline structures.

A polarizing microscope works by utilizing polarized light to examine samples with optical
anisotropy, which means the materials have directionally dependent optical properties.

The light source in a polarizing microscope emits unpolarized light, which consists of waves vibrating
in all directions. The first component is a polarizer, typically located beneath the sample, that
selectively allows light waves oscillating in a specific direction to pass through, while blocking those
vibrating perpendicular to that direction. The polarized light then passes through the condenser,
which focuses and directs the light onto the sample. The sample may be a thin section of a mineral, a
biological specimen, or any material with optical anisotropy. When polarized light interacts with an
anisotropic sample, the optical properties of the material affect the passage of light through it. This
interaction can include phenomena like birefringence, which causes the material to have different
refractive indices for light polarized in different directions.

Positioned above the sample, the analyzer is another polarizer that can be rotated. It is oriented
perpendicular to the polarizer beneath the sample. Depending on the optical characteristics of the
sample, the analyzer either allows or blocks the polarized light that has interacted with the sample.
If the sample exhibits birefringence, the polarized light passing through different regions of the
sample will experience varying delays, resulting in interference. This interference produces a range
of colors, known as interference colors or Newtonian colors. The colors observed provide
information about the thickness and optical properties of the sample.

In some cases, compensators like quarter-wave plates or full-wave plates may be introduced to
modify the polarized light's characteristics and enhance the visibility of certain features in the
sample. Some polarizing microscopes are equipped with a Bertrand lens, which is used in
conjunction with a special objective to observe interference patterns in crystalline structures.

By manipulating the polarized light and observing how it interacts with the sample, researchers can
gain valuable insights into the structural and optical properties of materials, making polarizing
microscopes essential tools in various scientific fields.

The polarizing microscope can be used and/or applied in the following fields;
● Mineralogy and Geology:Ideal for studying minerals and geological samples due to their
optical anisotropy, helping identify minerals based on their unique optical properties.

● Crystallography: Determining the crystallographic structure of materials by analyzing

birefringence patterns and interference colors in crystals.

● Material Science:Used to analyze stress and strain patterns in materials, aiding in the
understanding of material properties.

● Biology: Applied in the study of biological tissues, fibers, and macromolecules with intrinsic
optical anisotropy.

● Pharmaceuticals: Helpful in examining the crystalline structure of pharmaceutical

compounds, ensuring quality control and understanding drug formulations.

● Quality Control: Used in industries like textiles and plastics to assess the quality and
orientation of fibers and polymers.

● Paleontology:Examining fossilized materials to understand their optical characteristics and

gain insights into their composition and structure.

Polarizing microscopes are valuable tools for researchers in various fields, providing detailed
information about the optical properties of materials that may not be visible using conventional light
microscopes.